Energy 194 (2020) 116871

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

3D full-space triboelectric-electromagnetic hybrid nanogenerator for

high-efficient mechanical energy harvesting in vibration system
Jian He a, b, Xueming Fan a, Jiliang Mu a, Chao Wang a, Jichao Qian a, Xiucheng Li a,
Xiaojuan Hou a, Wenping Geng a, Xiangdong Wang c, Xiujian Chou a, *
a
Science and Technology on Electronic Test and Measurement Laboratory, North University of China, Taiyuan, 030051, China
b
Taiyuan Heavy Machinery Group Co.,LTD, Taiyuan, 030024, China
c
Sports Science Research Institute of the State Sports General Administration, Beijing, 100061, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Mechanical energy with low frequency is a widely distributed energy in environment. Triboelectric
Received 7 August 2019 nanogenerator (TENG) and electromagnetic energy harvester (EMG) are considered as promising
Received in revised form methods to harvest low-frequency mechanical energy. In this study, a three-dimensional (3D) full-space
10 November 2019
triboelectric-electromagnetic hybrid nanogenerator (FSHG) based on a magnetic ball and Polystyrene
Accepted 27 December 2019
Available online 7 January 2020
(PS) spherical shells is presented. The external excitation can be transformed into the relative motion
between different units. The mover composed of the PS spherical shell 3 and a magnet ball transforms 3D
full-space mechanical energy into electrical energy through friction electrification and electromagnetic
Keywords:
3D full-space energy harvesting
induction effect. The results of experiments show that the performance of TENG and EMGs can be
Triboelectric nanogenerator influenced by the direction of external vibration and excitation frequency. The output performances of
Electromagnetic generator TENG and EMGs increase as the excitation frequency increases. The results show that the maximum
Magnetic sphere output power of TENG is 18 mW at an external loading resistance of 200 MU, and the maximum output
power of EMG is 640 mW at an external loading resistance of 1000 U. The FSHG demonstrates a quick
charging ability for capacitor and the capability to power hundreds of LEDs. After storing energy in the
capacitor, the DC signal can power a humidity/temperature sensor.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Energy is the essentials of human existence and the impetus of
civilization progresses. However, with the aggravation of global
greenhouse effect and the boom in worldwide energy demands,
energy crisis is a grave challenge facing the world. Therefore,
exploring clean and renewable alternative energy resources has
been a hot topic in the world today [1e3]. More and more the
power supply in these devices are needed and have attracted
considerable attention with the popularity of portable sensors
[4e6]. Currently, the external power supply is largely dependent on
Li-ion batteries which have limited lifespan and induce environ-
mental pollution [7e9]. It is desirable to tap new energy resources
and thus achieve self-powered device and system.
Mechanical energy is one of the most commonly available en-
ergy in ambient environment and more accessible than others such
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chouxiujian@nuc.edu.cn (X. Chou).
as solar and thermal energy, which occurs in a variety of forms, for
instance, human activities, ocean tide and machine vibration. So far,
several approaches have been utilized to convert mechanical en-
ergy into electrical energy, including electromagnetic induction
generator (EMG) [10e13] and piezoelectric nanogenerator (PENG)
[14e16]. Most recently, triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG), as an
innovative form of electricity generation, has been demonstrated
based on the triboelectric effect coupled with electrostatic induc-
tion [17e20]. In the triboelectric process, electricity is generated by
the surface charge transfer due to the periodic contact-separation
between two materials possessing opposite tribopolarity.
Compared to other generators, TENG has shown advantages of high
output power, low cost and abundant choices of materials. Never-
theless, the energy conversion efficiency of TENG is still limited by
the energy loss during power generation as exists in other coun-
terparts. Substantial amount of mechanical energy input is wasted
through heat dissipation, material deformation or kinetic energy. It
is necessary to hybridize the power generators with complemen-
tary operation modes to harvest the waste energy [21e24]. This

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116871
0360-5442/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 J. He et al. / Energy 194 (2020) 116871
strategy is similar to the introduction of multijunction solar cells to
cover a broader wavelength range in the entire solar spectrum. On
the other hand, the mechanical motions in 3-demensional (3D)
space have frequently multiple degrees of freedom, such as the
running car over uneven road and the bodily movement of human.
