Evangelical Quarterly 93 (2022) 20–39

brill.com/evqu

Introductory Formulae and Jesus’s Teaching

in James

Thomas J. Parker | orcid: 0000-0003-0987-3011

PhD Student, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
The Queen’s Foundation, Birmingham, UK; Pastor, Church in the Peak,
Chesterfield, UK
tompark1@hotmail.com

Abstract

While many scholars note the presence and influence of Jesus’s teaching in James, this
study seeks to focus on whether there are any recurrent words or phrases that may
introduce, indicate, or ‘demark’ the presence of Jesus’s teaching within James. This
study analyses the presence of the words ‘hear’ and ‘listen’, ἀδελφός language, and the
phrases ἄγε νῦν and ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί and their potential connection with Jesus’s
teaching found within the epistle of James. As a result, this study notes the correla-
tion between the use of these phrases and the subsequent presence of Jesus’s teaching,
which suggests the potential for these phrases to ‘demark’ or introduce the presence
of the words of Jesus in James’s epistle. Consequently, this study suggests that these
key words and phrases function in the introduction to Jesus’s teaching within James,
highlighting the upcoming presence of a Jesus saying to the audience.

Keywords

James – Jesus’s teaching – Introductory formulae – Jesus’s teaching in James –

Sermon on the Mount

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introductory formulae and jesus’s teaching in james 21

1 Introduction

It is often noted that the letter of James seems to lack an explicit passion nar-
rative.1 Yet, there still remains a strong consensus amongst scholars that we
are able to find resonances of the words of Jesus, especially words evocative of
aspects of the ‘Sermon on the Mount’ and ‘Sermon on the Plain’, within the epis-
tle of James.2 While James may not have had access to the Gospel texts directly,3
we seem to find regular examples within James of sayings that are likely to be

1 Cf. Dale C. Allison, ‘The Audience of James and the Sayings of Jesus’, in James, 1 & 2 Peter,
and Early Jesus Traditions, ed. by Alicia J. Batten and John S. Kloppenborg, lnts 478 (Lon-
don: Bloomsbury, 2014), 58–77 (75–77). Also, David Allen, The Historical Character of Jesus:
Canonical Insights from Outside the Gospels (London: spck, 2013), 112–131. Alicia J. Batten, ‘The
Urbanization of Jesus Traditions in James’, in Batten and Kloppenborg (eds), James, 1 & 2 Peter,
and Early Jesus Traditions, 78–96 (78). For more on the person of Jesus within James, see Petr
Mareček, ‘Die Person Jesu Christi im Jakobusbrief’, ase 34 (2017), 343–61.
2 Dean B. Deppe, The Sayings of Jesus in the Epistle of James (Chelsea: Bookcrafters, 1989). Paul
Foster, ‘Q and James: A Source-Critical Conundrum’, in Batten and Kloppenborg (eds), James,
1 & 2Peter, and Early Jesus Traditions, 1–34. Batten, ‘Urbanization’, 79–83. Also, Alicia J. Bat-
ten, ‘The Jesus Tradition and the Letter of James’, RevExp 108 (2011), 381–90 (382); Ronald
Deines, ‘God or Mammon. The Danger of Wealth in the Jesus Tradition and in the Epistle
of James’, in Anthropologie und Ethik im Frühjudentum und im Neuen Testament: Wechsel-
seitige Wahrnehmungen. Internationales Symposium in Verbindung mit dem Projekt Corpus
Judaeo-Hellenisticum Novi Testamenti, ed. by Matthias Konradt and Esther Schläpfer (Tüb-
ingen: Mohr Siebeck 2012), 327–86; Susanne Luther, ‘Von Feigenbäumen und Oliven: Die
Rezeption, Transformation und Kreation sprachethischer Traditionen im Jakobusbrief’, ase
34 (2017), 381–401 (391–96). In a broader sense, Alkema argues that the Catholic Epistles
are ‘fundamentally’ built upon the Jesus tradition. Roelof Alkema, The Pillars and the Cor-
nerstone: Jesus Tradition Parallels in the Catholic Epistles (Chicago: Eburon Academic, 2018),
295.
3 Of course, this is a source of debate: Batten, ‘Jesus Tradition’, 382. Christian Bemmerl, Der
Jakobusbrief in der Alten Kirche: Eine Spurensuche vom Neuen Testament bis zu Origenes,
wunt ii (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2021), 1–2. As McCartney notes, however, the sheer
cumulative number of potential connections between James and Jesus’s teachings found in
the Gospels makes it very unlikely that no connection at all exists between the two. Cf. D.
G. McCartney, James, becnt (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009), 49–50. Some do how-
ever argue that James had a direct knowledge of Matthew’s Gospel (Massey H. Shepherd,
‘The Epistle of James and the Gospel of Matthew’, jbl 75/1 [1956], 40–51 [47]) but it seems
more likely that there is dependence on some kind of collection of Jesus traditions in oral
or written forms (for example ‘Q’)—John S. Kloppenborg, Q, The Earliest Gospel: An Intro-
duction to the Original Sayings and Stories of Jesus (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2008),
111–20.

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evocative of Jesus.4 These ‘Jesus sayings’5 are found, for example, in the pres-
ence of ‘rich’ and ‘kingdom’ motifs in Jas. 2:5 and the similar sayings in Matt.
5:3 and Luke 6:20,6 concepts brought together only in these three texts within
the New Testament,7 suggesting a connection between the texts. We might also
note the connection between Jas. 5:12 and Matt. 5:33–37, especially the encour-
agements regarding oaths and answering ‘yes’ and ‘no’.8 Because of the high
level of similarity between Jas. 5:12 and Matt. 5:33–37, some scholars consider
Jas. 5:12 to be James’s strongest link to Jesus’s teaching, especially the Matthean
traditions.9 Other scholars note significant connections between Jas. 1:2, 5:10

