Form and Function of The Classical Cadenza Joseph P. Swain

Form and Function of the Classical Cadenza
Author(s): Joseph P. Swain

Source: The Journal of Musicology , Winter, 1988, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Winter, 1988), pp. 27-
59
Published by: University of California Press
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Form and Function of
the Classical Cadenza
JOSEPH P. SWAIN
H ow many of us have ever enjoyed hearing

concerto of Mozart or Beethoven stunningly and sensitively pl
only to have the experience ruined at the end of a movement b
cadenza? Regrettably, this happens all too often. A show of em
virtuosity, perhaps, or wrong for the style of the concerto as a
or-the most common problem-a cadenza that is simply too
Joachim Quantz, writing over two centuries ago, seems to addre
current situation: 2
If none are made it is consid

performers would conclude
them. Meanwhile, all those
with playing solos want to,
nature and proper way to per
ion generally becomes a bur
In his last comment, Quant

very little knowledge or un
the cadenza in the classical
an improvisation on theme
there is no provision for it
certo form. Even though co
cadenzas for Mozart and B
choose among those already
normally include study of
that to write satisfactory
what relationship one shoul
of both new theories and
Volume 6 * Number 1 * Winter 1988
The Journal of Musicology ? 1988 by the Regents of the University of California
1 Johann Joachim Quantz, On Playing the Flute, trans. and ed. Edward R. Reilly (Lon-
don, 1966), p. 181.

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THE JOURNAL OF MUSICOLOGY
which the classical concerto is an essential contributor, and the

ished popularity of the classical concerto repertoire, it is time f
appraisal of the cadenza.
There are at least three approaches to the issue. The first is t
tigate the origin of the cadenza and the opinions of eighteen
theorists and critics about it. In this way we may learn, not inf
for cadenza composition, but something about the original p
cadenzas, what they were supposed to do for the movement
tained them.
The second approach is to analyze the numerous authentic caden-
zas that Mozart and Beethoven have left for their own concertos. There
could hardly be a better source for learning about the general structure
and function of cadenzas, and also about the specific relationships be-
tween certain cadenzas and their parent concerto movements. Recent
scholarship, including large studies by Paul Badura-Skoda2 and Paul
Mies3, has emphasized this approach.
The third approach is to apply modern theories of concerto form
and the classical sonata style to the cadenza problem. Is there anything
we can say about the form and function of the cadenza given what we
28 know about the workings of concertos and the classical style of Mozart
and Beethoven? The theoretical approach is risky, as always, because its
assumptions are more easily challenged, but how else can conclusions
from the other two approaches be assimilated and confirmed? Critics
and theorists of the eighteenth century are just as fallible in their opin-
ions about music of their own time as we are about music in ours; there is
no reason to adopt their "rules" without further consideration of the
music itself. The solutions of Mozart and Beethoven may be perfect, of
course, but they left no explicit instructions on how to make more. The
elements that they left in their cadenzas only make sense when con-
nected with a conception of the concerto as a whole.
Origin and Development

of the Concerto Cadenza
The word itself would indicate a link with the notion

of "cadence." Indeed, of English, German, French, and Italian, only in
the English language is there any verbal distinction between the two
ideas, and that is made by borrowing the Italian word for "cadence" as a
special term. The German theorist Daniel Gottlieb Turk, writing
around 1789, also points to the cadence as the source of the cadenza:
2 Mozart-Interpretation (Vienna, Stuttgart, 1957).

3 Die Krise der Konzertkadenz bei Beethoven (Bonn, 1970).

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
In former times, one added small embellishment

(Tonschliissen), which did not require the suspe
These so-called figured cadenzas (Kadenzen) wer
ing, so the passages were expanded, and were no lo
to the meter. Those accompanying were pleased
until finally, little by little, our embellished caden
about. Their origin can be placed between the y
Their native land is probably Italy.
In a note, Turk cites the Musica Moderna Pratt

who describes the cadenza as a vocal embellishm
although usage in instrumental music is also m
be from Johann Friedrich Agricola.4
In more modern times, Heinrich Knodt tra
ancestry of the cadenza, in both instrumental
the sixteenth century. In both types, the occasion
embellishment and delay of a final cadence.5
By the latter half of the eighteenth century, t
distinguish between "cadence" and "cadenza."
the cadenza with the harmonic cadence is rei
tion, C. P. E. Bach cites the familiar signal of
a fermata:
On the entrance of an elaborated cadence, the accompanist, regard-

less of whether a fermata appears over the bass, holds the six-four
chord for a while and then pauses until the principal part, at the end
of its cadenza, plays a trill or some other figure which requires resolu-
tion of the chord. At this point the triad is struck at the keyboard, the
seventh being taken as a fifth part.6
Similar distinctions occur in Quantz and Tiirk.7
4 Daniel Gottlob Turk, Clavierschule (1789), p. 309. English translations of citations

from this text are my own. "Ehedem brachte man vor den Tonschliissen blos solch kleine
Verzierungen an, welch kein Aufhalten des Taktes u. erforderte.... Diese sogenannten
figurirten Kadenzen gefielen vermutlich, man vergrosserte daher die Zusage, und band
sich daher nicht mehr so streng an den Takt. Die Begleiter waren so gefallig, ein wenig
nachzugeben (zu verweilen), bis endlich nach und nach unsre verzierten Kadenzen da-
raus entstanden sind. Ihren Ursprung setzt man in die Jahre 1710 bis 1716.* Das Va-
terland derselben isst wahrscheinlich Italien."
Johann Friedrich Agricola's work is Anleitung zur Singekunst (Berlin, 1757), a translation
of Pier Francesco Tosi's Opinioni de' cantori antichi e moderni (1723) with some additions of
his own.
5 Heinrich Knodt, "Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Kadenzen im Instrumentalkon-
zert, Sammelbdnde der internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft XV (1913/14), 392.
6 Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments,
(1753) trans. and ed. WilliamJ. Mitchell (New York, 1949), p. 380.
7 See Quantz, p. 179 and Turk, p. 308.

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By the time of Turk's writing Mozart was making a disti

tween "cadenzas" and other improvisatory passages called "
(see letter of February 15, 1783). In contrast to cadenzas, wh
at the end of a movement and are associated with a final cad
Eingdnge may appear in any part of the movement, most of
fore the beginning of a new section, as in the return of a ro
and have the function of "leading in" to the next section. Th
no references to thematic material, and are usually cons
passagework based on dominant harmony which the onset o
section resolves. Because the resolution is elided with a new
the character and function of the Eingang can be clearly di
from those of the true cadenza, which, according to the e
century theorists cited above, has a function of conclusion
structural level.
The elements of improvisation and thematic reference, associated
intimately with the classical cadenza today, seem to have come together
slowly during the second and third quarters of the eighteenth century.
Knodt shows that cadenzas in Vivaldi concertos have virtuoso technique
and a certain motivic relationship with the movement proper, but little
30 improvisatory character. These cadenzas are written directly into the
movement without any suspension of meter.8 On the other hand, the
Capricci of Pietro Locatelli, which are supposed to be used in his concer-
tos of 1733, L'Arte del violino, are composed entirely of virtuosic scales
and arpeggios, typical devices of improvisation, but ones which do not
refer thematically to the parent movement.9 C. P. E. Bach's image of the
cadenza seems to be that of a "fantasia-like interlude," which seldom
uses any melodic fragments from the concerto.10 Even Mozart's early
keyboard cadenzas did not use thematic references.' Quantz, however,
while recognizing the possibility of fresh invention in a cadenza, offers
the alternative of thematic reference when the player's imagination
fails:
Cadenzas must stem from the principal sentiment of the piece, and
include a short repetition or imitation of the most pleasing phrases
contained in it. At times, if your thoughts are distracted, it is not im-
mediately possible to invent something new. The best expedient is
then to choose one of the most pleasing of the preceding phrases and
fashion the cadenza from it. In this manner you not only can make up
for any lack of inventiveness, but can always confirm the prevailing
8 Knodt, pp. 397-98.

