1.

Operating Systems & Software:

Mac vs. Windows:

○ Mac OS is generally safer than PC:

○ Mac:
○ Gatekeeper, FireVault, Xprotect
○ Initially more expensive, but has free updates
○ Built for high-res
○ Sleek and modern layout both inside & out
○ Windows:
○ Ransome protection and controlled folder access
(close to mac but not quite)
○ Can be custom built, but need to pay for updates.
○ Customizable, lacks sleek, modern layouts & look.
○ Most DAWs are compatible across platforms, except for Logic
Pro X which is only available on Mac.

2. CPU & RAM:

Central Processing Unit:

○ Most important element in terms of processing power – The Brain.

○ 2 Components of CPU:
○ ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit):
○ Performs arithmetic/logic operations
○ CU (Control Unit):
○ Gets instruction from memory, decodes & executes
them
○ Calls on ALU when needed
○ Clock Speed:
○ # of times internal clock in the CPU ticks in
cycles
○ Processor Performance: typically measured
in Gigahertz.
○ Cache (catch):
○ Small amounts of fast memory built in CPU
core.
○ Cores:
○ Each core processes info independently
○ More cores = more processing power
 ○ Hyper-threading:
○ Makes one Physical CPU act as
two on some Intel chips
○ Applications must be
multi-threaded in order to be
used.

ROM (Read Only Memory):

○ Data stored here is strictly read or displayed.

RAM (Random Access Memory):

○ Data accessed in random manner and quicker from its hard drives.
○ Live memory space to load apps and data
○ RAM Specs:
○ Type:
○ DDR2, DDR3 (240 pins), DDR4 (288 pins)
○ Motherboard links all internal components.
○ Clock Freq:
○ ex. 1600MHz
○ 1600 is the data transfer rate specified in millions
○ Transfer Rate:
○ PC3-12800 indicates a peak transfer rate of 12800
MB/s
○ Upgrading RAM:
○ Use same specs on original RAM card. (If the
motherboard supports 1333MHz modules, using
1600MGz module is useless as it is limited to
1333MHz.)
○ Upgrading Macs made in the last 5 years – upgrading
RAM and any other internal component is
risky/difficult.
○ Ideal specs for general workstation:
○ Quad Core i5 or higher, 16GB of RAM or + is a good start
○ With an SSD hard drive for OS and apps.
 ○ 2TB sec. drive for files/media
○ Macs with these specs could cost $3000
○ PC would be less, but a lot less stable.

3. HDD/SSD/PCI-E/NAS & Flash Drives:

○ SSD (Solid State Drive):

○ Uses non-volatile type of memory called NAND-based flash
memory.
○ No mechanical parts, making SSD faster than HDD, it relies on
an embedded processor called a controller to perform
reading/writing operations.
○ SSD; Pricey & fast, less storage needed.
○ HDD (Hard Drive Disks):
○ [IBM:1956] uses magnetism to store data on a rotating platter.
○ Typical drive spin: 5400, 7200 and up to 15000 RPM.
○ HDD; need lots of storage, up to 10TB, cheap, slow.
○ PCIe drive (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express):
○ Integrated directly onto motherboard.
○ Low latency and boosted data transfer rate. Either HDD or SSD
○ NAS (Network Attached Storage):
○ File-level data storage server connected to a computer network
giving access to multiple users. (Ex. RAC dropbox)
○ Flash Drive:
○ Small portable storage with no moving parts.
○ Connects via USB Type-A plug.
○ Commonly 8-64GB.
○ Ideal hard drive configuration:
○ SSD strictly for operating apps.
○ PCIe drive can be used on desktop computers.
○ 128 or 250GB is sufficient for OS & apps.
○ For files/folders or data HDD drives are used for max. storage at
low cost.

4. Raid & Disk Partitions:

RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks):

○ Way of storing on multiple drive to protect the data in the case of failure &
improve performance.
○ Fault Tolerance, the ability of systems to continue functioning when part of
the system fails.
○ RAID works by placing data on multiple drives & allowing in/output
operations to overlap, improving performance.
○ RAID Levels;
○ RAID 0: Striped
○ Better performance, no fault tolerance.
○ Each disk works independently.
○ Faster reading/writing
○ RAID 1: Mirrored
○ Fast reading (sum of all disks).
○ Same speed writing as single disk (slowest
in array).
○ Fault tolerance, data won’t be lost as a
single drive is still functioning,

○ RAID 10: Combo of RAID 0 & 1

○ Data is mirrored and the mirrors are striped.