The conventional energy harvesters usually scavenge the energy
along single direction. As the result, the energy from the directions
is wasted. Therefore, it is urgent to design a new device capable of
capturing the energy from multiple methods and directions, even
full space.
In this study, we construct a 3D full-space hybrid nanogenerator
(FSHG) capturing mechanical energy along different directions in
3D space through triboelectric and electromagnetic operation
modes, which consists of TENG module and EMG module. The
TENG module is composed by a mover and two friction layers, and
EMG module is made up of a magnet ball and six copper coils. The
magnet ball is placed in the Polystyrene (PS) spherical shell,
forming a 3D full-space rotatable mover. In this article, the working
principle of FSHG based on triboelectrification, electrostatic in-
duction and electromagnetic induction are demonstrated in detail.
The output performance including open-circuit voltage and short-
circuit current of TENG and EMG in different vibration directions
and measuring frequencies are also investigated, respectively. The
FSHG can light up 200 commercial light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or
power a humidity and temperature sensor persistently. Compared
with other similar studies, the device developed in this article not
only can convert the external mechanical energy from all directions
[25e29], but also has a better output performance than the cor-
responding devices [30,31]. The FSHG shows potential application
in the self-powered diagnosis system of large mechanical vibration
equipment.
2. Experimental section
2.1. Fabrication of the hybrid nanogenerator
This hybrid NG mainly consists of TENG and EMG. For the sili-
cone layer, the silicone and curing agent were mixed uniformly
with a ratio of 100:2. After being mixed uniformly, the silicone was
evenly coated on an emery paper with pyramid construction, which
was firstly sprayed mold release agent. The silicone layer thickness
is 750 mm. It was then leaved at room temperature for 12 h. After
completely curing, the layer could be stripped off and then adhered
on the second plastic sphere inner surface by epoxy resin. To the
part of EMG, six copper coils were prepared by ourselves and each
coil is about 3000 turns. The six copper coils were adhered on the
outside surface of the second plastic sphere.
2.2. Measurement system
The sample morphologies were characterized by a field emis-
sion scanning electron microscopy (ZEISS EVO18, Carl Zeiss Tena,
Germany). The output voltage and current performance were
recorded by the KEITHLEY 2611B system electrometer. The machine
vibration is simulated using a crank connecting rod machine with
alterable working frequency and constant vibration displacement.
The charging voltage of capacitor was recorded by the Mixed
domain oscilloscope (Tektronix MDO3104).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Device structure
The total structure schematic diagram of the FSHG is showed in
Fig. 1. The FSHG formed by three PS spherical shell (Fig. S1) with
different diameters is divided into three inner spaces, which are
used to place copper coils, friction layers and magnetic ball. To
explain for convenience, three plastic spherical shells are named by
1e3 from outside to inside. The No.1 plastic spherical shell can
protect the inner components from damage by outside objects. The
outer surface of the No.2 PS spherical shell is evenly distributed
with six coils, and the inner surface is adhered to the friction layers.
The six copper coils are made by the same material and size. The
outer diameter, inner diameter and height of the coil (self-making
coil, wire diameter 0.07 mm, turns 3000) are 70 mm, 55 mm, and
6 mm, respectively. To improve the contact area and the tribo-
electric effect, an inverted pyramid structure is prepared on the
surface of the silicone layer. The scanning electron microscope
(SEM) of inverted pyramid structure is showed in Fig. 1(b). The
material of friction layers is vulcanized silicone rubber (RTV). The
RTV silicone rubber is similar to polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS),
which is easy to gain electrons. Fig. 1(c) presents the diameter of
the three PS spherical shell, which are 120 mm, 100 mm, and
60 mm, respectively. In order to facilitate the adhesion between the
friction layer and the inner surface of the No.2 spherical shell, the
friction layer is prepared into a “willow” shape. The template of
willow shape is generated by MATLAB and the schematic diagram
of the complete friction layer structure and a piece of friction layer
are shown in Fig. 1(d) and (f), respectively. Fig. S1(c) and Fig. S1(d)
show pictures of friction layer and friction layer electrodes. This
structure can make both TENG module and EMG module scavenge
the excitation energy well from any orientations. As the core
component of the FSHG, the magnetic ball not only provide varying
magnetic flux to the coils, but also move with the No.3 PS spherical
shell rotating between the negative friction layers.