9 Dimitri Themelis, Etude ou Caprice (Munich, 1967), p. 57.
10 Pippa Drummond, The German Concerto: Five Eighteenth-Century Studies (Oxford,
1980), p. 318.
Eva Badura-Skoda, "Cadenza," The New Grove III, p. 591.

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
passion of the piece as well. This is an advantage that

known which I would like to recommend to everyone.
Evidently, aside from the basic conception of the

rated cadence, there was no consensus about what f
should take until late in the eighteenth century, w
gained the status of a performance tradition. Ev
maintained considerable variety, evident in the ca
Beethoven alone. Unfortunately, the various c
other eighteenth-century composers cannot be dis
Quantz's point about thematic reference havin
cause it will "always confirm the prevailing passion o
one ideal about cadenzas that theorists agree on.
The cadenza, while remaining faithful to the spirit
strive for improvised variety and the unexpected. In
Tiirk:
Although unity demands a well-ordered whole, just as necessary

is variety, so that the listener will be kept attentive. That is why in ca-
denzas one does as many unexpected and surprising things as is
possible.'3 31
Central to this ide

and Turk, writing
agreement on this
Regular meter is se
served, in cadenzas.
than a sustained melo
pression of the pass
Steady motion an
throughout the cade
pletely played throu
the whole should se
flowing sentiment th
12 Quantz, p. 182.
13 Turk, pp. 311-12. "S
wird, eben so notig is
erhalten werden soil. D
raschendes an, als nur i
14 Quantz, p. 185.
15 Turk, p. 312. "Einerl
gangig beibehalten; auc
Takte geschickt mit ein
eben aus der Fulle der E
gearbeiteten Tonstiicke

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The writers' opinion that the absence of meter adds to the impr
surprising effects of cadenzas conforms to modern theoretica
about meter. Meter supplies low-level continuity to musical structu
virtue of its regular grouping of beats, allowing the human min
ganize easily the incoming rhythmic fragments and to pro
higher-level perceptions. When that continuity is missing, the rhyt
patterns presented to the listener seem disjointed, unexpected, a
prising.
Turk is careful to balance his desire for spontaneity and surprise
with the necessity of maintaining some relationship with the parent
movement. What is more surprising, in view of the cadenza's reputation
as a performer's improvisation, is his recommendation to some players
to prepare the cadenza ahead in order to insure this relationship:
It follows from the above that a cadenza that has been learned by
heart with some effort perhaps, or one that has been written down,
must be played, rather than having random and unexceptional ideas
thrown out, whatever the player happens to think of first. 6
32 Perhaps Turk's recommendation is a response to abuses of the ca-

denza practice already present in his own time. Evidently, the tendency
of singers and players to get carried away by their skills of improvisation
goes well back into the first half of the century. Tosi's complaint about
cadenzas in operatic arias is quite famous,'7 but the use of aria cadenzas
reported by Quantz is even more preposterous:
The object of the cadenza is simply to surprise the listener unex-

pectedly once more at the end of the piece, and to leave behind a spe-
cial impression in his heart. To conform to this object, a single ca-
denza would be sufficient in a piece. If, then, a singer makes two
cadenzas in the first part of an aria, and yet another in the second
part, it must certainly be considered an abuse; for in this fashion, be-
cause of the da capo, five cadenzas appear in one aria.'8
These complaints are by no means limited to singers. Players of concerto

cadenzas also earn the ire of the critics:
The abuse of cadenzas is apparent not only if they are of little value
in themselves, as is usually the case, but also if in instrumental music
'l Turk, p. 313. "Aus dem Vorigen folgt, dass eine vielleicht mit noch so vieler Muh
auswendig gelernte oder vorher aufgeschriebene Kadenz doch so ausgefuhrte werden
muss, als waren es bloss zufallig und ohne Auswahl hingeworfene Gedanken, welch
dem Spieler eben erst einfielen."
17 Tosi, as translated into English by J. E. Galliard as Observations on the Florid Song
(London, 1743), pp. 128-29.
18 Quantz, pp. 180-81.

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
they are introduced in pieces in which they are n

example, in gay and quick pieces in two-four, three
twelve-eight, and six-eight time. They are permissi
and slow pieces, or in serious quick ones.19
I would say nothing new, but only repeat often

if I spoke against the very great abuse of the e
(verzierten Kadenzen). For it is not seldom that a
played solely for the sake of the cadenzas. The p
not only to achieve pointless length, but also int
ideas that have not the slightest relation with th
tion, so that the good impression which the piec
upon the listener for the most part has been
("wegkadenziert"-emphasis Ttirk's).20
Polemic was not the only response to these a

century theorists were not short on advice on ho
advice focuses on length, particularly excessiv
reason. Arnold Schering, in a 1906 study of t
cadenza, writes that most of the written cade
to collect were of great length, comparable to modern ones, thus cor-
roborating the complaints cited above.2 Knodt traces a controversy
between Agricola and Tosi over singer's cadenzas, whence comes Agri-
cola's rule that a singer's cadenza should be "no longer than a breath."22
Turk's advice begins with that rule (without citation) and then goes on
to elaborate:
With songs or wind instruments, a cadenza should last only as long as

the breath of the singer. With string instruments, perhaps this rule
need not be followed too strictly; however, monstrously long caden-
zas, which often last many minutes, are in no way to be excused.23
'9 Quantz, p. 180. Tosi, p. 137, makes a similar remark.

20 Turk, p. 309. "Ich wirde nichts Neues sagen, sondern schon oft gefuhrte klagen
wiederholen, wenn ich mich wider den sehr grossen Missbrauch der verzierten Kaden-
zen erklarte. Denn nicht selten scheint es, ein Konzert werde bloss der Kadenzen wegen
gespielt. Der Ausfuhrer schweist daher nicht nur in Absicht auf die zweckmassige Lange
aus, sondern bringt noch uberdies allerlei Gedanken darin an, die auf das voherge-
gangene Tonstuck nicht die geringste Beziehung haben, so dass dadurch der gute Ein-
druck, welchen das Tonstiick vielleicht auf den Zuhorer gemacht hatte, grosstentheils
wieder wegkadenziert wird."
21 "Die Freie Kadenz im Instrumentalkonzert des 18. Jahrhunderts," InternationalMu-
sicological Society Congress Report (1906), p. 204.
22 Knodt, p. 394.
23 Turk, p. 311. "In Gesange oder auf Blasinstrumenten soil eine Kadenz eigentlich
nur so lange dauern, als der Athem des Sangers zureicht. Auf besaiteten Instrumenten
mochte zwar dieser Grundsatz nicht so strenge zu befolgen sein; aber dessen ungeachtet
sind doch die ungeheuer langen Kadenzen, welche nicht selten mehrere Minuten
dauern, keines Weges zu entschuldigen."