○ Pros:
○ Performance, resilience & cost.
○ Alternate for real-time backup.
 ○ Cons:
○ RAID 5 or 10 are costly if the config. Is done
simultaneously when one drive fails another will fail
soon after.

Disk Partitions:

○ Disk partitioning is the process of creating 1 or more regions in a drive.

○ Min. of 1 partition is needed with a file system like:
○ FAT32 or OS X Extended.
○ Why Partition a Drive?
○ Best to separate data & app/operating system as their own
partition (in an error on the partition index file your computer
won’t be able to boot up off that drive, meaning no access to
those files).
○ Different file formats for different OS
○ Organization and option to protect a partition by having it only
accessible from certain users (read/write privileges)
○ Partitioning wipes the drive clean, backup first. (Disk
Utility app to partition a drive)
○ Computer file systems:
○ NTFS (Windows),HFS/HFS+ (Mac), EXT/EXT2/EXT3/EXT4
(Linux), FAT/FAT16/FAT32 (File Allocation Table), exFAT
(Extended FAT).

5. File Management & Backups:

File Management:

○ Organization is key.
○ Files transfer must be as fluid as possible.
○ Rename everything based on what it is, be specific.
 Backups:

○ Avoid Saving to desktop:

○ Files on the desktop are saved directly on the primary partition
(boot drive)
○ The file will constantly be rendered & projected, slowing
computer.
○ Unorganized, not all programs backup desktop as default,
possibility of file loss.
○ Store backup config. locally and an additional backup
in another location. Online is possible but gets
expensive with more space used.
○ RAC backups:
○ Save files first in Class HD drive, then transfer to dropbox in a
folder name (Our dropbox NAS drive) has an auto backup
scheduled for the end of every night.
○ Also save your files on a flash drive and bring them
home to save on your personal computer.

6. Boot Camp & Virtual OS:

Boot Camp:

○ Apple software assistant to install Windows OS on Intel-based Macs.

○ Process is a local installation and cannot be navigated between the 2 OS’.
○ Good for gaming if Mac specs allow it:
○ Parallel Desktop:
○ Runs simultaneously with Mac OS. App shares the
resources with Mac OS meaning navigation between
2 OS’ is possible.
○ This is not suitable for gaming and operation basic
tasks & personal use.
○ Microsoft Remote Desktop:
○ Runs with Mac OS, like a virtual OS.
○ Windows OS is installed on a network-based station.
○ Resources/performance rely on network-based
computer specs & the network bandwidth.
○ Not suitable for gaming: businesses use this when
multiple clients are sharing the same documentations.
7. Graphic Cards:

○ Graphics components control/enhance how graphics are displayed.

○ Graphics Driver:
○ Program that controls how your graphic components
works with the rest of your computer (software &
monitor display)
○ How do graphics cards work?
○ By creating images out of binary data.
○ Relies on 4 components:
1. Motherboard connection for data/ power.
2. Processor to decide what to do with each pixel.
3. Memory to hold info about each pixel/ temp. store completed pictures.
4. Monitor connection to display result.
○ How to choose a graphics card?
1. Gaming:
○ stable FPS(frames/s) for high-res gaming.
2. Video Editing – most stable performance:
○ GPU isn’t as important unless using Davinci Resolve.
3. Basic operations:
○ If watching Netflix, a basic 1GB graphics cards will do.
○ Playing video games or setting up multiple monitors, a 2GB card of
memory or higher is recommended.

8. Sound Cards & Interface:

○ A sound card is an audio interface.