4 One question that may arise is whether these Jesus sayings would be identifiable to the
original audience. A similar discussion takes place when considering ‘allusions’ to the Old
Testament within the New Testament, with some scholars helpfully noting that the audi-
ence’s ability to detect an allusion does not impact whether an allusion is there or not. Cf.
N. T. Wright, Paul and the Faithfulness of God (London: spck, 2013), 1451; Francis Watson, Paul
and the Hermeneutics of Faith (London: T&T Clark, 2015), 43. In a similar way, we need not
prove whether the audience would pick up on Jesus’s teachings or their demarcation, only
the potential for them to exist.
5 The phrase ‘Jesus saying’ is used regularly in this article to denote the passages where James
is evoking and drawing upon Jesus’s teaching. While not direct verbatim quotations, these
passages are clearly inspired by Jesus’s teachings and as a result the concept of ‘Jesus saying’
is simply used to describe the kind of passages we can observe in Jas. 2:5, 5:12 and other key
passages as a shorthand for acknowledging the presence of Jesus’s teachings within a given
text.
6 Indeed, McKnight suggests that Matt. 5:3 and/or Luke 6:20 ‘surely is in the background to
James’s statement’ in Jas. 2:5. Scot McKnight, The Letter of James, nicnt (Grand Rapids: Eerd-
mans, 2011), 195.
7 Allison, ‘Audience of James’, 66. Also, Deppe, Sayings of Jesus, 89–91; Foster, ‘Q and James’,
26–27; John S. Kloppenborg, ‘The Emulation of the Jesus Tradition in the Letter of James’,
in Reading James with New Eyes: Methodological Reassessments of the Letter of James, ed.
by Robert L. Webb and John S. Kloppenborg, lnts 342 (London: T&T Clark, 2007), 122–
41.
8 Patrick J. Hartin, James and the Q Sayings of Jesus (Sheffield: jsot, 1991), 186; Allison,
‘Audience of James’, 68. Batten, ‘Urbanization’, 81–82. Also, Peter H. Davids, The Epistle of
James: A Commentary on the Greek Text, New International Greek Testament Commen-
tary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), 188–92; D. J. Moo, The Letter of James, Pillar New
Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), 231–34; Luke Timothy Johnson,
The Letter of James: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, Anchor Yale
Bible 37A (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 326–29. In fact, Moo remarks that
‘Jesus’ teaching in Matt. 5:34–37 is particularly important in understanding James’ teach-
ing, because it looks as if James is consciously reproducing that tradition.’ Moo, James,
233.
9 Kloppenborg, ‘Emulation’, 122. Also, Foster, ‘Q and James’, 29–30.

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introductory formulae and jesus’s teaching in james 23

and Luke 6:22–2310 as well as Jas. 1:5 and Luke 11:9,11 which seem to share no
parallel in Matthew. As a result, we might note a degree of complexity in the
drawing upon of Jesus’s teaching within James and their potential source. There
are some examples of particularly Matthean sources, some specifically Lukan
sources, as well as the potential for so-called ‘Q’ material.12 On the one hand,
we don’t seem to find direct citations of Gospel texts within James, but we do
find a variety of occurrences of phrases that seem evocative of Jesus. Paul Fos-
ter suggests a number of the strongest syntactical connections between James
and Jesus’s teaching in the Gospels, detailed in the table below alongside some
other pertinent suggestions for finding resonances of Jesus’s teaching within
James.13

10 Specifically noting the encouragement to joy in the midst of suffering in Jas. 1:2, 5:10 and
Luke 6:22–23. Kloppenborg, ‘Emulation’, 123.
11 Noting the combination of prayer and asking in Jas. 1:5 and Luke 11:9 (Kloppenborg,
‘Emulation’, 123–25) words that seem to find no resonances within Matthew, just like
Luke 6:25 and its potential parallel in Jas. 4:9, or Luke 6:24 and its potential parallel in
Jas. 5:1. Foster, ‘Q and James’, 23–30; Deppe, Sayings of Jesus, 236. For more on the con-
cepts of wisdom in Jas. 1:5 and a comparison of the concepts of wisdom in the New
Testament, see Oda Wischmeyer, ‘Jak 3,13–18 vor dem Hintergrund von 1 Kor 1,17–2,16:
Frühchristliche Weisheitstheologie und der Jakobusbrief’, ase 34 (2017), 403–30 (408–
14).
12 This study purposefully shies away from a discussion of Q. Originating as a way to under-
stand the so-called synoptic problem (B. H. Streeter, The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins,
2nd edn [London: Macmillan, 1930]; J. A. Fitzmyer, ‘The Priority of Mark and the “Q” source
in Luke’, tpp 11 [1970], 131–170; Mark Goodacre, The Synoptic Problem: A Way Through the
Maze [London: Continuum, 2001]), some scholars still consider Q to have been a written
document with various iterations (Dale C. Allison, Constructing Jesus: Memory, Imagina-
tion and History [London: spck, 2010], 118–25). However, others offer a convincing sugges-
tion that Q consisted of oral traditions, delivered performatively, so that Q itself consisted
of oral Jesus traditions developing into text. See Jonathan Draper and Richard A. Hors-
ley, Whoever Hears You Hears Me: Prophets, Performance, and Tradition in Q (Harrisburg:
Trinity Press, 1999), 3–4.
13 Foster, ‘Q and James’, 4–5, 23–30. Bible passages are author translations unless otherwise
stated. Also, see Batten, ‘Jesus Tradition’, 383, 387; John Painter, ‘James as the First Catholic
Epistle’, Int 60/3 (2006), 245–59. See also Alkema, Pillars, 55–93. Of particular importance
is the work of Roelof Alkema who studies the Catholic Epistles more broadly, including
James, and seeks to develop a criteria-led approach towards identifying Jesus’s words in
epistolary literature. These include looking for syntactical, propositional, and thematic
resonances within the text. Alkema, Pillars, 34. Importantly, this study will only focus
on those attested to be the most ‘likely’ instances of finding allusions to Jesus’s teaching
within James.

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Jas. 1:5 Matt. 7:7 Luke 11:9

If any of you lack wis- Ask, and it will be given Ask, and it will be given
dom, that one should to you. you.
ask God, who gives to all
sincerely and without
reproach, and it will be
given to that one.

Jas. 1:17 Matt. 7:11 Luke 11:13

Every good gift and Your Father in heaven How much more will the
every perfect gift is from gives good gifts to those Father of heaven give
above, coming down who ask him. the Holy Spirit to those
from the Father of lights. who ask him.

Jas. 1:19–20 Matt. 5:22a

Know this, my beloved Whoever is angry with a
brothers and sisters, let brother or sister is liable
every person be quick to be judged.
to listen, slow to speak,
slow to anger.