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A second guideline is that the cadenza should preserve t

sense of the prevailing key of the concerto. This idea is put
practical language by C. P. E. Bach:
Moreover, the principal key must not be left too quickly at the b
ning, nor regained too late at the end. At the start the princip
must prevail for some time so that the listener will be unmist
oriented. And again before the close it must be well prolonge
means of preparing the listener for the end of the fantasia an
pressing the tonality upon his memory.24
A third rule is that cadenzas should not modulate into dis

This is obviously a corollary to the second; if the sense of the h
is to be maintained, keys which would weaken that sense s
avoided, especially in view of the cadenza's traditional posi
end of the movement:
You must not roam into keys that are too remote, or touch upon
keys which have no relationship with the principal one. A short ca-
denza must not modulate out of its key at all. A somewhat longer one
34 modulates most naturally to the subdominant, and a still longer one to
the dominant of the dominant.25
Modulations into other keys, especially very distant ones, should

not occur for example, in short cadenzas, or they must be brought
about with great insight and likewise only in passing. In no case
should one modulate to a key that the composer himself has not mod-
ulated to in the composition. This rule is founded, I think, in the laws
of unity, which must be consciously followed in all works of the fine
arts.26
Finally, these writers emphasize time and again that the cadenza
must match the character of the particular concerto. These comments
are most often rather vague generalities about being faithful to the spirit
of the work, but occasionally technical matters can affect this question.
Turk warns against making too many difficult passages if they subvert
the impression (Eindruck) of the piece, citing the use of fancy passages
in slow movements as a special offense.27
24 Bach, p. 431.
25 Quantz, p. 184.
26 Turk, p. 311. "Ausweichungen in andere, besonders sehr entfernte, Tone finden
entweder gar nicht statt z.B. in kiirzen Kadenzen, oder sie missen mit vieler Einsicht,
und gleichsam nur im Vorbergehen angebracht werden. Auf einen Fall sollte man in
Tone ausweichen, worein der Komponist in dem Tonstucke selbst nicht ausgewichen ist.
Diese Regel griindet sich, wie mich dunkt, auf die Gefess der Einheit, welche bekannter-
massen in alien Werken der schonen Kunste befolgt werden milssen."
27 Turk, pp. 31o-11.

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
The guidelines as proposed by the theorists above

the performance of cadenzas to their original purpose
lish a final cadence in a concerto or aria. Although
by performers may be exaggerated and certainly
frequency of such abuse, they do tell us that late eigh
formers had perhaps lost sight of the original int
denza. The cadenza had attained the status of a per
or at least a requirement, but not before great expan
satory elements had made its original function im
the use of foreign keys, the technical display, and ab
a cadenza, Bach, Quantz, and Turk hoped to restor
The Cadenzas of Mozart
Mozart composed at least sixty-four cadenzas and

Eingdnge for his concertos. Why he, the master improviser, composed
them at all is unclear. Gobels speculates that he wrote them for friends
and students who could not improvise so well,28 while Badura-Skoda
thinks that in the case of the mature cadenzas Mozart did not improvise
in performance, but used these written cadenzas himself.29 Also unclea
is the chronology of the cadenzas and their parent concertos; evidently,
many cadenzas were written at a later time, except perhaps the cadenza
to the Piano Concerto K.488, which is written into the autograph score
of the work.
What is clear, however, is that Mozart had a definite idea of what a
cadenza should be from the completion of the "Jeunehomme" Piano
Concerto, K.271 (1775) to the end of his life. The similarity of form and
procedure among all the mature cadenzas is striking. He never reached
the final, desperate solution of Beethoven, however, that there should
be one ideal cadenza for a concerto. For both the Piano Concertos K.453
and K.456 Mozart wrote a pair of cadenzas for the opening movements,
and these are not mere reworkings, but entirely different cadenzas.
Even as his own conception of the cadenza's form and function crystal-
lized, he did not give up the performer's option to improvise.
The first observation we can make about Mozart's cadenzas is that
they follow the guidelines of our theorists quite strictly. That they always
retain the spirit of the parent work is difficult to demonstrate, of course,
but perhaps in Mozart's case that can go without saying. They never
seem too long, and indeed, by today's standards they are quite short.
They are full of thematic references but these are never organized into a
continuous fantasy, but rather move from one to another quite
28 Franzpeter Gobels, "Neue Kadenzen zu alten Konzerten," Musica XXXV (1981),

369.
29 P. Badura-Skoda, p. 215.

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abruptly. Both Eduard Melkus and Paul Mies use the word "quot
tate) to describe this effect.30 Most of all, Mozart strictly observes t
hibition against distant modulation. Indeed, as Paul Badura
points out, he never modulates at all, but remains firmly rooted
tonic key, and this characteristic is not usually written into mod
denzas for Mozart concertos.31 The harmonic effect of this is
means stable or tranquil, but one of significant tension on the low l
as described by Denis Matthews:
They appeared to be suspended between the six-four chord and i

resolution: they may have tacked on other keys but rarely if ever
tablished them in the Beethoven way.32
Indeed, the most concise way to describe a Mozart cadenza wo

to say that it is an improvisation on a prolonged dominant chord. T
just the sensation that Matthews describes: the listener keeps waitin
the resolution at the orchestral entrance, which is the beginning
final phrase of the movement. This suggests that Mozart's caden
form to the original purpose of the cadenza, which is to embellish a
36 cadence. If the orchestra introduces the cadenza with a I 6-
the soloist moves from that to a dominant trill which is resol
the orchestra with I in root position, what is that but an exten
dence formula?
What does it mean, in practical or technical terms, to prolong a sin-
gle chord for so long and retain its function? Mozart employs several
techniques to accomplish this. The first is a liberal use of 1 6-4 harmony,
especially at the beginning, which accords with the advice of C. P. E.
Bach that "the six-four chord should be kept as much in mind as possible
at the beginning of elaborations."33 This only makes sense. Theorists
have long conceived of the cadential I 6-4 as a dominant chord with a
double appoggiatura, which immediately resolves to V. While the triads
may change in Mozart's alternation of I 6-4 and V, the constant pres-
ence of the fifth degree in the bass gives a higher-level impression of V.
Using the I 6-4 at the beginning creates a smooth transition from the
through-composed orchestral section into the improvisatory cadenza.
Then, as Badura-Skoda points out, the I 6-4 disappears in the middle
of the cadenza, when its transitional function is no longer necessary:
30 Mies, p. 65. Eduard Melkus, "Die Kadenzen in Mozart-Violinkonzerten," Musica

XXXVI (1982), 26.
31 P. Badura-Skoda, pp. 219-20.
32 Denis Matthews, "Adrian Boult Lecture: Cadenzas in Piano Concertos," Recorded
Sound LXVIII (1978), 724.
33 Bach, p. 381.