The kinematics analysis of the magnetic ball and the No.3 PS
spherical shell is illustrated in Fig. 1(f). When there is no external
excitation, the magnetic ball and the plastic ball remains mechan-
ical balance at the bottom of No.2 PS spherical shell (Fig. 1(f) (ⅰ)).
Under this condition, the gravity of magnetic ball (Gs) and the
supporting force (Fsm1) provided by No.3 PS spherical shell are all
along the vertical direction, and can be expressed by the following
equation:
Fsm1 ¼ Gs (1)
When the external excitation is applied to the FSHG, the mag-
netic ball and the No.3 spherical shell will produce a circular mo-
tion with a relative velocity of n. The centripetal force (Fc) applied
on the mover can be formulated by
v2
Fc ¼ m (2)
r
where m is the mass of the magnetic ball and r is the radius of the
No.2 PS spherical shell.
When a certain angle q is deviated from the vertical direction as
shown in Fig. 1(f) (ⅱ), a new mechanical balance can be formulated
by
Fsm2 ¼ Gs cosq þ Fc (3)
Merging Equations (Gs ¼ mg), equations (2) and (3), a new
equation can be expressed by
v2
Fsm2 ¼ mðg cos q þ Þ (4)
r
where g is the Gravity acceleration. For the convenience of calcu-
lation, the values of g and r are 10 m/s2 and 50 mm.
When Fsm2 is greater than Gs, an inequality can be described as
 J. He et al. / Energy 194 (2020) 116871 3

Figure 1. 3D full space triboelectric-electromagnetic hybrid nanogenerator structure: (a) Schematic diagrams of the FSHG internal structure; (b) Schematic diagrams of the
FSHG and SEM image of surface microstructure; (c) Diameter diagram of three PS spherical shells; (d) Schematic diagram of friction layers after fabricated; (e) The dimension of a
piece of “Willow” friction layer; (f) Mechanics analysis diagram of the FSHG.

The contact area between the spherical shell and the friction
Fsm2  mg > 0 (5) layer can be affected by the value of Fsm.
By combining equation (2) and the values of g and r, equation (5)
can be solved analytically as follows: 3.2. Working principle
q
v > sin (6) The working principles of EMG modules and TENG module are
2
illustrated in Fig. 2. When the FSHG is without external vibration,
As a result, when the value of q is between 0 and 90 , if there is no charge transfer in TENG. According to triboelectric se-
inequality (6) is established, the supporting force (Fsm2) is bigger ries, the PS sphere shell is more positive than silicone rubber.
than Gs. Therefore, electrons escape from plastic sphere onto silicone rubber
When the magnetic ball and the No.3 PS spherical shell moves to surface with external vibration, resulting the plastic sphere ball
horizontal position, a new equation can be had with positive charge and the silicone rubber layers with negative
charge (Fig. 2(ⅰ)). When the No.3 plastic sphere moves between two
v2 friction layers, the charge on the right electrode of silicone rubber
Fsm3 ¼ m (7)
r layer will flow to the left electrode of silicone rubber layer surface
To explain the condition that Fsm3 is greater than Gs, the through external circuit because of electrostatic induction and
inequality can be expressed electrostatic balance (Fig. 2(ⅱ)). With the plastic sphere moves back
to original position (Fig. 2(III-ⅳ)), the charge goes back to the right
Fsm3  mg > 0 (8) electrode of silicone rubber layers, forming a complete alternating
current in the external circuit. To EMG, the magnetic ball can rotate
By combining the initial conditions in Equation (7) and the
around frictional layers along with No.3 PS sphere shell and it will
values of g and r, the condition that inequality (8) holds can be
cause magnetic flux changes across six copper coils, inducing cur-
expressed as
rent flow according to Faraday electromagnetic induction.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi To obtain a more quantitative understanding of the EMG, the
v> 0:5 (9)
electromagnetic simulation is finished by using Maxwell 15.0. The
4 J. He et al. / Energy 194 (2020) 116871

Fig. 2. Working principle of the hybrid nanogenerator and simulation results of the magnetic sphere using Maxwell 15.0, respectively. (a) The charge generation process in
TENG modules. (b) Magnetic distributions of magnetic sphere at the original balance position of the No.2 sphere. (c) Distribution of magnetic flux in the FSHG with the magnetic ball
at different angles. (d) Calculated field strengths as a function of the different angles of magnetic ball.