Jas. 1:22 Matt. 7:21 Luke 6:47

But be doers of the Not all who say to me, All who come to me and
word, and not hearers ‘Lord, Lord,’ will enter hear my words and do
only, deceiving your- into the kingdom of them, I will show you
selves. heaven, but rather the what they are like
one who does the will of
my Father in heaven.
Matt. 7:24
Therefore, all who hear
these words of mine and
does them …

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introductory formulae and jesus’s teaching in james 25

Jas. 2:5 Matt. 5:3 Luke 6:20b

Listen, my beloved Blessed are the poor in Blessed are you who are
brothers and sisters. spirit, because the king- poor,
Has not God chosen the dom of heaven is theirs. for the kingdom of God
poor in the world to be is yours.
rich in faith and inherit
the kingdom that he has
promised to the ones
who love him?

Jas. 2:13 Matt. 5:7

For judgment without Blessed are the merci-
mercy will be shown to ful, because they will be
anyone who has shown shown mercy.
no mercy, but mercy tri-
umphs over judgment.

Jas. 3:12 Matt. 7:16b Luke 6:44b

Is it possible, my broth- They do not gather They do not gather figs
ers and sisters, for a fig grapes from thorn from thorns, neither are
tree to produce olives or bushes, or figs from this- grapes harvested from a
a vine to produce figs? tles. thorn bush.
Neither can salty water
produce fresh water.

Jas. 3:18 Matt. 5:9

And fruit consisting of Blessed are the peace-
righteousness is sown makers.
in peace for those who
practice peace.

Jas. 4:4 Matt. 6:24

Adulterers. Do you not No one is able to serve
know that friendship two masters; for they
with the world means will either hate the one
hostility with God? and love the other or be
Therefore, whoever devoted to the one and
wishes to be a friend despise the other. You
with the world becomes cannot serve God and
an enemy of God. money.

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Jas. 4:8 Matt. 5:8

Draw near to God, and Blessed are the pure in
he will draw near to you. heart, for they will see
Purify your hands, sin- God.
ners, and purify your
hearts, doubters.

Jas. 4:9 Luke 6:25

Lament and mourn and Woe to you who laugh
weep. Let your laughter now,
be turned into mourn- for you will grieve and
ing and your joy into weep.
gloominess.

Jas. 4:13–14 Matt. 6:34

Come now, the one who Therefore, do not be
says, ‘Today or tomorrow anxious about tomor-
we will travel to such row, for tomorrow
and such a city and stay is anxious for itself.
there a year, do busi- Today’s evils are suffi-
ness and make money.’ cient for itself.
Yet you do not know
what tomorrow will be
like. What is your life?
For you are a vapor that
appears for a short time
and then disappears.

Jas. 5:12 Matt. 5:34–37

Now above everything, But I say to you, do
my brothers and sis- not swear at all, not by
ters, do not swear, not heaven, because it is the
by heaven nor by earth throne of God … let your
nor by another oath, but word be ‘Yes, Yes’ or ‘No,
let your ‘yes’ be yes and No’; any more than this
your ‘no’ be no, so that is from the evil one.
you may not fall under
judgement.

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introductory formulae and jesus’s teaching in james 27

Even a brief study of the above texts will highlight the fact that we are
unlikely to be dealing with verbatim quotations of Gospel texts in James. There
are a variety of rationales offered for how and why James draws upon Jesus’s
teaching in this way. Some suggest James presents a paraphrastic and perfor-
mative approach to the words of Jesus.14 Others suggest that James is more
‘inspired’ and influenced by Jesus.15 Others still suggest that James is drawing
explicitly upon Jesus’s teaching as a source of authority, and that the audience
would have recognised the presence of the words of Jesus and understood it
as authoritative.16 However, what we can regularly note in the above table is
that we often find a degree of syntactical similarity and connection between
the texts, perhaps one or two words in common, as well as a thematic parallel
between the sayings of Jesus and their presentation within James. If, however,
we take as a presupposition the view of the majority of scholars in finding the
presence of Jesus’s teaching within the letter of James, to one degree or another,
we might consider whether there are any ways in which James might ‘introduce’
or ‘demark’ the presence of a saying inspired, influenced, or evocative of Jesus.17
If, as per the above scholarly suggestions, these texts in James are inspired and
influenced by Jesus’s teaching,18 with James implicitly alluding to Jesus as a
known authority source,19 we might seriously consider whether James offers
any indication or introduction to words and phrases that are intended to evoke
Jesus’s teaching.20 Therefore, what this study aims to consider is whether, when

14 Kloppenborg, ‘Emulation’, 133.

15 Richard Bauckham, James: Wisdom of James, Disciple of Jesus the Sage (London: Routledge,
1999), 81.
16 Wesley Hiram Wachob, The Voice of Jesus in the Social Rhetoric of James, sntsms106 (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 150–51.
17 Certainly, it is helpful to note the overview of scholarly work on the presence of Jesus’s
teachings within James (Alkema, Pillars, 42–55) as well as Alkema’s thorough overview
of many of these examples (Alkema, Pillars, 55–95) leading to Alkema’s conclusion that
‘Jesus Tradition was obviously of great importance to James’. Alkema, Pillars, 98.
18 Bauckham, James, 81.
19 Wachob, Voice of Jesus, 150–51.
20 For example, what may be most salient is the use of introductory formulae within
Matthew. Terrence Keegan offers an interesting study of the five key discourses within
Matthew’s Gospel, and highlights key aspects of the introductory formulae of each dis-
course section: Terence J. Keegan, ‘Introductory Formulae for Matthean Discourses’, cbq
44 (1982), 415–30. What is important to note is that Matthew seems to use key words,
phrases, and contexts to introduce the discourse units. For example, Matthew seems to
avoid the use of διδάσκω when introducing discourse material, but does talk regularly
of Jesus sitting down, the disciples of Jesus approaching, and the presence of crowds,
to introduce the five Matthean discourses. Keegan, ‘Introductory Formulae’, 417–28. Con-
sequently, we may find in Matthew that Jesus’s teaching is introduced by what Keegan

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we review the passages that have some scholarly consensus regarding their
similarity and connection to extant Jesus sayings found within the Gospels,
we find any potential for introductory words, phrases, or structures that may
‘demark’ or ‘introduce’ the words of Jesus.21 If we are able to find certain key
words and phrases that are used consistently in the immediate introduction
of a ‘Jesus saying’ within James we might reasonably extrapolate that there is
potential for these words and phrases to function within James as key demar-
cation phrases encouraging the hearer to pay attention to the upcoming words
and their association with Jesus. Consequently, if we find some patterns of
introductory phrases connected with these Jesus sayings, they may indicate
for us potential ways in which James demarks the presence of a Jesus saying.
Consequently, we will briefly consider how James uses and introduces the Old
Testament, before discussing the use of Jesus’s teaching within the epistle.