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
EXAMPLE 1. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K.
t~-r
I#^ rf 2Fr
^TILv ? - - ipn , -
It is remarkable that in Mozart's cadenzas, quoted them

appear in the home key, and then, if the cadenza begins w
mostly over the I six-four chord. But when the th
the middle section of the cadenza, it is in its original arran
For instance, consider a cadenza for the Piano Conce

as seen in Example i. Here Mozart introduces the ma
companied, as in the beginning of the movement. Wh
enters, the chord is not I, but I 6-4. This alternates w
harmony changes. The effect is one of instability and
A second strategy is that Mozart never leaves the hom
course would instantly banish any tension associated w
chord, and yet he never has a strong cadence within
would have the same result. The harmony can imply
tainly, but the high-level sense of the home tonic is alwa
cadenza quoted above continues as shown in Example 2
the key might be moving to D major in measures 8 to
out to be a secondary dominant. Then, after a long run w
low F-sharp (implied V 6-5), Mozart begins a series o
which imply G, E minor, A minor, D minor, and C m
tional chord analysis would certainly describe this as a
ary dominants: I, VII 6/VI, VI, V 6-5/VI, VI, V 6-5/V
6-5/V, V 2, V 6-5/IV, V 2/VIIb, V 09, IV 6-4, V 6-5.
analysis of the passage, as seen in Example 3, reveals
ing scale that moves chromatically downward from G

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EXAMPLE 2. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453, 1/8-25
rC.
i Jr
" f 'f ' i I

38
yiiF rfr - --- 7 .
/r--"fe--, o t# fe
...,'l ~.f., _ ,,. _.. .,..
^4^j ~ ~ ~ ~ .~F~,

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
EXAMPLE 3. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K

Schenkerian analysis
v^J- '-' 'l ' r r- * -: '; #
very same low F-sharp which introduced th

presents the listener with a brief development of
the concerto in the right hand, supported by
which allow him to avoid the tonic cadence and maintain the dominant
tension throughout. The chromatic changes simply prolong the domi-
nant chord, so that it can last twelve measures instead of three or four.
Sometimes the chromatic harmony supports the dominant more di-
rectly as a series of secondary dominants or diminished chords circum-
scribing the fifth degree of the home tonic. This is the case at the end of 39
the very brief first cadenza to the first movement of K.456, as shown in
Example 4. The descending minor scale leads right through the domi-
nant F to a diminished seventh on E natural, which acts like a large lead-
ing tone or appoggiatura to the dominant, which arrives presently after
a flourish.
EXAMPLE 4. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 456, 1/14-18
rit,La b; v ?I'T7LC?I ; h t
e) -ir- l l l- 9w -. Pw L~ a,
il iI j

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The effects of all of these harmonic devices are amplified by

zart's careful exploitation of the piano register, principally the bass.
is reserved for the principal tones of the prevailing dominant harm
so that they seem like a pedal for the entire cadenza. Note that in Ex
ple 2 from K.453 above, the two F-sharps which frame the chro
passage are in the same octave, and they are the lowest notes in
denza to that point. Because the listener accords a stronger har
function to low notes, the effect of the dominant harmony is more
ble than the variety of implied keys that follow, especially when th
note returns after the passage.35
While the bass register strengthens the dominant prolongati
Mozart's cadenzas, the high register weakens any authentic cad
that have to be made for purposes of low-level articulation, or b
they are intrinsic to the original material (see Example 5). The se
V-I progressions in measures 22 to 27 is included because Mo
quoting exactly the original setting of the motive (although in t
certo it immediately precedes rather than follows the half-note
But even the rather firm gesture in measure 27 does nothing to
the tension of the high-level dominant in the cadenza because
40 high in the piano register. The very next passage resumes the do
with octaves on F, deep in the bass.
In the commentary on Mozart's cadenzas, two writers, Mat
and Paul Badura-Skoda, have noticed a consistent three-part for
In almost all of Mozart's great cadenzas can one ascertain a definit

three part form: a cadenza beginning (I) which starts a) either with
theme from the concerto movement or b) with virtuoso runs, at tim
already known, at times newly invented, and flows into a middle pa
(II), which almost continually develops with sequences an importan
theme or motive from the concerto movement, mostly over a su
tained bass note or chord. This leads into a number of virtuoso runs,
passages in thirds, etc., until the close of the cadenza (III), which us
ally ends with a trill.36
The details of Badura-Skoda's description support the idea o

cadenza as a prolonged dominant. The rarity of the principal th
the beginning of the cadenza is due to its close association with toni
bility. After all, its firstjob is to establish the key clearly at the be
of the concerto. When it is used, it must be transformed or har
anew to match the dominant function of the cadenza. We have
35 The importance of the bass register with respect to harmonic function is dis
Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, A Generative Theory of Tonal Music (Cambridg
1983), pp. 88, 162-63.

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
EXAMPLE 5. Second cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 456, 1/23-31
A r -O - r fO "',_A - - o C I-L -0 g-t E bIr=Ir t6?_

I,bL- r j i -. L ir-,IJ I LJ If L I J
41
eLJ,~ .T h< . = 30
~1, - H _7
L-L:~~n
v ~~d 1 -4 -3
seen an example of this in the first cadenza for K.453, where the theme
is harmonized with the I 6-4. A different sort of case is found in the
cadenza for the Piano Concerto K.459, as seen in Example 6. After a
series of virtuoso triplets over the dominant C, Mozart transfers the trip-
let figure to the bass and introduces the main theme, a martial tune
which originally was harmonized with I and V on the first two measures
of it. Now, in order to blend with the preceding harmony and to sustain
the dominant function, Mozart uses a slightly different version of the
tune which can be harmonized V-I. Mozart's transformation empha-
sizes the V, because it is heard first in a metrically stronger position than

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EXAMPLE 6. Cadenza for Piano Concerto K. 459, I/7-12
A I
, F F dr ^Ir I rI
:'~ Lj .r; iL . =
42
;' f f r 'f-r_-i-
I I " L' wI LI1 I I I W h-6 I I I 6-.,
the I. This corresponds with an especially

concerto itself, when the piano enters an
time, in a series of secondary dominant s
is an instance of the composer relating even
certo movement proper in a more substa
applied expansively by Beethoven.
Badura-Skoda also points out that in th
the setting of a concerto theme is characte
than the well-rounded original version.3
view of the cadenza's dominant function
tendency is to be prolonged, the last thing
strong articulation, such as would be cre
theme.
Indeed, the three-part form itself indicates Mozart's plan. If the in-
tent is to sustain a single chord on the high level, three sections is about

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
EXAMPLE 7. Piano Concerto K. 459,1/111-114
fr
A r -rr r r fi r
v^j r f ft
^ff^ r ef9 U ______?~~O
y,-""' r~T ^^r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
43
1t,;-r r
the maximum that can be accommodated in a cadenza.38 The only alter-
native is to change the key or to change the fundamental harmony, ei-
ther of which would undermine the original intent. The consistency of
the three-part structure in Mozart's mature cadenzas reveals the con-
straint under which he is working.
This constraint on the length of the cadenza can be easily noticed in
a brief survey of the proportions of some of these cadenzas compared to
their parent movements, as seen in Table 1. With two exceptions-the
first cadenza to the slow movement of K.453, and the first cadenza to
K.456-the proportion of the cadenza to the rest of the parent move-
ment is quite consistent. This consistency indicates both the limits of the
dominant function of the cadenza and the structural level to which the
cadenza would belong. If it occupies one tenth of the movement, it be-
38 This assertion is based on recent evidence concerning human musical perception.