magnetic flux density related to the distance between the magnetic
sphere and coil is investigated. As shown in Fig. 2(b), when mag-
netic ball stays at origin balance position, the magnetic field and
magnetic induction lines distribution are central symmetry. The
maximum magnetic field strength at different positions is calcu-
lated by simulation in Fig. 2(c), in which magnetic field strength of
the bottom coil position (EMG 6) is far greater than that at other
positions. Because the shape of magnet is a spherical, the directions
of magnetic flux lines generated during its motion are unsure.
Furthermore, the flux lines of magnetic ball at different angular
position are also exhibited in Fig. 2(d). The magnetic flux densities
of the fixed point are plotted with different angular position
(0 ~360 ) of the magnetic ball in Fig. 2(e). The difference between
the max magnetic flux densities and the min magnetic flux den-
sities is no more than 1 mT, which indicates that the rolling of
magnetic ball at different angular position has litter effect on the
flux densities. In order to avoid mutual cancellation of inductive
current generated in coils, the connection of six coils are in parallel
after rectifier bridges. So, whatever the motion of magnet ball is, it
is guaranteed that there is at least one coil that can receive the
maximum change in magnetic flux.
3.3. Output characterization
In order to quantitatively analyze the output performance of the
device, a linear motor is used to generate mechanical vibration in
lab experiments. The linear motor can produce reciprocating linear
motion with different frequency (0e3 Hz) and constant displace-
ment (100 mm). A Keithley 2611B system electrometer is used to
measure the output voltage and current. First, the effects of
 J. He et al. / Energy 194 (2020) 116871 5

different excitation directions on the output performance of the
device power generation units (TENG and EMGs) are studied.
Fig. 3(a) and (b) show the schematic diagrams of the X-axis and Y-
axis excitation direction in detail. The excitation with different di-
rections is achieved by adjusting the angle between the device and
the linear motor. Fig. 3(c) and (d) give the open-circuit voltage and
short-circuit current of TENG, respectively. Under the excitation
frequency of 2 Hz, the open-circuit voltage (Voc) and short-circuit
current (Isc) are 77 V and 0.7 mA, respectively, when the excitation
direction is X-axis. However, when the device is along with ±Y axis
excitation vibration, the output voltage and current are 40 V and
0.3 mA, respectively. The results reveal that the TENG has the ca-
pacity of 3D full space energy harvesting. It is worth noting that the
output performance of TENG decreases when the excitation di-
rection is along with ±Y axis. That is because the mover (consist of
the No.3 PS sphere and the magnet ball) rotates around silicone
layers under the lower half of the No.2 PS sphere instead of be-
tween the two silicone layers.
Fig. 3(e) and (f) give the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit
current of EMGs with different vibration direction. When vibra-
tion direction is along the ±X axis, the output performance of EMG
1and EMG 3 is similar (Vpp: 4 V, Isc:1.8 mA). The voltage and current
of EMG 6 are higher than those of EMG 1 and EMG 3 (Vpp: 4.75 V,
Isc:2 mA). However, the output performance of EMG 5 is lower than
others (Vpp:1.6 V, Isc:0.3 mA). When the vibration direction along
the ±Y axis, which is completed by rotating the nanogenerator
90 clockwise along the XY plane, EMG modules in the same spatial
position have similar output performance. For example, after
rotating the nanogenerator 90 clockwise along the XY plane, EMG
1 and EMG 5 are in the same spatial position, which is at the top of
the FSHG. The reason why the performance of EMG at the top of the
FSHG always has the smallest output is that the magnetic flux (Ø)
through the coil is the smallest. The load voltage and load power of
TENG module and EMG modules under different resistances are
compared in Fig. 3(g)~(h). Fig. 3(g) shows the dependence of output
voltage and output power on the different values of external
loading resistance. The load power of TENG and EMGs can be
calculated as follows:
U2
P¼ (13)
R
where U is the peak output voltage and R is the external resistance.