2 James, Jesus, and the Old Testament

It is salient for us, therefore, to briefly note the presence and introduction of
the Old Testament within James. For example, the use of Lev. 19 within James is
salient because in Jas. 2:8 there is a direct citation of Lev. 19:18b lxx alongside
the introductory discussion of the ‘royal law’ which seems to clearly introduce
and demark an Old Testament citation.22 Specifically, we might note that Jas.

calls ‘an array of distinctive terminology which is found at the beginning of each of the
five discourses’—Keegan, ‘Introductory Formulae’, 428. In a similar way, we might note a
potential similar use of key words and phrases to introduce Jesus’s teaching in James.
21 It is helpful to consider the presence of Jesus’s teaching in other epistolary literature to
note any potential demarcation or indication. One significant example is Rom. 12:1–15:13
(Michael B. Thompson, Clothed with Christ: The Example and Teaching of Jesus in Romans
12:1–15:13, jsnt [Sheffield: jsot, 1991]). This text of Rom. 12:1–15:13 seems to draw on the
same Sermon on the Mount and Sermon on the Plain traditions as James but seems to
lack any ascribing to Jesus directly. Some suggest this is because they would widely have
been known to originate from and evoke Jesus: D. J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 780–81. Some scholars do point to the potential allusions to Jesus
in 1John 1:5 and 3:11, each with a similar introductory phrase. Thompson, Clothed with
Christ, 41–42. Within 1John there are a variety of potential Jesus traditions found in 1 John
1:5; 3:11, 23; 4:7, 11–12. Colin G. Kruse, The Letters of John, Pillar New Testament Commentary
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), 132–33. Moreover, within the later work of 1 Clement we
can note two potential Jesus sayings clearly attributed to Jesus in 1 Clem 13:2. Thompson,
Clothed with Christ, 44–45. Accordingly, we can note the potential for Jesus’s teaching to
have some form of introductory formula in similar literature.
22 Luke Timothy Johnson, ‘The Use of Leviticus 19 in the Letter of James’, jbl 101/3 (1982),

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2:8 says, ‘however, if you carry out the royal law according to scripture, “love
your neighbour as yourself” you are doing well.’ This is significant in a number
of ways. First, we have a clear citation of Lev. 19:18 in Jas. 2:8, and therefore
a clear drawing upon the Old Testament.23 At the same time, scholars such
as Carson suggest that the phrase ‘royal law’ could equally be translated as
the ‘law pertaining to the king’24 which could imply and evoke a connection
between Lev. 19:18 and Jesus.25 In so doing, Carson suggests that this introduc-
tory phrase within Jas. 2:8 could function evocatively of Jesus and Jesus’s own
connection with Lev. 19:18.26 Thus, we might find here in Jas. 2:8 an example of
an introductory formulae that seems to, at least in some way, conjure up and
evoke connections with the teaching of Jesus, as well as the Old Testament.27
Specifically, we find in Jas. 2:8 the potential for an introductory phrase to an Old
Testament citation to function as an implicit evocation of Jesus.28 At the same
time, Johnson notes the proliferation of Lev. 19 allusions within James such as

391–401 (393); Darian Lockett, ‘The Use of Leviticus 19 in James and 1 Peter: A Neglected
Parallel’, cbq 82 (2020), 456–72 (460). Also, see McKnight, The Letter of James, 204–
05.
23 Allison notes also the section as a whole quotes Lev. 19:18, seems to allude to Lev. 19:15, and
also may allude to other interpretations of Lev. 19, suggesting also that Lev. 19 similarly
influences the letter of James in other sections as well. See Dale C. Allison, James (icc):
A Critical and Exegetical Commentary (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), 413. It is also notewor-
thy that James draws upon the Old Testament regularly, at points introducing citations
of the Old Testament by using the word γραθή (2:8, 2:23, 4:5–6)—Duane F. Watson, ‘An
Assessment of the Rhetoric and Rhetorical Analysis of the Letter of James’, in Webb and
Kloppenborg (eds), Reading James with New Eyes, 99–120 (114).
24 D. A. Carson, ‘James’, in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, ed.
by D. A. Carson and G. K. Beale (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 997–1013 (1000).
25 Carson, ‘James’, 1000.
26 Carson, ‘James’, 1000. There is potential to suggest that Jesus’s own use of Lev. 19:18 may
even stand behind the use of Lev. 19:18 here. For more on this concept of Jesus’s use of the
Old Testament impacting the use of the Old Testament in the New Testament, see Craig
A. Evans, ‘Why Did the New Testament Writers Appeal to the Old Testament?’, jsnt 38/1
(2015), 36–48.
27 For more on the potential use of Lev. 19 throughout the epistle of James see: Johnson,
‘Leviticus 19’, 391–401; Lockett, ‘Leviticus 19’, 456–72.
28 For some helpful work on this in regards to social memory theory and how key words and
phrases may evoke a broader narrative through the process of ‘metonymic referencing’,
cf. Catrin H. Williams, ‘How Scripture “Speaks”: Insights from the study of ancient media
culture’, in Methodology in the Use of the Old Testament in the New: Context and Criteria, ed.
by D. Allen and S. Smith (London: T&T Clark, 2019), 53–69. Also, see Tom Thatcher, ‘Cain
and Abel in Early Christian Memory: A Case Study in “The Use of the Old Testament in
the New”’, cbq 72/4 (2010), 721–51.

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Lev. 19:13 in Jas. 5:4 and Lev. 19:16 in Jas. 4:11 and a number of other places29 that
do not seem to have a regular introductory phrase30 but are still present.
We might also note the potential for a similar, though less defined, occur-
rence within Jas. 2:11. As Moo notes, Jas. 2:11 draws upon two of the Ten Com-
mandments that Jesus also drew upon, with James also seeming to draw the
deeper and wider ranging permeations of the command suggested by Jesus into
the discussion regarding favouritism in the Church.31 What is more, the con-
cept of the commands being ‘spoken’ may conjure up Old Testament motifs
of the giving of the Decalogue, but also may evoke oral traditions in which
Jesus was the speaker and teacher of these texts and their implications. Con-
sequently, there is potential in Jas. 2:11 for the use of the Old Testament there
to bring to mind Jesus’s own discussion of these Old Testament texts. At the
same time, we seem to find more standard introductory formulae to scriptural
citations in places such as Jas. 2:25 and 4:6, as well as the drawing upon Old Tes-
tament allusions and character motifs throughout the epistle.32 Importantly,
we can note a variety of ways in which James introduces and demarks the
Old Testament, including ways that could function to evoke Jesus’s teaching.
Therefore, we might consider whether there are ways that James introduces
Jesus’s teaching within the letter, or in any way demarks or highlights the poten-
tial presence of Jesus’s teaching, perhaps with the use of key words that point
the audience towards Jesus. We have seen how in Jas. 2:8 and 2:11 some find
potential for Jesus’s association to ot texts to be evoked through simple words
and phrases such as βασιλικός and λεγω. Importantly, James does not seem to