See Joseph P. Swain, "The Need for Limits in Hierarchical Theories of Music," Music
Perception IV (Fall, 1986), 121-47.

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TABLE 1
Work Measures in Measures in % Length of

Concerto Cadenza Cadenza
(incl. cad.)
K.453, 372 37 10.1

374 39 10.4
K.453, II 141 19 13.5
136 14 10.3
K. 456, I 382 18 4.7
399 35 8.8
K. 456, III 357 33 9.2
K. 459, I 433 34 7.9
K. 459, III 559 53 9.5
comes an important str

means a dominating one
Indeed, Mozart clearly i
the next-to-last tonal st
soloist confirms the tonic
harmonic resolution. All that is left is for the orchestra to concur with
the very last cadential event.
The Cadenzas of Beethoven
Our survey of the authentic classical cadenzas en-

counters serious difficulties in the contributions of Beethoven, difficu
ties which did not come up in the discussion of the Mozart corpus.
of all there is the bewildering variety of the Beethoven cadenzas. W
those of Mozart seem both to confirm and refine the vision of his con-
temporary theorists and present a consistent, functional, and musically
logical solution to the cadenza problem, Beethoven's cadenzas seem to
be a series of experiments, at times wildly contradicting most of the
aforementioned theoretical guidelines, and at other times adhering to
them with puritan restraint. Some are, by eighteenth-century stand-
ards, of gargantuan length; others are fewer than twenty measures
long. Some seem to be models of Mozart's conception, with a clear domi-
nant function; others are so highly chromatic that at points no harmonic
tendency is discernible. What can Beethoven's idea of the form and
function of the cadenza possibly be in the face of such diversity?
Another problem is the matter of chronology. It is not known with
any certainty the order of composition of the cadenzas, nor the time of
composition for any one of them. The Kinsky catalogue suggests that

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
Beethoven had composed them all by 1809, for

quaintances, but there is no hard evidence for
cause it is the year of completion for the last
Willy Hess points out that the three cadenzas c
date from 1804 at the earliest, since they make
range not used previously.39 This observation
cadenza for Op. 19, which does not go beyond t
What Hess makes clear, however, is that at
15, and perhaps likely in all the piano concert
denzas were composed well after the composi
certo. With Mozart, whose style changes during t
piano concertos are quite subtle, this issue of a
ous. With Beethoven, whose change in style be
Op. 73 (1809) is far-reaching and continuous,
about the composer's opinions of his earlier w
ess, whether he could really compose in a perso
had since evolved, and whether he would even
One aspect of this chronological tangle is su
wrote his "Emperor" Concerto in 1809, he no lo
soloist the option of playing his own cadenza
I 6-4, Beethoven writes directly in the score:
here, but play immediately the following."40
denza of nineteen measures with a single them
dominant function. Evidently, Beethoven had
about the cadenza and its role in a concerto movement.
A story told by Ferdinand Ries about his performance of Op. 37 in
July 1804, with Beethoven conducting, might reveal some interesting
aspects of Beethoven's earlier attitude toward the concerto cadenza:
I had asked Beethoven to write a cadenza for me, but he refused and
told me to write one myself and he would correct it. Beethoven was
satisfied with my composition and made few changes; but there was
an extremely brilliant and very difficult passage in it, which, though
he liked it, seemed to him too venturesome, wherefore he told me to
write another in its place. A week before the concert he wanted to
hear the cadenza again. I played it and floundered in the passage; he
again, this time a little ill-naturedly, told me to change it. I did so, but
the new passage did not satisfy me; I therefore studied the other, and
zealously, but was not quite sure of it. When the cadenza was reached
in the public concert Beethoven quietly sat down. I could not per-
suade myself to choose the easier one. When I boldly began the more
39 Willy Hess, "Die Originalkadenzen zu Beethovens Klavierkonzerten," Schweizerische

Musikzeitung CXII (1972), 271.
40 "Non si fa una Cadenza, ma s' attacca subito il seguente."

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difficult one, Beethoven violently jerked his chair; but the ca

went through all right and Beethoven was so delighted th
shouted "Bravo" loudly.41
Even if this story exaggerates some details, it can tell us s

about cadenzas in Beethoven concertos.42 First, they were not al
provised, even when the soloist was an excellent pianist. This
cord with the advice of Turk and the opinion of some scholars t
gifted and experienced composers would have improvised c
the moment of performance. Second, the suggestion that, if
were to be composed, Beethoven would not only agree to one
ten by himself, but insist that it be composed by the soloist, is q
ishing in view of what we know about the composer's met
with regard to his own works. Evidently, he believed, in 1804, i
former's right and responsibility to create this improvisator
on the master's piece. Finally, the cadenza in this story was of c
ble length. Beethoven did not care to stand through it.
Evidently, Beethoven, unlike Mozart, did not have a firm
tion of what the cadenza should be like, and his changing views
46 place and purpose in the concerto would naturally affect the
and function of each one he composed. So we must regard h
cadenzas as a series of experiments, whose course cannot reall
ated until their chronology is established. However, if
Beethoven's work in the concerto genre as similarly developm
wide variety in the cadenzas parallels his experimental treatm
concerto form itself. Indeed, one characteristic that all his
share is that their structures respond to the demands and s
tures of the movements for which they are composed.
The cadenzas fall into three groups: the long cadenzas f
movements, the short cadenzas for first movements, and th
for third movements.
The Piano Concerto in B-flat Op. 19, originally composed in 1794-
95, has a long cadenza that is like no other that Beethoven wrote. It be-
gins like a fugue, whose subject is a variant of the principal triadic theme
of the first movement. The working out of the fugue is characterized by
that unique brand of chromaticism that characterizes Beethoven's later
works, especially his large-scale attempts at fugal writing. The purpose
41 From Ferdinand Ries and Dr. Franz Wegeler, Biographische Notizen uber Ludwig van
Beethoven. This translation appears in Thayer's Life ofBeethoven, ed. Elliot Forbes (Prince-
ton, N.J., 1967), p. 355.
42 The general reliability of Ries has recently been confirmed. See Alan Tyson, "Fer-
dinand Ries (1784-1838): The history of his contribution to Beethoven biography,"
gth-Century Music VII (1984), 209- 21.