As can be seen from Fig. 3(g), the maximal power of TENG
module in the vibration direction of ±X axis is 18 mW at a resistance
of 200 MU. When the vibration direction is ±Y axis, the maximal
power of TENG module is 6 mW. Due to spatial symmetry of sphere
structure, the output power of EMG is only tested in the excitation
direction of ±X axis. The maximal output power of EMG 1 is
640 mW at an external loading resistance of 1000 U. Therefore, to
achieve the maximal output power of the hybrid nanogenerator,

Fig. 3. Orientation dependence of the output for EMG modules and TENG module. (a, b) Schematic diagram of excitation orientation. (c, d) Output voltage and current diagram
of TENG module with different excitation directions. (e, f) Output voltage and current diagram of different EMG module with different excitation directions. (g) The voltage and
power relationship diagram of TENG module with different excitation directions. (h) Voltage and power relationship diagram of EMG module (1, 5, 6).
6 J. He et al. / Energy 194 (2020) 116871
the best vibration direction is along ± X axis.
Since mechanical energy has a wide frequency distribution in
environment, especially in the low-frequency range, the study
about the dependence of output performance on working fre-
quency is meaningful. In this study, the output performance of
triboelectric-electromagnetic hybrid nanogenerator has been
tested in low-frequency range (1 Hz, 2 Hz and 3 Hz), as shown in
Fig. 4. Fig. 4(a) shows that the open-circle voltage (Voc) of TENG
increases from 36 V to 88 V and the short current Isc increases from
0.27 mA to 0.95 mA with the frequency from 1 Hz to 3 Hz (Specific
output graph provided in Fig. S2). The voltage of TENG can be ex-
press as following equation [32,33].
sS
V TENG
oc ¼ (10)
C
where s is the transfer charge density, C is the capacitance, S is the
contact area between the No.3 plastic sphere and friction layers. In
this study, S is affected by the centrifugal force (Fc) generated by the
magnetic ball moving speed v and the output performance of TENG
increases with the increase of input frequency.
The electromotive force and induced current of EMG is formed
by the changed magnetic flux through copper coil, which can be
represented as [34].
d4
V EMG
oc ¼  N
dt
V EMG
I EMG
SC ¼
oc
Rcoil
where N is turn’s number of the coil, ∅ is magnetic flux linkage, Rcoil
is coil’s inner resistance. As the frequency of the input excitation
increases, d∅=dt increases gradually, resulting in an increase of
V EMG
oc and I EMG
SC . It can be seen that output performances of all EMG
modules increase with the increase of excitation frequency from
Fig. 4. Electrical characterization of the hybrid nanogenerator with different vibration frequency. (a) Output performance of TENG with different frequency. (bed) Output
performance of different EMGs with different frequency.
Fig. 4(b)~(d) and Fig. S3. At a vibration frequency of 3 Hz, the
voltage and current of EMG 6 are 2.95 V and 1.2 mA, respectively.
The output performance of EMG 1 is similar to that of EMG 6. With
the increase of frequency, the output performance of EMG 5 in-
creases greatly. At a frequency of 1 Hz, the output voltage of EMG 5
is only 0.29 V. However, when the frequency is 3 Hz, the open-
circuit voltage and short-circuit current are 2.06 V and 0.6 mA. It
can be attributed to the moving position of magnet ball. As the
frequency increases, the magnet sphere will move upward away
from the bottom and lead to an increase in magnetic flux across
EMG 5. The output performances of TENG module and EMG mod-
ules increase with the increasing input frequency.
3.4. Device application
In order to demonstrate the capability of the hybrid nano-
generator to harvest mechanical energy, some experiments have
been completed. Firstly, each of the EMG modules, except EMG 5, is
connected to 25 commercial light emitting diodes (LEDs) in parallel
to form a water lamp displayed in Movie S1. All of EMG modules are
without rectification. LEDs are lighted alternately in the dark
environment. As all of the electricity generation modules generate
asynchronous alternating current, it is necessary to store in energy
storage devices by an external power management circuit, like
capacitors or batteries. Subsequently, some other experiments are
(11) tested with a rectified circuit.