29 Johnson notes a significantly higher frequency of Lev. 19 allusions within James than those
drawn upon here. For these see: Johnson, ‘Leviticus 19’, 393–96.
30 Similarly, we might note the concept of ‘metalepsis’ and how the New Testament quotes
the Old Testament and draws upon the wider context. See Richard B. Hays, Echoes of Scrip-
ture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989); Richard B. Hays, Echoes
of Scripture in the Gospels (Waco: Baylor University Press, 2016); J. K. Brown, ‘Metalepsis’, in
Exploring Intertextuality: Diverse Strategies for New Testament Interpretation of Texts, ed. by
B. J. Oropeza and S. Moyise (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2016), 29–40. For a critical view, see
C. D. Stanley, ‘“Pearls before Swine”: Did Paul’s Audiences Understand His Biblical Quota-
tions?’, NovT 41 (1999), 124–44. In a sense, we might consider how the regular and repeated
allusions to Lev. 19 may be evoked and heightened via the use of the specific citation of
Lev. 19:18. In a similar way, we might also ponder whether the same would be true of the
use of the teaching of Jesus in the Sermon of the Mount within James. Namely, the regular
and repeated drawing upon of the words of Jesus, and indeed the Old Testament, may in
turn evoke a wider contextual framework.
31 Moo, James, 114–16. Also, Ben Witherington iii, Jesus the Sage: The Pilgrimage of Wisdom
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994), 242–43.
32 Cf. Carson, ‘James’. Also, Robert J. Foster, The Significance of Exemplars for the Interpreta-
tion of the Letter of James (Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014).

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explicitly evoke Jesus in either of these examples, but we do find potential for
introductory formulae to evoke Jesus’s teaching. This study will now consider
whether key words or phrases may function, perhaps in a similar manner, to
demark or introduce the impact, influence, and interaction with Jesus within
James.

3 Αδελφός Language and Jesus’s Teaching

What we might consider, therefore, is whether James in any way marks out or
introduces the sayings of Jesus within the epistle. Dale Allison rightly notes that
James does not introduce any of these potential Jesus sayings with the phrase
‘Jesus says’.33 Yet Allison also notes that if the letter of James is intended for the
‘Jewish diaspora’ inclusive of both Jewish Christians and others besides, then
there may be an intended aspect of not wanting to directly connect Jesus’s say-
ings to Jesus.34 In that sense, we might consider whether James is drawing on
Jesus’s teaching and not directly attributing them to him for this, or other sim-
ilar reasons. If that were the case, however, it stands to be quite reasonable
that James might seek to use introductory formulae, phrases, or words of sig-
nificance that might ‘tip the cap’ towards the source and inspiration of these
sayings. What we might consider, therefore, is whether there are any themes
or common motifs that precede the presence of Jesus sayings in James that
may function in an introductory manner. If we are able to note a pattern of
key words or phrases connected with the presence of Jesus’s teaching, then we
might be able to begin to trace how the words of Jesus may be introduced or
demarked within James. Therefore, we will consider several potential key words
and phrases found within the context of Jesus’s teaching within James and their
occurrence elsewhere within James. Further, this identification of potential
introductory phrases will then be compared to the use of those syntactical ele-
ments elsewhere within James to assess whether there is a correlation between
these words and phrases that may, in turn, suggest some potential introductory
formulae or demarcation of Jesus sayings in James.
First, we might note the presence of ‘hearing’ and ‘listening’ language within
the letter of James. Even though a variety of Greek words are used, we can find
the theme of ‘listening’ in 1:19, 1:22, 1:23, and 2:5. As we noted prior, each of these
verses find at least some resonances with Jesus’s teaching and are regularly sug-

33 Allison, ‘Audience of James’, 76–77.

34 Allison, James (icc), 59.

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gested by scholars to be examples of Jesus’s teachings being drawn upon by

James.35 What might be significant, therefore, is whether concepts of ‘listening’
and ‘hearing’ may in some way demark, introduce, or highlight Jesus’s teaching.
Certainly, there is a sense in which the teaching of Jesus was originally ‘heard’,
and the encouragement to ‘hear’ and ‘listen’ may function as a potential key
word to alert the audience to the voice of Jesus. Additionally, it should not be
overlooked that Jesus often began teaching with a command to listen (Matt.
15:10; 21:33; Mark 4:3; 7:14; Luke 9:44; also Matt. 17:5). Thus, it is salient that the
phrases in 1:19, 1:22, 1:23, and 2:5 seem to have strong parallels to Jesus’s words in
Matt. 5:22a, Matt. 7:21, Luke 6:47, Matt. 5:3, and Luke 6:20b.36 When considering
these synoptic texts we can note that Matt. 5:22a, Matt. 7:32, and Luke 6:20 all
have Jesus explicitly noted as speaking in the verse, and Luke 6:47 also has lis-
tening motifs. On the one hand, this may be expected, but there may also be a
sense in which the words in Jas. 1:19, 22, 23, and 2:5 function particularly to evoke
Jesus’s oral teaching.37 Thus we can note a correlation between the presence of
the words ἀκούω and ἀκροατής in James and the presence of Jesus’s teaching.
One might posit, then, the potential for people to associate ἀκούω and ἀκρο-
ατής with Jesus so that when those words are heard, Jesus is evoked. The fact
that the use of these words is followed by phrases evocative of Jesus’s teaching
within James provide a strong correlational which may indicate a connection
between these words and Jesus within the Jacobean community. Consequently,
we might suggest that admonitions to ‘hear’ or ‘listen’ could alert the reader to
the presence of Jesus’s teaching, with the word functioning to highlight and
demark to the audience the upcoming Jesus saying.
Second, we might note the beginning of Jas. 2:5 and the phrase that intro-
duces the Jesus saying. While we may reasonably suggest the presence of a
phrase akin to Matt. 5:3 in Jas. 2:5, we might also note the introductory phrase
of 2:5 states ἀκούσατε, ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί. As noted prior, we have ‘listening’
language within this phrase, and as a result we might note that the presence of
ἀκούω may alert the Jacobean audience to the upcoming words of Jesus. Fur-
thermore, the phrase ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί in 2:5 is placed alongside an impera-

35 Foster, ‘Q and James’, 4–5.

36 While some English translations place ‘listening’ language in 4:13 and 5:1, the actual intro-
ductory phrase is Ἄγε νῦν οἱ λέγοντες and will be discussed more fully below. Moreover, the
nrsv located ‘listening’ language in Jas. 5:4, but the Greek word underlying that transla-
tion is ἰδού. Therefore, only texts in which ἀκούω or ἀκροατής are used are mentioned for
this discussion.
37 What is more, if we do consider Jas. 2:5 to be a key verse, even the central verse, for the
epistle (Watson, ‘Rhetorical Analysis’, 114–15) then the presence of the voice of Jesus, and
the potential for a ‘demarking’ of that voice of Jesus via an introductory formula, is salient.