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
of such chromaticism is to sustain the tonic key

high level, with the chromatic progressions cre
organize the structure.
Indeed, the use of this chromatic device re
nature of this cadenza. It is no Mozart-like dom
high-level tonic prolongation. There is no pre
mony, no special reservation of the bass register
function. Instead, the subject boldly announces
matic material is introduced, after a dominant pe
that the prevailing harmonic sense is one of tonic
tension. There is a brief foray into E-flat, then m
which resolves to a tonic pedal, which lasts eig
ends with a firm tonic cadence reiterated over
flourish on a B-flat scale to lead back to the orchestra's entrance.
That none of the theorists' guidelines are observed in this cadenza is
due to a fundamental change of purpose. The cadenza is not an embel-
lished cadence, not a prolonged dominant, but a larger event with tonic
stability. None of the guidelines need be observed, even that one warn-
ing against changes of key, because there is no dominant function to be
sustained. The tonic pedal and strong cadence within the cadenza at the 47
end are perhaps the most surprising of all, but it must be noted that this
seventy-nine-measure cadenza is followed by only six measures of or-
chestral coda. Beethoven evidently felt that, in view of the proportions
involved, the cadenza should help the orchestra make the last cadential
gesture of the movement.
There are three long cadenzas for the first movement of the Piano
Concerto in C Major, Op. 15 (completed 1795). One has sixty-two mea-
sures but is incomplete. It begins by establishing the tonic with the main
motive but then moves away with diminished chords until E-flat major is
established with a large dominant preparation, complete with trills. The
second lyrical theme is heard in this key, which quickly dissipates into C
minor before the music cuts off.43
Another cadenza is only thirty-two measures, thus within propor-
tions established by Mozart. This may be indeed one of the closest
models of Mozart's conception; it does reserve the lowest register for
pitches appropriate to dominant harmony. However, the key of E-flat
major is also established in this cadenza, although with much less em-
phasis, to set the fanfare theme. This quickly moves to dominant har-
mony in C which sets up the final trill.
This emphasis on the key of E-flat in both cadenzas is an attempt to
43 This cadenza has been completed by Edward T. Cone. See "A Cadenza for Op. 15"
in Beethoven Essays: Studies in Honor of Elliot Forbes, ed. Lewis Lockwood and Phyllis Ben-
jamin (Cambridge, Mass., 1984).

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relate them to the movement proper in a more substantial w

thematic reference alone. E-flat major is an important struct
the movement; it sets the first appearance of the lyrical me
exposition (m. 49) and is the only important tonal center in the
ment section (mm. 266-84).
A third cadenza to the first movement is perhaps the most p
atic of all Beethoven's cadenzas, and also seems to be the one
by pianists who play this concerto. It is by far the lon
Beethoven's cadenzas, 126 measures, a length which far out
development section of the movement (c. eighty measures) a
equals the 132 measures of the recapitulation. Like the first
gins with the main motive in the key of C, which is followed b
peggiated passages of harmonically ambiguous material. Th
minor is briefly touched upon, followed by more diminished
Finally the key of D-flat major is attained, setting the lyrical t
changes quickly to C-sharp minor. After more passage w
seems to be dominant harmony tending to C, but which inst
incredibly, to a presentation of the fanfare theme in the ke
seventh is added to this, and an eighteen-measure dominan
48 sues, finally making a cadence in advance of the orchestra.
The problems with this cadenza have not only to do with its
length, but also with its function, a related issue. What is it
purpose in the movement? With dominant function out of th
we can consider the possibility of a prolonged tonic, but t
tablished within it are so many and so distant that it is difficul
ceive of a big tonic with those structural features, let alone
way. The use of D-flat/C-sharp, which is lauded by Matthews44
ers as an exotic or brazen gesture, has nothing to do with
movement, as it does in the second cadenza for Op. 58, where
the harmonic goal of the development section. Surely this ca
of Beethoven's less successful experiments.
The long cadenza for Op. 37 in C minor (composed 18oo?)
trast, can be conceived of and heard as an expansion on the
After beginning with fugal material based on the main them
ated passagework leads to the dominant key of G for a pres
the second theme. This theme is never allowed to reach the cade
the tonic chord is turned into a seventh and the harmony r
minor. Significantly, the cadenza is followed by the first lon
Beethoven wrote for a concerto, a twenty-seven measure ser
cadences. From the onset of the cadenza to the end, a single
44 Denis Matthews, "Beethoven and the Cadenza," Musical Times CI (1970

eminent critic Sir Donald Francis Tovey also thinks highly of this cadenza. S
Vol. III of Essays inMusicalAnalysis (London, 1936), p. 65

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
key reigns, the tonic that is appropriate to the c

structure of the movement.
Beethoven tried a new approach to the problem of making the ca-
denza connect the recapitulation with the coda in his G Major Piano
Concerto, Op. 58 (composed 1805-06). When the orchestra enters after
the conclusion of the cadenza, it does so on a dominant seventh, rather
than a tonic chord, so that instead of the traditional cadential formula
we have the pattern: I 6-4 - cadenza - V7. In this way the end of the
concerto can no longer be thought of as a pair of structural cadences,
one embellished in the cadenza and finished by the orchestra and a sec-
ond, through-composed one by the full ensemble, but rather as a single
structural cadence, whose dominant part is embellished by the soloist,
then continued and resolved by the orchestra.
The connection is more than a matter of harmonic function.
Beethoven introduces the cadenza with a lyrical theme whose phrases
always move to the dominant (see Example 8). Then, when the domi-
nant trill of the cadenza arrives, the same theme is played in the clarinet
over a variant in the piano. To understand the special problem that this
structural arrangement creates for Beethoven, we must review the ear-
lier occurrences of this theme. In the orchestral part of the expositio
the theme is heard once (mm. 50-60), in a fortissimo orchestral tutti
which then leads into cadential material before the soloist's entrance. In
the second part of the exposition it is heard in the winds, accompanied
by virtuoso passagework in the piano (mm. 158-69), but then, rather
than leading to the exposition's cadence, the theme is reiterated in a
beautiful, much quieter version nearly identical to that quoted above
(mm. 170-74), then giving way to the vigorous orchestral statement
(mm. 175-80), so that the double announcement of the theme seems
like an expansion of the original. In the recapitulation, this reiteration is
done again, before the cadenza begins. This means that we hear it twice
immediately before the cadenza, and once again right after it.
Beethoven needs a cadenza which does not emphasize tonic stability,
since he is moving from dominant to dominant, yet presents something
substantial in order to break up the triple presentation of this lyrical
theme.
Beethoven's solution in one cadenza is a tonic prolongation, similar
to the others we have seen, but with certain features that weaken its
overall function of tonic stability. There is careful use of the bass register
for dominant implications. The movement to the key of B-flat major
close to the beginning is significant, but the theme heard is the one that
modulates to its relative minor; the overall sense of G is perhaps not lost,
but is not in the foreground either. Strong emphasis on E-flat and D-flat
corresponds to the structural roles these pitches play in the concerto, but
also supports the explicit dominant harmony on D that occupies the last

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seventeen measures. The idea behind this cadenza seems to be that since
a tonic prolongation is the only option for a cadenza of this length, one
that has significant lower-level dominant features can function on the
high level as a tonic, but yet not resolve the dominant tension which
must continue when the orchestra enters. This connection between the
function of the cadenza and the material that surrounds it is made ex-
plicit in the last twenty measures of the cadenza, which present the lyri-
EXAMPLE 8. Piano Concerto Op. 58, mm. 336-346
A
ifr U -0- . -9 -- - 'f:? p
solo
/ *. ,,~-:J-:]- :~-7
orch.
or h . I I I "-.
50
340
p#~o~~~~~P F V
A L:
^Qg^t^fj f-
.!U -

