28.

Organisms and Population

• Ecology may be broadly defined as the study of interrelationship between living organisms and their
environment. German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1986) was the first to coin the term ecology.
• The hierarchy in the levels of organization connected with ecological grouping of organisms is called
ecological hierarchy or ecological levels of organization. Individual organisms is the basic unit of
ecological hierarchy.
• Organisms of the same kind may form several populations inhabiting different geographical areas.
Biotic community is an assemblage of populations of different species of plants, animals, bacteria and
fungi which live in a particular area and interact with one another through competition, predation,
mutualism, etc.,
• Ecosystem interacting and exchanging materials as well as energy.
• Biome is a large regional unit delimited by a specific climatic zone, having a particular major vegetation
zone and its associated fauna.
• The short term properties of atmosphere at a given place and time with respect to conditions such as
heat, cold, sunshine, rain, cloud, wind, etc., is called weather. Climate is a long term property of
atmosphere which is the same over a larger area and remains the same over a long period of time.
Microclimate refers to the climatic conditions present at local scale i.e., within an area of limited size.
• Habitat is a specific place or locality delimited by a combination of factors, physical features and
barriers where a community resides.
• Niche or ecological niche is a specific part of habitat occupied by individuals of a species which is
circumscribed by its range of tolerance, range of movement, microclimate, type of food and its
availability, shelter, type of predator and timing of activity.

Environmental factors
• Constituents of environment which directly or indirectly influence the form and functioning of organism
are known as environmental factors.

1
2ME2122B(NRP-Summary sheet)

• Environmental factors are of two types: abiotic and biotic. Biotic factors include living organisms i.e.,
plants, animals and microorganisms. Abiotic factors are non-living factor,. substances and conditions of
the environment which influence survival, form, function, behaviour and reproduction in organisms.

Four major abiotic factors are light, temperature, water and soil.
(A) Light
• Light is an important ecological factor as it affects different physiological processes of plants. (e.g.,
photosynthesis, transpiration, movements, flowering, seed germination, etc.,) and different processes of
animals (e.g., pigmentation, reproductive activities, metabolism, locomotion, circadian rhythms, etc.).
• Light zonation in oceans: Littoral zone is shallow coastal region. Light is able to pass through shallow
water and reach the bottom. Limnetic zone is open water zone where water is very deep. Limnetic zone
has three parts – photic, aphotic and benthic.

(B) Temperature
• In plants, temperature affects various processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, reproduction and
flowering, mineral and water absorption, growth and development, etc. Similarly, in animals,
temperature affects metabolic activities, distribution, sex ratio, colouration, growth and development and
behaviour etc.
• Depending upon their ability to tolerate variations in surrounding temperature, organisms are of two
types, eurythermal and stenothermal. Eurythermal organisms are those organisms which can tolerate a
wide range of temperature variations, e.g., most mammals and birds. Stenothermal organisms are those
organisms which live within narrow range of temperature because of their requirement of nearly constant
temperature throughout the year, e.g., polar bear, lizards, amphibians.

(C) Water
• Plants of aquatic habitats are called hydrophytes and they have various adaptations to survive in such
environment. On the basis of moisture availability, terrestrial plants have been categorised into
different types such as mesophytes (moderate water availability), xerophytes (dry habitats with minimal
water availability), etc. Clarity of water, salt content, depth of water and water currents, etc. determine
the growth and distribution of plants and animals.
• For aquatic organisms the quality (chemical composition, pH) of water is important. Some organisms are
tolerant to a wide range of salinities, the salt concentration measured as salinity in parts per thousand is
less than 5 in inland water and 30-35 in the sea. (euryhaline, e.g., salmon) but others are restricted to a
narrow range of salinities (stenohaline, e.g., shark). Many freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea
water and vice versa because of the osmotic problems they would face.

(D) Soil
• Soil is a very important ecological factor as it provides water, mineral nutrients and support to plants.
• halophytes (plants growing in saline soil), lithophytes (plants growing on rocks).
• Soil is the upper weathered layer of earth’s crust. Approximate composition of soil is, mineral particles
about 40%, organic matter or humus about 10%, soil air 25%, soil water 25%, soil microflora and fauna
(variable). Mineral particles are the chief components of soil complex and are formed by weathering of
rocks.