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tive, in this instance ‘to listen’.38 When we look through the book of James for a
similar pattern, we might also note the introductory phrases in Jas. 1:16 and 1:19
which also have an imperative followed by ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί.39 Specifically
we find:

Jas.1:16—μὴ πλανᾶσθε, ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί.

Jas. 1:19—Ἴστε, ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί. ἔστω δὲ πᾶς ἄνθρωπος ταχὺς εἰς τὸ
ἀκοῦσαι, βραδὺς εἰς τὸ λαλῆσαι, βραδὺς εἰς ὀργήν.

Jas. 2:5—ἀκούσατε, ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί. οὐχ ὁ θεὸς ἐξελέξατο τοὺς πτωχοὺς
τῷ κόσμῳ πλουσίους ἐν πίστει καὶ κληρονόμους τῆς βασιλείας ἧς ἐπηγγείλατο
τοῖς ἀγαπῶσιν αὐτόν.

What is significant for our discussion is that this phrase ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί
appears only in Jas. 1:16, 1:19 and 2:5, each time is immediately after an imper-
ative, and each time precedes an example of Jesus’s teaching. Again, we have
this correlation effect in which we might note a regular phrase used only in
the introduction of Jesus’s teaching. As a result of this correlation, we might
reasonably suggest the potential for the phrase ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί to func-
tion as a demarcation of an upcoming Jesus saying for the audience. We might
consider the presence of ἀδελφος language, especially intensified in the form
of ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί along with an imperative, forms a consistent pattern
of preceding a Jesus saying within James. Indeed, we might consider whether
this does constitute an explicit introductory formula for Jesus material within
James. Certainly, the pattern of the phrase ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί alongside an
imperative precedes a Jesus saying in each occurrence within James. Conse-
quently, we might note the strong correlation of this phrase with words and
phrases evocative of Jesus’s teaching within James. While it is true that cor-
relation does not prove causality, what we can at least suggest is a pattern of
imperative and the phrase ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί occurs within James in the
introduction of Jesus’s teaching.

38 Outside of James, Margaret Mitchell notes the presence of Μὴ πλανᾶσθε (1 Cor. 6:9; 15:33;
Gal. 6:6) and ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί (1Cor. 15:58) within Pauline literature. Margaret
Mitchell, ‘The Letter of James as a Document of Paulinism’, in Webb and Kloppenborg
(eds), Reading James with New Eyes, 75–98 (89–90). In that sense, Mitchell argues that
James may have connections with, or even be writing from within, Paulinism. Yet, we are
simply noting here the correlation between the three occurrences of ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί
in James.
39 Davids, James, 111.

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Moreover, we might consider the use of ἀδελφος language elsewhere in

James. For example, we might note the presence of ἀδελφοί in 2:5, 3:10–12 and
5:12, which again immediately precedes strong examples of Jesus’s teaching in
2:5, 3:10, 3:12 and 5:12 creating a striking pattern. At the same time, we might
also note the presence of ἀδελφοί language in Jas. 1:2, 2:1, 2:14, 2:15, 3:1, 4:11, and
5:19, some of which may resonate with Jesus’s teaching (1:2;40 3:1;41 4:11;42 5:1943)
and some of which do not seem to evoke Jesus as convincingly (2:1; 2:14–15).
In a sense, we might note that Jas. 2:1 may not evoke a teaching tradition, but
clearly Jesus is present in the phrase τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τῆς δόξης,
and consequently the use of ἀδελφοί in Jas. 2:1 is still associated with Jesus.44
Therefore, we note a fairly consistent pattern (90 %) in which the use of ἀδελ-
φοί is strongly associated with Jesus or Jesus’s teaching. We might posit that Jas.
2:14–15 simply contains Jesus sayings not known to us, or are functioning in a
broader way to evoke key themes linked to Jesus. At the same time, it may sim-
ply not fit into the category being explored here. Therefore, while we might note
a degree of tension here regarding the use of ἀδελφοί language in Jas. 2:14–15,45
outside of that instance we find a relatively strong parallel between the use of
ἀδελφοί language and the potential presence of Jesus’s teaching in some form.

40 Cf. Matt. 5:11–12//Luke 6:22—Foster, ‘Q and James’, 4. Also, Patrick J. Hartin, ‘Call to Be Per-
fect through Suffering (James 1,2–4): The Concept of Perfection in the Epistle of James and
the Sermon on the Mount’, Bib 77/4 (1996), 477–92; John S. Kloppenborg, ‘The Reception of
the Jesus Tradition in James’, in The Catholic Epistles and the Tradition, ed. by J. Schlosser,
betl 176 (Leuven: Peeters, 2004), 71–100 (89).
41 Cf. Matt. 23:13//Luke 20:47—Johnson, Letter of James, 255–56.
42 Cf. Matt. 7:1—Johnson, Letter of James, 293. Foster, ‘Q and James’, 5. Interestingly, Kloppen-
borg notes the connection between Matt. 7:1–2, Luke 6:37–38, Mark 4:24, and 1 Clem 13:2
and the ‘relative stability’ of the wordings conveyed in each of these texts. John S. Klop-
penborg, ‘Memory, Performance and the Sayings of Jesus’, jshj 10/2 (2012), 97–132 (118).
43 Cf. Matt. 18:15–18—Johnson, Letter of James, 337–38.
44 For more on the potential meaning of Jas. 2:1 and other similar verses such as 1:1, see Martin
Karrer, ‘Christus der Herr und die Welt als Stätte der Prüfung: zur Theologie des Jakobus-
briefs’, KuD 35 (1989), 166–188; Richard Bauckham, ‘Messianic Jewish Identity in James’, in
Muted Voices of the New Testament: Readings in the Catholical Epistles and Hebrews, ed. by
Katherine M. Hockey et al. (London: T&T Clark, 2017), 101–20 (115–19). Some do question
whether Jas. 2:1 may have some scribal additions, but there remains little textual evidence
for that conclusion. See Bauckham, ‘Jewish Identity’, 115.
45 There are, of course, potential reasons for that. One could be that Jas. 2:14–15 represents
a Jesus saying not recorded for us within Gospel material. Moreover, Davids notes the use
of ἀδελφοί within James to introduce a new section. Davids, James, 120. As a result, we
might note a dual focus for ἀδελφοί within James even. Either way, it is not necessary to
make every use of ἀδελφοί fit within this framework, only to note the strong correlation
between ἀδελφοί language and the presence of Jesus’s teaching.