○ It’s a bridge between transferring a mic signal to a computer.
○ Also control all signal in & out of our computer AKA inputs/outputs or I/O.
○ Many factor come into play when recording that degrade audio
quality:
1. Electromagnetic & radio interference
2. Jitter (slight movement or unsteadiness in an electrical signal or electronic
device)
3. Latency:
1. An audio interface will take care of these problems.
2. High end interfaces have better signal-noise ratios and better
jitter & latency specs.
9. Factory Reset & Creating a Boot Drive:

○ Reinstalling OS
○ If a computer has too many bugs, glitches or planning to sell, wiping the
computer and starting fresh is the way to go.
○ Always create backup first and disable all accounts linked to your
computer if you plan on selling.
○ Boot disk/USB (installer USB) required.
○ Creating one in Mac isn’t complex but can be dangerous.
○ Windows requires one as well.
○ After creating USB installer, restart computer and boot from the
USB holding down option key in Mac.
○ Open Disk Utility after OS installer is launched, and erase all
hard drive content and rename Macintosh HD (This is when you
should make partitions).
○ Go to main window and click install OS.

10. System Maintenance:

○ Importance of running system maintenance tools:

1. Detect issues before they become problems.
2. Prevent viruses/malware.
3. Speed up computer.
4. Maximize software efficiency:
1. Disk defragment (Win) / Disk warrior (Mac)
2. CleanUp (Win) / Mac Clean 3 (Mac)
3. TechTool (3rd party)
4. Repairing disk & permissions (Disk Utility)

—--------------------------------------------

1. Studio Role & Layout:

○ Studio types include:

○ Professional Installations:
○ Recording Studio
○ Mixing Studio
 ○ Mastering Studio
○ Broadcast Studio
○ Home Based Installations:
○ Home Recording Studio
○ Home Mixing & Mastering Studio
○ A recording studio is a specialized facility for sound recording, mixing and
audio productions.
○ Professional Recording Studio Layout:
○ Live Room
○ Iso Booth
○ Control Room
○ Machine room
○ Portable & Stationary Setups
○ Portable Setup: The ability to transport a recording setup to any
given location. A typical small setup contains: laptop, audio
interface, headphones and a few microphones. Easy to
dismantle and re-configure under a short time span.
○ Stationary Setup: A dedicated facility, fully configured within a
given environment.

2. Workstation:

○ A workstation is the combination of all elements within the studio. This

includes:
○ Computer
○ Audio Interface
○ MIDI Controllers
○ Samplers
○ Processors (Compressors, EQ, Effects)
○ Speakers
○ Accessories
○ Computer and Software Components include:
○ CPU
○ OS
○ RAM
○ Storage Device (HDD, SSD, etc)
○ Sound Card
○ Graphics Card
○ DAW
○ Portable & Stationary
 ○ Portable: Being able to travel lightly with minimal equipment;
laptop.
○ Stationary: Settled within a given environment with an elaborate
setup; desktop.

3. Sound Card & Audio Interface:

○ An audio interface is a device that converts an analog sound captured by a

microphone into a digital code for a computer to process. An audio
interface will also control all signals that flow into and out of a computer,
know as Inputs and Outputs (I/O).
○ General Specifications
○ Device Compatibility & Operating System compatibility
○ Host Connectivity: USB, Thunderbolt, DIGILink, Firewire,
Lightning.
○ Inputs and Outputs
○ Microphone Preamps (transparency, coloration)
○ Latency: Delay between when an audio signal enters and is
played back from a system.
○ Connectivity: Additional connections: MIDI, ADAT, S/PDIF,
Dante.
○ Conversion: The conversion from analog to digital and vice
versa.

4. Converter:

○ An audio converter is a device or software that converts an audio signal

from one format to another.
○ Hardware converters include analog to uncompressed digital converters
(ADC) and their counterparts, digital to analog converters (DAC).
○ An ADC takes samples from the analog signal being registered and
convert the samples into a number based on voltage level. The frequency
at which these samples are taken is called the “sampling rate”.
○ When connecting an audio interface with a converter one must keep in
mind:
○ The Master/Slave relationship
○ How they are being synced
5. DSP & Plugins :

○ A digital signal processor is a specialized microprocessor optimized for

digital signal processing.
○ Many musicians, producers and engineers will use external DSP to ensure
their workstations function with the lowest possible latency. Offloading
plugin processing from your computer’s CPU to a dedicated DSP will help
maintain stability and optimal performance.

6. Outboard Gear:

○ To process audio consider investing in:

○ Compressors
○ Preamps
○ EQs
○ 500 series modules
○ Effects (Reverb & Delay)
○ Consider how outboard gear is connected to the workstation.