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
EXAMPLE 8. (continued)
.... .. . . .......... ..- b*;. _ *--~/ . -
cal theme quoted above in the minor mo

orchestra in major is even more effective.
Because he cannot prolong the dominant
time required in these long cadenzas, Bee
Op. 58, tries to fashion an improvisation
harmonic tension. It is titled "Cadenza,
there not the slightest hint of any cadence
aration before the end, but no key is consi
sures or so. The cadenza is a succession of
tempo contrasts. A single thematic quot
peated at the end are this cadenza's only lin
The concluding trill, the audible signal
natural, and A. Evidently, the listener, fac
clude that this improvisation must be su
the last clear harmony he has heard and th
The reason for the extremely unusual
the cadenza is placed becomes clear only
lyrical theme. Of five renditions, only t
dence (m. 356), which leads directly into
the movement. The function of the cadenza as an elaborated cadence
depends on such a transformation of the theme. In a sense, the cadenza
forces this once transitional material to close, simply because after the
cadenza nothing else would suffice.
How long are these long cadenzas? Table 2 presents the data. With
the exception of the little cadenza for Op. 15, they are significantly

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TABLE 2
Work Measures in Measures in Cadenza as %

Concerto with Cadenza of Movement
Cadenza included
Op. 19 479 79 16.5

Op. 15 540 62 (inc.) 11.5
510 32 6.3
604 126 20.9
Op. 37 507 64 12.6
Op. 58 437 6745 15.3
421 51 12.1
longer than those

This, as well as th
for these cadenzas in the Beethoven concertos.
52 In contrast to these stand the two short cadenzas: one of twelve mea-
sures for Op. 58, and of course the nineteen-measure cadenza that is
mandated for the "Emperor." Beethoven possibly considered another
for the Op. 37 concerto. Willy Hess reports that alongside the long one
in the autograph, Mh 71 of the Bodmer Collection, is a page containing
twenty measures of music with "Cadenza" written at the top.46
The short cadenza for Op. 58 presents a delicate problem because
of the construction of the concerto. Will twelve measures be enough di-
version to break up the triple presentation of that descending lyrical
theme harmonized by the dominant? That question, I think, can be an-
swered only after repeated hearings of the cadenza in the context of the
entire movement (if any pianists can be persuaded to give up the vir-
tuosic displays of the longer ones). Beethoven, however, has chosen a
unique construction to solve the problem. In a cadenza so short, shorter
even than the typical Mozart cadenza, it would be an easy matter for
Beethoven to fashion a prolonged dominant according to Mozart's con-
ception. However, since the preceding orchestral theme was based on
the dominant, and will resume with that harmony at the cadenza's end, a
dominant prolongation would only emphasize the thematic repetition.
Indeed, this cadenza could not be described as a sustained dominant
(see Example 9).
45 This cadenza has i o actual measures, but some have a signature of 6, others 4, which
is the signature for the movement. By considering two 8 measures to be a number of beats
equal to one 4, the number 67 was calculated for purposes of comparison.
46 Hess, p. 272.

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
EXAMPLE 9. Short cadenza to Piano Concerto Op. 5
l*:#fL_-,*
46 r 1r r. rI rf:r
rr I
f I: 53
~h -- _
!,,I/ I r im
$!^ ^^^B=-
-)
(continued)

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EXAMPLE 9. (continued)
n u I I I 1
I]'#f - _L
r l I I I I I I I 1
54 None of the usual Mozartean d

gin not from D, but from a G deep
in root position (m. 2) with the at
sions. Then, in measure five the m
which encompasses more than four
the harmony change, moving thr
dominant harmony. Beethoven has
which can be subsumed in the hig
end of the movement, and yet which
to make the third hearing of the lyr
The cadenza in the "Emperor"
comment, not because it is short, or
because Beethoven seems to have cu
soloist's improvisation in a concert
Mies attributes this to a disappearan
of interest in improvisational genres
however, that cadenzas were not alw
Beethoven himself approved prev
provisations."
Matthews thinks that Beethove
denza late in the movement by beg
provisatory flourishes by the pian
47 Mies, pp. 49-50.

48 Matthews, "Beethoven and the Cadenz

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
aborted D major piano concerto of 1814/15 beg

tral tutti followed by a short solo passage with th
ten over it.49 This is indeed an interesting corr
of a "need" for a cadenza or other improvisat
sume that our theories of concerto form would
such need. They do not. Indeed, they ignore th
Hess sees the "Emperor" Concerto as the last
velopment of the cadenza from an improvised
thing that is integrated tightly into the move
would then have a rationale for placing all the
sional order, with the loosest, most fantastic o
for Op. 15, at the beginning, and the short one
some external evidence supporting this chrono
come.
In substance, the cadenza of the "Emperor," like so many

Beethoven's late works, can be viewed as a return to conservative cla
cal principles, but one which distills the essence of those principles i
music of understated concision. The main motive is presented on
dominant first, and rises sequentially, eventually generating a chromati
scale that goes to the top range of the piano, falls precipitately, an
on the first real chord of the cadenza, a dominant seventh. The expected
trill is heard, and gives way to the martial theme in E-flat minor. A
does in the movement proper, this theme moves briefly through G-
major, then returns to the dominant of E-flat to end the phrase. Now t
horn enters, and on the downbeat the strings play a pizzicato E-f
chord in root position. Throughout the martial theme, Beethoven
careful to make B-flat the lowest sounding pitch. The cadenza, then
built around the idea of the prolonged dominant as an embellished
dence, and yet it makes a reference to an important subsidiary key of t
piece and, by dispensing with the trill at the end, seems to achiev
higher degree of integration with the end of the movement. In ninetee
measures Beethoven has combined Mozart's conception of the func
tional cadenza with aspects that have become important to his own c
ception of it.
Since a cadenza always means an interruption in the flow of the
movement-caused by its characteristic feature of suspension of meter,
steady tempo, broken phrases, all of the devices of improvisatory
music-including a cadenza of significant proportion means a looser,
less integrated movement.50 Evidently Beethoven felt that the third
49 Hess, p. 273.
50 For a more precise and technical discussion of "loose" and "tight" structures, see Jo-
seph P. Swain, "Limits of Musical Structure," (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University,
1983), Chapter V.

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movement rondo forms, which are not as tightly organized as

ing movements, would not benefit from such cadenzas. On
five piano concertos, Op. 15 and Op. 58, and the Violin Con
provide spots for third-movement cadenzas. The cadenzas
piano concertos are all exceedingly short. In the score
Beethoven writes in the measure indicating the cadenza, "L
corta," in case anyone doesn't get the point. They are all
flourishes on the dominant, with the exception of the lo
known cadenza to Op. 58. This one makes a clear reference
C major, and since the cadenza as a whole prolongs the tonic c
it recalls the special relationship between these two chor
characteristic of this movement.
While the short cadenzas, for both first and third movements, seem
closely allied to Mozart's conception of the cadenza, the long ones
present a different notion entirely. Because they approach the dimen-
sions of the recapitulation itself in their length, they can hardly be con-
sidered as harmonic supports for that part of the sonata. They must in-
stead be considered as a section added to the high-level sonata form, an
expansion which corresponds to that of the coda in Beethoven's sym-
56 phonies and string quartets. If that is the case, how then do these caden-
zas, in their great variety of compositional technique and form, fit into
our refined theory of concerto form?
Theoretical Considerations
When trying to accommodate the classical cadenza

into our ideas about style of the classical concerto, the most impor
thing to remember is that the cadenza occurs at the end of the movem
This single aspect imposes significant restrictions upon its harmoni
sign and its structural function, because of the sonata style upon w
the classical concerto is founded. Since the sonata depends upon h
level harmonic contrast (or as Rosen would call it, high-level diss
nance), the end of the movement is reserved for confirmation of
tonic key above all else. Although other keys, especially subdomi
ones, may be touched upon early in the recapitulation, by the time
cadenza arrives, there is little left to do for the structure of the m
ment but to make the final cadence. The guidelines of the eighteen
century theorists that we have reviewed and the examples of Mozart an
Beethoven have left us two consistent models of the classical cadenza.
Do these models insure this high-level confirmation of the tonic key, or
shall we have to revise our theory of classical concerto form?
The conception of the cadenza as a dominant prolongation, which
the one adopted in all of Mozart's mature cadenzas and in most
Beethoven's short ones, fits very comfortably into our present ide