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introductory formulae and jesus’s teaching in james 35

On the one hand, we cannot prove that ἀδελφοί language functions to demark
or allude to Jesus’s teaching, and some of the instances of potential Jesus say-
ings are stronger than others. But we can certainly highlight a fairly consistent
pattern of Jesus sayings coming after ἀδελφοί language (80 % of occurrences)
and an even stronger association between ἀδελφοί language and Jesus (90 %
of occurrences). Therefore, we can note that the presence of ἀδελφοί within
the text could function to heighten our sense of expectation of an upcoming
Jesus saying. It seems likely that the original hearers could similarly have, to
one degree or another, considered the word ἀδελφοί to be key in evoking or
demarking the words of Jesus. Certainly, if we were to consider the epistle of
James to have been authored by ‘James the Lord’s brother’,46 then the fact that
James refers to ἀδελφοί in the context of Jesus sayings may be significant. Surely,
it would feel noteworthy that the ἀδελφός of Jesus highlights the words of Jesus
through ἀδελφοί language.
Another significant use of ἀδελφοί language is in Jas. 5:12. As we have already
noted, there is what Scot McKnight calls ‘substantial’ potential for Jesus’s teach-
ing to be found in Jas. 5:12.47 What is more, the introductory phrase πρὸ πάντων
δέ, ἀδελφοί μου again draws on ἀδελφοί language immediately preceding a Jesus
saying. Interestingly, however, Jas. 5:12 adds the slightly more emphatic μου but
lacks the language of ἀγαπάω that we have seen elsewhere. What is more, the
inclusion of the phrase ‘and above everything’ may highlight a particular signifi-
cance, or ultimacy to the words of Jas. 5:12. Certainly, the introduction to Jas. 5:12
would function to get the attention of the audience, particularly highlighted by
the ἀδελφοί language and the hyperbolic sense of πρὸ πάντων. Thus, we might
consider whether the opening words of Jas. 5:12 do function as an introductory
formula of sorts for the words of Jesus. Certainly, they seem to carry with them
an introductory sense and weight, in that the audience is called to pay partic-
ular attention to what follows. What is more, if Jas. 5:12 is considered to be the
‘strongest’ connection with Jesus’s teaching in James, especially syntactically,
then perhaps the heightened call to pay attention may explain the added clar-
ity with which the voice of Jesus comes through in Jas. 5:12. In sum, however,
we can note a very strong correlation between the use of ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί
and Jesus’s teaching as well as a fairly strong potential to find ἀδελφοί language

46 Obviously, this is a lively source of debate. See Luke Timothy Johnson, Brother of Jesus,
Friend of God: Studies in the Letter of James (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 24–38. Also,
Sophie Laws, The Epistle of James, Black’s New Testament Commentary (London: Con-
tinuum, 1980), 38–42; Davids, James, 2–22; Moo, James, 9–28; Johnson, Letter of James,
92–106.
47 See McKnight, The Letter of James, 425.

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connected with Jesus. We can also note a very strong connection between hear-
ing/listening motifs and the presence of Jesus in James. Consequently, we can
note the strong correlations we have observed may signal for us some potential
ways that Jesus’s teaching is demarked or introduced within James. Certainly,
this pattern of key phrases occurring in the immediate vicinity of Jesus sayings,
especially phrases such as ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί plus an imperative, requires
some sort of acknowledgement. In that sense, it seems feasible to argue that
these phrases are used within James to demark and introduce Jesus and Jesus’s
teaching, with the phrases functioning to highlight to the reader what is about
to come.

4 Other Potential Introductory Phrases within James

We might also note the potential connection, as noted by Kloppenborg, be-

tween Jas. 5:1–3 and Luke 6:24, 12:33–34.48 Kloppenborg notes a number of help-
ful parallels, but also notes the introduction to Jas. 5:1 with the Greek phrase ἄγε
νῦν. Kloppenborg notes the presence of this phrase in Jas. 4:13, but also its com-
mon usage within other classical Greek works.49 At the risk of overextending
the argument we are making, we might consider the purpose of James’s use of
ἄγε νῦν in both Jas. 4:13 and 5:1. As Batten notes, many scholars find a connection
between the Jesus sayings of Luke 6:24, 12:33–34 and Jas. 5:1–3, but there also
remains a potential connection between Jas. 4:13–14 and Matt. 6:34.50 Again,
we do not find strong syntactic connections, but both passages mention the
concept of αὔριον twice.51 Moreover, there are certainly thematic resonances
between the texts regarding their mindset about the events of tomorrow and
the associated disposition of the audience as a result. Whether James’s two
uses of ἄγε νῦν form some kind of inclusio is difficult to tell but using our cur-
rent framework we can find the potential for Jesus’s teaching in both passages
immediately following the introductory ἄγε νῦν phrase. Whether we render this
phrase ‘now listen’ or ‘come now’52 we find a phrase here that is calling for
particular attention from the reader, a concept that seems to fit with the prior
discussion of how James may introduce Jesus. These kind of phrases that high-
light the importance of what is to come seem to frequently precede the Jesus

48 Kloppenborg, ‘Emulation’, 137–41.

49 Kloppenborg, ‘Emulation’, 138. Johnson, Letter of James, 294–95.
50 Batten, ‘Jesus Tradition’, 93.
51 Batten, ‘Jesus Tradition’, 94.
52 Moo, James, 201–02.