7. Patch-bay & Snake (Interconnections):

○ A patch-bay is a hardware device that features inputs and outputs for

analog audio gear. It allows one to patch/route the output of one unit into
the input of another unit with the use of a single cable.
○ Most common patchbays feature 48 patch points and the following
connection types:
○ ¼” TRS, RCA, XLR, TS, Bantam or Tiny Telephone (TT).
○ A Snake Cable is a group of several audio cables contained within a single
outer casing.
○ The types of Snake Cables are:
○ Fanout/Breakout: Splits the snake into single connectors of
either XLR (M or F), TRS or TS.
○ Junction Box: A box with multiple inputs for individual
connections.
○ Dsub Connector: Combines every channel into a single
connector.

8. Controllers & Samplers & Push Buttons:

 ○ Analog vs Digital Samplers:
○ Analog: Unique sounds that aren’t commonly used by the
majority of producers.
○ Digital: Endless patches and configuration.
○ When using digital hardware always consider:
○ Drivers
○ Software
○ Synchronization

9. Outlets & Power Distribution (Power Conditioner):

○ Electrical signal can fluctuate randomly, producing noise (typically

static/crackling in the background of audio). Because of this, studios will
invest in getting a separate ground wire installed in the facility to isolate
themselves from other building users or appliances. These plugs are
differentiated by their orange coloured faceplate. The outlets are then
connected to a dedicated breaker.
○ Breakers are automatic switches to protect circuits from excess current.
They are designed to trip once the current exceeds their limit, cutting off
power immediately to avoid any danger or damage.
○ Residential Breakers: 15 or 20 amps are most common
○ Industrial Breakers: 220 amps common for live productions
○ Power conditioners are devices intended to improve the quality of power
delivered to electrical load equipment. A power conditioner works to
smooth the sinusoidal A.C. waveform and maintain a constant voltage
over varying loads.

10. Studio Furniture & Accessories:

○ Investing in studio furniture can help speed up workflow and make space
more ergonomically efficient.
○ Furniture to consider includes:
○ Desks: Studio desks come in many forms for specific tasks such
as;
○ Mixing: Typically designed to host a console, external
hardware (19” width), rails and studio monitors.
○ Mastering: Typically smaller desks for arm reach.
Mainly dual mount rails for hosting external hardware
such as EQ, compressors and limiters.
 ○ Production: Will often offer space for placing a MIDI
controller as well as speakers.
○ Lights: Having a well lit studio as well as portable light stands or
clip mountable lights for music stands is beneficial in the studio.
○ Racks: Dedicated space for external processors. Come in sizes
such as 2U, 4U, 8U, etc.
○ Road Cases: Typical in the live industry, useful for storing
processors, consoles, speakers, etc.
○ Monitor Stands: Required to optimize acoustic properties of a
studio
○ Other accessories include mic stands, chairs, pop filters,
adapters, monitors, speakers, headphones and acoustic
treatment.

—------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. The Atom:

○ The atom is a basic unit of matter. It is the smallest unit of an element that
displays that element’s properties.
○ An atom consists of:
○ Proton: Positively charged particle in the nucleus
○ Neutron: Uncharged particle in the nucleus
○ Nucleus: Contains the bound protons and neutrons
○ Electron: Negatively charged particle surrounding the nucleus in
an electron cloud
○ Atoms have no net charge. When an atom gains or loses an electron it
becomes an ion.
○ Positive ion: An atom that has lost an electron(s)
○ Negative ion: An atom that has gained an electron(s)
○ The Periodic Table lists all known elements as well as their:
○ Atomic Number: The number of protons (& electrons when no
net charge)
○ Elemental Symbol
○ Atomic Weight: Roughly the sum of number of protons &
neutrons
○ A Valence Electron is an electron in the outermost shell of an atom. These
electrons are capable of being transferred from one atom to another,
creating ions.
 ○ An electric charge can be either positive (+) or negative (-).
○ Opposite charges (+&-) attract while like charges (+&+ or -&-) repel.
○ Electrons flow from a place with a higher net negative (-) charge to a place
with a lower net negative (-) charge.
○ Electrons flow only in conductive materials.
○ Electric charge is measured in Coulombs (C).1
○ 1 Coulomb (C) = 6.24 x 10^18 electrons

3. Conductivity:

○ Different types of materials conduct the flow of electric charge differently.