2
 2ME2122B(NRP-Summary sheet)

Responses to abiotic factors

• A process by which the organism keeps the internal environment constant despite drastic changes in
external conditions is called homeostasis. Living organisms cope with stressful conditions by various
methods:

(i) Regulate: Some organisms are able to maintain a constant body temperature and constant osmotic
concentration despite changes in the external environment. They are called as regulators, e.g., birds,
mammals,’ few invertebrates and lower vertebrates.
(ii) Conform: Animals and plants which cannot maintain thermal and osmotic balance with
environment are called conformers. About 99% of animals and nearly all plants belong to the
category of conformers. Some species are partial regulators. They have the ability to regulate body
functions to a limited extent. Beyond that limit they become conformers.
(iii) Migrate: The organisms can migrate temporarily from the unfavourable habitat to more favourable
area and return when unfavourable period is over.
(iv) Suspend: Some organisms avoid unfavourable environment by escaping in time, e.g., polar bears
undergo hibernation (winter sleep), some snails and fish undergo aestivation (summer sleep) and
many zooplanktons enter diapause (a stage of suspended development).

Adaptations
• Adaptation is any attribute of the organism (morphological, physiological, behavioural) that enables it to
survive and reproduce in its habitat.
• Plants that have adapted to bright sunlight are called sun plants or heliophytes while those growing in
partial shade or low intensity light are called shade plants or sciophytes. Xerophytes show adaptation
to dry habitats and high temperature conditions. These are of four types — ephemerals (drought
escapers), annuals (drought evaders), succulents (drought resistants) and non-succulent perennials
(drought endurers). Succulents have fleshy organs to store large amounts of water. Plants like Opuntia,
Euphorbia, Asparagus have fleshy stems which are green and photosynthetic. Succulents possess very
thick cuticle and sunken stomata which open during night only.
• Hydrophytes are covered with mucilage which protects them from epiphytes, pathogens and animals. It
also functions as lubricant. Hydrophytes possess special air storage parenchyma called aerenchyma. It
makes their different parts light, spongy and flexible. Plants adapted to saline habitats are referred to as
halophytes, which possess the ability to tolerate high salt concentrations of soil as well as fulfill their
water requirements. Many halophytes excrete salts with the help of salt secreting glands present over
their leaves.

3
2ME2122B(NRP-Summary sheet)

• In animals, most adaptations against environmental changes and stress conditions are physiological and
behavioural Camouflage (cryptic appearance) is the ability to blend with the surroundings or
background, by which animals remain unnoticed from prey or predato e.g., many insects, reptiles and
mammals. Mimicry is resemblance of one species with another in order to obtain advantage, especially
against predation. The species which is imitated is called model while the animal which imitates is
known as mimic or mimetic. Animals found in arid or desert areas, show two types of adaptations –
reducing water loss and ability to tolerate arid conditions. Kangaroo desert rat seldom drinks water
and possesses a thick coat to minimise evaporative desiccation. 90% of its water requirement is met from
metabolic water while 10% is got from food. Loss of water is minimised by producing nearly solid urine
and faeces. Some organisms show behavioural adaptations to cope with variations in their environment
e.g., desert lizards.
• Gloger’s rule: Some insects, birds and mammals in warm humid climates bear darker pigment than the
races of same species present in cool and dry climates. Bergmann’s rule Temperature also affects the
absolute size of an animal and the relative proportions of various body parts. Allen’s rule: The tail,
snout, ears and legs of mammals are relatively shorter in colder areas than in the warmer areas.