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introductory formulae and jesus’s teaching in james 37

sayings within James, as we have seen. There is a sense in which James is sig-
nalling to his audience a sense of particular need to pay attention or respond to
the coming words. Consequently, when we are considering the potential meth-
ods for the ‘demarcation’ of Jesus’s teaching within James, the phrase ἄγε νῦν
seems to have the potential to function in that capacity. Certainly, Kloppen-
borg notes the use of ἄγε νῦν within Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey and other Greek
texts where the phrase seems to precede a command.53 While we might ques-
tion the Jacobean audience’s knowledge of Greek classics, perhaps there is a
sense in which the phrase ἄγε νῦν carries with it a particular call to focus on a
coming command. That James then follows this phrase with a drawing upon of
the words of Jesus may only function to add to the emphatic nature of the com-
mand, and the combination of ἄγε νῦν and the potential drawing upon of Jesus’s
voice and authority may serve as a compelling rhetorical device. As there are
only two occurrences of ἄγε νῦν within James it is hard to determine whether
this is a pattern, but there is potential nevertheless for this phrase to highlight
to the audience the presence of an upcoming Jesus saying. What is complex,
however, is that it is not necessarily clear why ἄγε νῦν might demark the words
of Jesus. However, we can simply note that the two occurrences of ἄγε νῦν in
James are then followed by potential evocations of Jesus’s teaching.
Another potential avenue to explore could be the use of the word κύριος
within James. Within James exactly who is in view when the word κύριος is used
is often quite complex. Bauckham initially notes the fairly clear use of κύριος in
relation to Jesus in Jas. 1:1 and 2:1, then formulates how the further uses of κύριος
in Jas. 1:7, 3:9, 4:10, 15, 5:4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, and 15 either refer to ‘God’ or ‘Jesus’.54 In
a sense, many of these uses either clearly are portraying God as κύριος, or as in
Jas. 1:1 and 2:1 are clearly associated with Jesus. Then, Bauckham goes on to con-
vincingly argue that the use of κύριος in Jas. 5:7–8, 14, and 15 would likely refer
to Jesus.55 Specifically, in noting Apollonius’s Canon, a general pattern which
notes that two nouns in a genitive construction either both have or both lack
the definite article,56 Bauckham notes that in these verses (Jas. 5:7–8, 14, 15 as
well as 1:1 and 2:1) where contextually the κύριος appears likely to be Jesus then
Apollonius’s Canon seems to be evident.57 If Bauckham is right in positing that
these verses do associate Jesus with κύριος, then perhaps it would seem likely

53 Kloppenborg, ‘Emulation’, 137–38.

54 Bauckham, ‘Jewish Identity’, 115–17.
55 Bauckham, ‘Jewish Identity’, 116.
56 Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Tes-
tament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 250–52.
57 Bauckham, ‘Jewish Identity’, 118–19.

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that in these verses the word κύριος could function to evoke Jesus sayings. How-
ever, this does not seem to be the case. In fact, if anything we don’t seem to
find any real resonances between Jesus’s teaching and the use of κύριος within
James. This may be surprising as, in one sense, we might expect the presence of
κύριος to prepare the way for a Jesus saying. In a similar way, while the use of the
name Ἰησοῦς appears in both 1:1 and in 2:1 in a significant way, there does not
appear to be a sense in which the name of Ἰησοῦς actually functions to intro-
duce Jesus’s teaching. In a surprising way, we might consider that κύριος and
Ἰησοῦς language and motifs do not seem to function to evoke Jesus’s teaching.
Certainly, when studying the frequency and occurrences of Jesus saying and
potential phrases that may introduce them, κύριος and Ἰησοῦς do not seem to
have the same degree of correlation between their use and Jesus’s teaching as
we find in listening/hearing language, sibling language, or the phrase ἀδελφοί
μου ἀγαπητοί.

5 Conclusion

In sum, this study has broadly sought to draw upon the work of a wide vari-
ety of scholars who find Jesus’s teaching represented, alluded to, and evoked in
the epistle of James. Rather than seek to focus on the presence or purpose of
these Jesus sayings this study has sought to suggest some possible ways these
Jesus sayings may be introduced or demarked within James. Particularly, this
study has sought to analyse the words leading up to Jesus sayings in James and
suggest some possibilities that have a very strong correlation between their
occurrence in James and Jesus sayings immediately following them. Thus, the
clearest suggestion may be the phrase ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί plus an imperative,
which appears in 1:16, 1:19, and 2:5. Importantly, in the three occurrences of this
phrase within James, each time it is immediately followed by words evocative
of Jesus. Therefore, we might posit that ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί may function as
an introductory phrase for Jesus’s teaching within James. Of course, in a sense
it does in that every occurrence of the phrase in James is followed by a Jesus
saying. Yet, this regular pattern may highlight for us a phrase that may have
functioned to demark the words of Jesus in a specific way. On a similar note, we
also noted the more prolific use of ἀδελφοί in general within James. In studying
the use of ἀδελφοί in James we noted that 90% of the occurrences within James
are either in the context of a Jesus saying or, as per Jas. 2:1, in the context of a
clear reference to Jesus. This does leave us with a quandary regarding the use
of ἀδελφοί in 2:14–15, but we still find a fairly strong correlation between the
use of ἀδελφοί and Jesus’s teaching. Similarly, we find that ‘listening’ language

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introductory formulae and jesus’s teaching in james 39

in James seems to occur with high frequency in the words immediately pre-
ceding Jesus’s teaching. Certainly, this could be explained by the way Jesus is
found to begin teaching with a call to ‘listen’, for example in Mark 4:3. It is hard
to pick up on a consistent pattern to the use of hearing and listening language
in James, only to note a very strong correlation between this kind of language
and the presence of Jesus’s teaching within the text. In a similar vein, we noted
the phrase ἄγε νῦν occurs within the immediate introduction of potential Jesus
sayings within James. We can also note that both appearances of ἄγε νῦν within
James immediately precede Jesus’s teaching, but it is also hard to understand
what about the phrase ἄγε νῦν would function to introduce or demark Jesus’s
teaching. Yet, what we can note is a variety of potential ways that key words
or phrases function within James to demark the presence of Jesus’s teaching
within James. That we find such strong correlation between these phrases and
the use of Jesus’s teaching within James gives us at the very least a problem to
answer and a correlation to account for. While we are only able to simply note
the connection between the two, it seems at least feasible that the strong corre-
lation between Jesus’s teaching and the phrases ἀδελφοί μου ἀγαπητοί, ἀδελφοί,
ἀκούω, ἀκροατής, and ἄγε νῦν functions to highlight to us some potential ways
James may have demarked or introduced Jesus’s teaching.

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