They are classified as:
○ Conductors: Allow the flow of electric charge
○ Insulators: Resist the flow of electric charge
○ Semiconductors: Have properties of both conductors and
insulators
○ Examples of each type of material include:
○ Conductors: Copper, Silver, Gold, Aluminum
○ Insulators: Air, Cloth, Rubber, Plastic
○ Semiconductors: Silicon, Germanium
○ Copper, silver and gold are all elements in the same column on the
periodic tables and therefore have very similar properties, being malleable,
good conductors of heat and electricity.

6. Ground:

○ A Ground is, theoretically, a 0V reference with no resistance. It is vital to

ground correctly.
○ Ground loop hum can occur when there are multiple paths to ground within
the same electrical network. It is heard as a 60Hz hum. Ground lifts can be
implemented to remove a ground loop but it is important to never
physically cut the ground connection.

4. Electricity Variables:

○ Key variables in understanding electrical flow are Current (I), Voltage (V)
and Resistance (R).
○ Current (I):
 ○ The rate of charge flow passing through an area
○ Measured in Coulombs/second or Amps (A)
○ Directionality of flow is depicted with an arrow
○ Either + or _
○ Causes heat
○ Either AC (Alternating Current) or DC (Direct Current)
○ Voltage (V):
○ The potential difference between two points that indicates the
amount of energy in Joules (J) required to move charge from
one point to another
○ Described as either + or - to define the voltage across an
element
○ Measured in Joules/Coulomb or Volts
○ Resistance (R):
○ The measure of the difficulty of passing an electric current
through a conductor
○ Measured in Ohms (Ω)
○ Defined as Volts/Amp

3. Electromagnetism:

○ Magnetic Field flows from North to South.

○ Magnetic Flux is defined as the magnetic field passing through a surface.
○ The direction of an electric current can be determined by using the Right
Hand Rule

4. Induction:

○ When a conductor is exposed to a varying magnetic field, a voltage is

induced in the conductor.1
○ A magnetic field is produced in a primary circuit by sending current
through a solenoid.2
○ Tape Machines transform electrical signal into readable magnetic
information this way.
○ Iron oxide powder within the tape acts as tiny magnets. Their polarity is
random before recording and become polarized by the record head. When
pulled through the read head, the magnetic output is converted to AC
voltage.

6. Microphones:
 ○ Microphones are transducers. This means they are devices that convert
one type of energy into another.
○ Specifically, a microphone is an electro-acoustic transducer, it converts an
acoustic signal into an electric signal (pressure into voltage).
○ Dynamic and ribbon microphones function under the electromagnetic
principle while condenser microphones function under the electrostatic
principle.

7. Guitar Pickups:

○ Instrument pickups are also transducers. They convert mechanical

vibrations into electrical signals.
○ Different types of pickups include:
○ Single Coil Pickups: Composed of one coil which reacts to
changes in the magnetic field caused by the vibrations of
strings. Metal bars then induce current in the coil.
○ Humbucker (Double Coil: Composed of two oppositely polarized
coils. Functions in a similar way to single coil but eliminates
noise by using a balanced signal.
○ Active Pickups3: A single coil pickup with far fewer windings, it
decreases electromagnetic interference, then amplifies the
signal using battery power. This means there is very little noise
in the signal but also reduces dynamic range.
○ Piezoelectric Pickups: Capture mechanical vibrations on a solid
base. They are typically used on nylon-stringed guitars and
made out of ceramic.

8. Speakers:

○ A speaker functionally operates opposite to a microphone. It is a

transducer that converts an electrical signal into an acoustic one (voltage
into air pressure).
○ A speaker’s main components are:
○ Magnet
○ Mobile Coil
○ Dust Cap
○ Diaphragm
2. Resistor Colour Code:

○ Along with the colour bands indicating digits, the last band (either gold or
silver) indicates the tolerance.
○ Gold - +/-5%
○ Silver - +/- 10%

3. Impedance & Calculations:

○ Impedance is the term for resistance within an alternating circuit.

○ Measured in Ohms (Ω) and represented by symbol Z
○ Main types of impedance are Source Impedance (Zs) and Load
Impedance (ZL).

4. Transformers:

○ A Transformer is defined as two inductors (coils) sharing a core.