Populations
• The basic characteristic of a population is its size or density, which is affected by four primary
population parameters such as natality (birth-rate, B), mortality (death-rate, D), immigration (I) and
emigration (E). Therefore, if N is the population density at time t, then its density at time Nt + 1 is Nt +
(B + I) – (D + E). Population density is defined as numbers of individuals of a species per unit area or
per unit volume at a given time.
• In most types of populations, individuals are of different age and the proportion of individuals in each
age group is called age structure or age distribution of the population which influences natality (birth
rate) and mortajity (death rate). There are three major functional or ecological ages (age groups) in any
population: pre-reproductive (juvenile or dependent phase), reproductive (adult phase) and post
reproductive (old age). Age pyramid is a graphic representation of abundance of individuals of
different age groups with pre-reproductive at the base, reproductive in the middle and post-reproductive
at the top. The three types of age pyramids are
(i) Triangular age pyramid (represents young or rapidly growing population).
(ii) Bell-shaped age pyramid (represents stable or stationary population where growth rate is
nearly zero).
(iii) Urn-shaped age pyramid (represents declining or diminishing population).
• Populations have characteristic pattern of increase which are called population growth forms. Such
growth forms represent the interaction of biotic potential and environmental resistance. There are two
main types of population growth forms – i-shaped form (exponential growth) and S-shaped or sigmoid
(logistic) growth form.
• In J-shaped curve there is a rapid increase in density with the passage of time called exponential
growth. The density values when plotted against time give a i-shaped growth curve and at the peak the
population growth ceases abruptly due to environmental resistance. The following equation describes the
exponential or geometric growth pattern of a population which results in a i-shaped growth curve
dN/dt = rN

4
 2ME2122B(NRP-Summary sheet)

Where, r = intrinsic rate of natural increase and N = population density.

• The population growth curve in human populations and growth of yeast, Drosophila and rabbit under
laboratory conditions show an initial slow rate and then it accelerates and finally slows giving the growth
curve which is sigmoid or S-shape. The peak constant level
dN
represented by K or upper level (asymptote) of the sigmoid K
= rN
a dt
curve is called the maximum carrying capacity which marks

density (N)
Population
the limit to which the environment can support the population. dN K−N
b dt = rN  K 
S-shaped growth curve can be described by following logistic  
equation:
dN K−N Time (t)
= rN   Fig.: Population growth curve
dt  K  (a) represents exponential growth and
(b) represents logistic growth.
Where r = intrinsic rate of natural increase, N = population
density and K = carrying capacity.

Population interactions

• Mutualism is the mutual beneficial relationship between individuals of two different species where none
are capable of living separately. The association is obligatory i.e., necessary for existence of both. The
symbiotic relationship may be for food, shelter substratum or transport. Examples: (i) Lichens (a matrix
formed by a fungus within which cells of alga are embedded). The alga depends upon the fungus for
water minerals and protection and fungus receives carbohydrates prepared by the alga. (ii) Mycorrhiza
(it is an association between roots of higher plants and fungal hyphae).
• In commensalism, one might get the benefit from the association while the other is neither benefitted
nor harmed. Examples: Many epiphytes, e.g., orchids, bromeliads, etc., are found growing on the
branches and in the forks of trees.
• In amensalism, one organism inhibits the effect of the other. The inhibiting organism does not gain
much benefit. This inhibition is done by secreting allochemics. Fungi produce different kinds of
antibiotic substances such as penicillin to destroy the pathogenic bacteria. The process of preventing
growth of other organisms through secretion of toxic chemicals is called allelopathy.
• Parasitism is a relationship between two living organisms of different species in which one organism
called parasite, obtains its food directly from another living organism called host. The parasite is usually
smaller as compared to its host. It spends a part or whole of its life on or in the body of the host. For this
parasites have evolved special adaptations such as the loss of unnecessary sense organs, presence of

5
2ME2122B(NRP-Summary sheet)

adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to the host, loss of digestive system and high reproductive
capacity.
• Brood parasitism in birds is a fascinating example of parasitism in which the parasitic bird lays its eggs
in the nest of its host and lets the host incubate them.
• Competition may be defined as the active demand by two or more individuals of the same species or
members of two or more species at the same trophic level for a common resource, thereby contributing
to the density and diversity of a population. It is of two types — intraspecific and interspecific.
• Predation differs from parasitism in the sense that the parasite that lives on or in its host derives
nourishment without usually killing it while the predator kills and devours it prey. The typical predator
is a free living organism that catches, kills and devours individuals of other species called prey. Prey
species have evolved various defenses to lessen the impact of predation. For plants, herbivores are the
predators. A wide variety of chemical substances that we extract from plants on a commercial scale
(nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium, etc.) are produced by them actually as defences against
grazers and browsers.

***