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
about concerto form and function. This type of ca

bellished cadence:
Its function is to delay the strong closing and at the same time, to am-
plify its effect.51
In this sense the cadenza elaborates an essential, but lower-level event. It

would not appear in any high-level diagram of the entire sonata form
but might in a plan of the recapitulation:
RECAPITULATION
(Cadenza) (Coda)
Prevailing
key: I
Subsidiary
functions: I IV I V I
As Badura-Skoda points
effect of the tonic, it fit
The effect is quite diffe
These are not embellish
function of a single cho
they would have to be c
EXPO. DEVEL. RECAP CAD. CODA

Prevailing
key: I V (none) I I I
This conception of the cadenza

concerto form, but in the man
the tonic key along with the reca
ture that supports the recapitul
The larger conception allows a
contrast to the Mozart-type, subs
this kind of cadenza, as long as
chosen his subsidiary keys with g
related keys of subdominant an
Op. 19 and Op. 37 respectively,
for the C major concerto caden
are justified by particular struc
the parent movement, so that th

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has already been established. The one exception might be

cadenza of all, the third one for Op. 15, which is problema
respects. Here both the distance and treatment of the keys ra
more than subsidiary status, so that in effect, we hear sig
monic development with only thirteen measures of orchest
There is no question that these long cadenzas are full o
development, centered, as Mies points out, on the main m
movement.52 This contrasts with Mozart's practice, which usu
use of subsidiary thematic material or connective passage
rowed from the movement as the principal material for
This may be due to the strong association the main theme wil
the tonic key in any classical concerto. Mozart, whose aim i
listener wait for the tonic chord, will avoid the main tune, while
Beethoven, whose long cadenza is a tonic prolongation, will use it as his
principal building block.
Both the emphasis on the principal motive and the use of subsidiary
keys will be among the most important components of a long cadenza
form. The main motive is heard invariably at the beginning and usually
at the end, and the appearance of the subsidiary key is a major articula-
58 tion, accented by the use of a secondary theme which contrasts with the
first. Separating important events of the cadenza are generous amounts
of arpeggiated passagework, usually based on diminished chords with
the main motive being worked out. Such passages help to separate the
main thematic events of the cadenza, prolong the overall sense of the
tonic because they themselves are harmonically ambiguous, contribute
to the improvisatory effect of the music, and of course, display the virtu-
osity of the soloist. The structural organization of these basic elements,
however, differs from case to case. Beethoven's cadenzas, unlike Mo-
zart's, are not consistent in their form.
There is good reason for this inconsistency. Even though they may
have been composed well after their parent concertos, the cadenzas are
designed to fit the particular structural requirements of each one. Why
does the fugal cadenza for Op. 19 make such a strong tonic cadence long
before the orchestra's entrance? Because that concerto concludes with
only six measures of coda after the cadenza. Why does the shorter
"senza cadere" cadenza for the first movement of Op. 58 seem almos
without tonal center? Because it must maintain the tension which will
continue when the orchestra picks up with a dominant chord, and yet cre-
ate an articulation to separate yet a third hearing of a telling lyrical
theme. Indeed, if we can regard Beethoven's work in the concerto genre
as an evolution, we can certainly regard his cadenzas for those works as a
necessary parallel evolution.
52 pp 37-38.

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CLASSICAL CADENZA
In conclusion: today's soloists have before th

denza that can make musical sense in a classical
tive to the cadenza's position at the end of the wo
tive to the requirements of a particular concer
Ludwig Misch, who believes that soloists should
the authentic cadenzas that Mozart and Beethov
to simple trills for those works which have none.5
cadenza presents the concert artist with an unm
creativity in his performance of a repertoire th
This opportunity must be approached, however,
sibility that is only appropriate to the masterwor
every time a new cadenza is composed for them
tion of the cadenza, not just as a flashy solo that u
concerto, but as a functioning part of the whol
can only help performers choose and compose
crease, rather than spoil, the pleasure of hearin
Colgate University
59
53 Ludwig Misch, "Non si fa una Cadenza .. ." inBeethove

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Form and Function of The Classical Cadenza Joseph P. Swain

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Form and Function of the Classical Cadenza

Author(s): Joseph P. Swain

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/763668

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H ow many of us have ever enjoyed hearing

If none are made it is consid

In his last comment, Quant

Volume 6 * Number 1 * Winter 1988

The Journal of Musicology ? 1988 by the Regents of the University of California

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which the classical concerto is an essential contributor, and the

Origin and Development

The word itself would indicate a link with the notion

2 Mozart-Interpretation (Vienna, Stuttgart, 1957).

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In former times, one added small embellishment

In a note, Turk cites the Musica Moderna Pratt

On the entrance of an elaborated cadence, the accompanist, regard-

Similar distinctions occur in Quantz and Tiirk.7

4 Daniel Gottlob Turk, Clavierschule (1789), p. 309. English translations of citations

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By the time of Turk's writing Mozart was making a disti

8 Knodt, pp. 397-98.

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passion of the piece as well. This is an advantage that

Evidently, aside from the basic conception of the

Although unity demands a well-ordered whole, just as necessary

Central to this ide

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32 Perhaps Turk's recommendation is a response to abuses of the ca-

The object of the cadenza is simply to surprise the listener unex-

These complaints are by no means limited to singers. Players of concerto

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they are introduced in pieces in which they are n

I would say nothing new, but only repeat often

Polemic was not the only response to these a

With songs or wind instruments, a cadenza should last only as long as

'9 Quantz, p. 180. Tosi, p. 137, makes a similar remark.

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A second guideline is that the cadenza should preserve t

A third rule is that cadenzas should not modulate into dis

Modulations into other keys, especially very distant ones, should

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The guidelines as proposed by the theorists above

The Cadenzas of Mozart

Mozart composed at least sixty-four cadenzas and

28 Franzpeter Gobels, "Neue Kadenzen zu alten Konzerten," Musica XXXV (1981),

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They appeared to be suspended between the six-four chord and i

Indeed, the most concise way to describe a Mozart cadenza wo

30 Mies, p. 65. Eduard Melkus, "Die Kadenzen in Mozart-Violinkonzerten," Musica

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EXAMPLE 1. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K.

It is remarkable that in Mozart's cadenzas, quoted them

For instance, consider a cadenza for the Piano Conce

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EXAMPLE 2. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K. 453, 1/8-25

" f 'f ' i I

yiiF rfr - --- 7 .

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EXAMPLE 3. First cadenza to Piano Concerto K

v^J- '-' 'l ' r r- * -: '; #

very same low F-sharp which introduced th

.... .. . . .......... ..- b;. _ --~/ . -