○ By varying the current in the primary coil, the magnetic field in
the core is also varied. This causes the magnetic field in the
secondary coil to change and results in a voltage change.
○ A transformer can be used to isolate two circuits electrically, while still
being able to induce a current from one to the other as well as to increase
or decrease voltage.
○ The ratio of the windings of the primary coil to the secondary coil affects
the voltage ratio.
○ If the number of windings of the primary coil is larger than that in the
secondary coil, the voltage decreases. This is called a Step-down
transformer. Likewise, if the number is larger in the secondary coil, the
voltage increases and is called a Step-up transformer.

5. DI & Re-amp Design

○ A direct box (DI) is a device used to convert instrument level signal into a
mic level signal. Unbalanced to Balanced signal.
 ○ Types of DI’s: passive, active, preamp, re-amp.
○ Passive DI will typically use a transformer as a balun (an
electrical device that converts a balanced signal and unbalanced
signal).
○ Active DI integrates a preamplifier and required a power source
such as: internal battery, AC outlet connection or phantom
power.
○ A reamp box will bring a line level signal and convert it into a instrument
level signal.
○ Feature on a reamp box: level control and ground lift.
○ This allows an engineer to loop a DI track and experiment with
amplifiers, amp settings, cabinets, simulators and mic
placement.
○

6. Amplifier Stage

○ The purpose of a pre-amp is to raise a mic level signal to a line level

signal.
○ The process is started when the diaphragm of the microphone moves back
and forth due to air pressure; this pressure moves a magnet wired in coil,
generating an electrical signal.
○ Channel count: single (mono), dual (stereo) and multi-channel preamp.
○ Transparent refers to microphone preamps that boost your signal in a
clean way, little colouration and low noise floor.
○ Colour refers to the characteristics such as warmth, that’s present when
passing an analog signal through a tube or transformer based preamp.
Directly related to the harmonic distortion applied.
○ Modules: Desktop, 500 series and rack mount.
○ Channel strip refers to an actual channel strip of a console; which would
consist of: preamp, EQ, compressors, auxiliary, pan, output (fader) and
bus/routing.
○ Preamps feature: gain control, PAD, high pass filter, polarity flip, phantom
power.
○ Tube preamps typically use thermionic tube (vacuum tubes or valves) to
create gain.
○ Solid state preamps are based on transistors which are more efficient and
provide low heat, noise, distortion and overall transparency.
○ Op (operational) amps are fundamentally a voltage-amplifying device
designed to be used with external feedback components such as resistors
and capacitors.
○ Hybrid preamps are a combination or solid state for the input stage and
tubes on the output.
 ○ Instrument preamps are similar to a DI with the bonus gain control and
color of the unit.

7. Signal Processors Electronic Schematics

○ In the hairball site you can open the build guide for each situation of the
unit.
○ http://www.hairballaudio.com/blog/resources/build-guides/fetrack
-v2-build-and-calibration-guide
○ http://www.soundskulptor.com/uk/docs.html

8. Reverb Design (Plate & Spring)

○ Reverberation is created when sound waves from any source reflect

(interact) with surface in a room.
○ Reverb can be in the form of: spring, plate, algorithmic, convolution,
reverse, gated.
○ Spring reverb (created by The Hammond Organ Company 1960) consists
of a metal box with metal springs inside that are attached to the enclosure.
Signal is sent across a transducer that is connected to one end of the
spring, creating waves, another transduce at the other end captures this
motion.
○ Plate reverb is a larger unit, inside is a large steel plate that is under
tension supplied by springs at each corner. The springs support the plate
to the outer shell. Signal sent across a transducer creates vibration across
the steel plate; these vibrations are capture with a contact microphone.

9. Crossovers:

○ The function of a Crossover is to separate a signal into frequency ranges

in order to send them to appropriate speakers.
○ The filters in a crossover are composed of capacitors and resistors. In the
case of a high pass filter, the capacitor is placed before the resistor in the
 circuit. Likewise, in a low pass filter the resistor is placed before the
capacitor.

10. Biasing (Amplifiers & Studio Hardware)

○ Bias is a direct current made to flow between two parts for the purpose of
controlling a circuit.
○ Biasing an amplifier is the process of verifying and calibrating how strong
the power tubes are working.
○ Types of tube amp bias: self biasing/cathode bias, adjustable fixed bias,
non-adjustable fixed bias.