Supplementary video related to this article can be found at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116871
To further study the charging capability of this FSHG, the
(12)
charging characteristics of different modules have been investi-
gated. The seven different electricity modules are connected in
parallel with each other by a rectifier circuit, as shown in Fig. 5(a).
The capacitor used in this experiment is 10 mF and the excitation
frequency is 3 Hz. As exhibited in Fig. 5(b), the charging speed of
EMG modules is faster than that of TENG module. However, after
60 s of charging time, the EMG charging voltage has become stable
 J. He et al. / Energy 194 (2020) 116871
Fig. 5. Demonstration of the FSHG for energy scavenging. (a) The diagram of rectifying and charging circuit; (b) The charging curve of TENG module, EMG modules and the hybrid
NG with a capacitor of 10 mF. (c) The schematic diagram of the FSHG light up 200 LEDs connected in parallel. (d) Schematic diagram of a humidity and temperature sensor powered
by the FSHG.
and the TENG charging voltage is still growing. It means that the
capacitor’s voltage from TENG module will be larger than that from
EMG modules after a longer charging time. In addition, it can be
found that in 60 s the voltage of capacitor charged by hybrid
nanogenerator, EMGs and TENG reach 5.2 V, 4.1 V and 2.5 V,
respectively. It indicates that the FSHG has the best charging per-
formance than others. The charging curves of different capacitors
shown in Fig. S4 demonstrate that the device can provide a stable
voltage output for small power electrical appliances.
Furthermore, the FSHG can completely light up 200 LEDs (which
are connected in parallel) with a diameter of 5 mm (the Movie S2 in
Supporting Information) after a rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 5(c).
To demonstrate the application of the FSHG in powering portable
electrics by scavenging the mechanical energy, a digital humidity
and temperature sensor chosen for example. The digital humidity
and temperature sensor is powered by the FSHG through con-
necting a rectified circuit and a capacitor of 100 mF in Fig. 5(d) and
Movie S3 (Supporting Information). At the beginning, the capacitor
is charged and the humidity and temperature sensor does not work.
After 4 s of vibration, the switch connecting capacitor and ther-
mometer is turned on, and it can work normally. After the initial
stage, the humidity and temperature sensor can work constantly as
long as the external vibration is generated.
Supplementary video related to this article can be found at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116871
4. Conclusion
In summary, we have demonstrated a triboelectric-
electromagnetic hybridized nanogenerator for vibration energy
harvesting. The device is a sphere structure with a diameter of
120 mm. The combination of EMG and TENG can broaden the
working bandwidth of the device. EMGs are suitable for acquisition
7
of high-frequency mechanical motion, while TENG is a feasible and
effective method to harvest the low frequency mechanical motion.
The output power of TENG and EMG 1 are 18 mW and 640 mW at
optimal loading resistances of 200 MU and 1000 U with an exci-
tation frequency of 2 Hz. According to the measurement results of
different vibration frequency, the output performance of TENG and
EMG is improved with the increasing frequency. The maximal
open-circuit voltage of TENG module and EMG module are 88 V and
3.75 V with an excitation frequency of 3 Hz, respectively. Further,
the hybrid (FSHG) exhibits an excellent charging performance
compared to other individual modules. To prove its feasibility in
practical application, 200 LEDs connected in parallel can be lighted
up by the device after a rectifier circuit. The FSHG can also power a
digital humidity and temperature sensor at the vibration frequency
of 2 Hz with the assistance of a rectified circuit and a capacitor of
100 mF. The design of this new structure in this paper has great
potential application in machinal energy harvesting for human
motion, ocean energy and so on.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare no competing financial interest
Acknowledgments
The work is supported by the National Science Foundation of
China (51675493, 51605449, 51821003), China Postdoctoral Science
Foundation (2017M621111, 2018T110207), 135 pre-research fund
(61406190504) and Shanxi “1331 Project” Key Subject Construction
(1331KSC). Key research and development plan (2018YFF0300605),
National Key R&D Program of China (2019YFF0301802).
8 J. He et al. / Energy 194 (2020) 116871
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116871.
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