LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

CHAPTER - 09
ORGANISM AND POPULATION

Ecology : is the branch of biology that deals with the study of interaction among organisms between
the organisms and its physical environment. Also called environmental biology.
♦ Branches of Ecology
1. Autecology / Population Ecology - The study of individual organism in relation to its environment.
2. Synecology / Community Ecology - The study of group of various type of organism in relation to
their environment.
3. Physiological Ecology - It tries to understand how different organisms are adapted to their
environments in terms of not only survival but also reproduction.
4. Applied Ecology - Studies related to agriculture management forest conservation, wild life
management, soil erosion etc.
Prof. Ramdeo Misra : Father of Ecology in India
Ernst Haeckel : First correctly defined ecology as the science dealing with reciprocal relationship
of organisms and the external world.
 Reiter (1868) : Term ecology was first used.
E.P Odum : Father of ecosystem ecology. He defined it as the “Study of structure and function of
nature”.
Sir Arthur Tansley : Coined the term Ecosystem.
Levels of Biological Organisation
Biological organisation starts at macromolecular level. It ranges from Macromolecules → Cell →
Tissue → Organ → Organsystem → Organism → Population → Biotic community → Ecosystem
→ Biome → Biosphere.
Levels of Organisation in Ecology
Ecology is basically concerned with four levels of biological organisation, organisms, populations,
communities and biomes.
1. Organism
Living Component of the environment at individual level is called organism. Similar organisms having
the potential for interbreeding and producing fertile offspring constitute the species.
Ecology at the organismic level is physiological ecology which revels how different organisms are

1
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

adopted to their environment. The organism is the smallest level of ecological hierarchy.
2. Population
Population is a group of individuals of the same species living together in a common area at
a particular time. For example, all individuals of elephants in an area constitute its population.
3. Community
An assemblage of populations of plants, animal, bacteria and fungi that live in a given area and
interact with one another, is called a community.
4. Ecosystem
The community together with its physical environment forms an interacting system called
ecosystem. A pond, a lake and a forest are a few examples of natural ecosystems.
5. Biome
A biome is a large regional unit characterised by a major vegetation type and associated fauna
found in specific climatic zone. Some examples are desert, tropical rain forest, grass land, tundra etc.
6. Biosphere
All the ecosystems of the world together form a biosphere. Biosphere includes (i) Hydrosphere,
(ii) Lithosphere and (iii) Atmosphere
ORGANISMS AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
 Environment is referred to as the sum total of all the physical and biotic conditions which influence
the organism in terms of survival and reproduction.
 Different seasons result due to
(i) rotation of earth around the sun
(ii) tilting of the earth in its axis
 The major biomes of the world include desert, grassland, rain forest and tundra.
 Formation of different biomes is due to
(i) annual variations in intensity and duration of temperature
(ii) annual variations in precipitation
 The above annual variations together with annual variation in precipitation (remember precipitation
include both rain and snow) thus form major biomes.
 Regional and local variations within each biome lead to the formation of different habitats.
 On earth life exists not just in a few favourable habitats but even in extreme and harsh habitats.

2
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

Major biomes of India

1. Tropical Rain forest
2. Deciduous forest
3. Desert
4. Seacoast
Habitat and Ecological Niche
The specific locality where an organism lives is called its habitat. It refers to relatively large area.
Regional and local variations within each biome lead to the formation of different habitats.
Examples of different habitats.
1. Scorching Rajasthan Desert
2. Rain soaked Meghalaya Forest
3. Deep ocean trenches
4. Torrential Streams
5. Permafrost polar regions
6. High mountain tops

3
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

7. Boiling thermal springs

8. Stinking compost pits
9. Human intestine
Components of a habitat
A habitat includes biotic components (organisms) and abiotic components (physico-chemical
component)
Biotic components of a habitat
1. Producers
2. Pathogens
3. Parasites
4. Predators
5. Competitors
Abiotic components of a habitat
1. Temperature
2. Water
3. Light
4. Soil
Over a period of time through natural selection the organisms evolved adaptations to optimise its
survival and reproduction in its habitat.
Characteristics of Habitat
1. It provide most favourable condition for an organism
2. Optimum food supply
3. Maximum shelter and protection
4. Minimum Environmental stress
Niche
Each species of a community lives in a very specific part of a habitat and carryout certain functions.
The habitat together with functional role, range of tolerance and the resource it ulilises form the niche
of the species.
Habitat can have number of niches
Niche have only one species
Habitat is address on an organism
Niche is profession of an organism
Niche overlap :
Niche overlap means that two or more species sharing the resource present in a particular

4
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

Niche.
Major Abiotic Factors

1. Temperature
The measurement of the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance is called temperature.
It is the most ecologically relevant environmental factor
It is observed that seasonally, the average temperature on land varies
The temperature decreases progressively from the equator to the poles and from plains to
the mountain top
The range of temperature varies from subzero levels in polar areas to >50 oC at high
altitude in tropical deserts in summer.
Significance of temperature to living organisms
1. Geographical distribution
Temperature governs the geographical distribution of majority of plants and animals. eg.
Mango trees do not and cannot grow in temperate countries like Canada and Germany, snow
leopards are not found in Kerala forests, tuna fish rarely occurs beyond tropical latitudes in the
ocean, etc.
2. Metabolism
Temperature affects the kinetics of enzymes. Thus, through enzymes it affects the basal
metabolism, activity and other physiological functions of the organism
3. Thermal tolerance
The geographical distribution of different species is determined by the various levels of
thermal tolerance.
Depending upon the thermal tolerance, the organisms are of 2 types - eurythermal
organism and stenothermal organism.

5
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Eurythermal Stenothermal

A few organisms can tolerate and
thrive in a wide range of
temperatures. They are called as
eurythermal. Such organisms can
tolerate large changes in
temperature. Eg. Man. Most birds,
mammals
Such organisms live in areas where
the temperature is uniform through
out the year, which can tolerate
only narrow rang eof temperatures,
is called stenothermal. Eg. Corals,
snails, some fishes, snakes, palms,
amphibians, lizard, coconut etc.

Based on thermoregulation and Homeostasis

Endotherms Ectotherms

Also knonw as Homeotherms or Also known as poikilotherms / or

warm blooded organisms. These
organisms can regulate their body
temperature, which remains
constant irrespective of
surrounding.
cold blooded organisms. These
organisms cannot regulate their
body temperature, which changes
with surrounding.(ie Homeostasis is
absent)

2. Water
It is the next important factor as life is unsustainable without water.
 The amount of water in an environment determines the productivity and distribution of
plants
For aquatic habitat, the quality of water becomes important like pH value, salinity and
temperature of water.
Salinity - tolerant organisms are of two types - euryhaline and stenohaline
Euryhaline
Organisms which can tolerate wide ranges in salinity, are called euryhaline (eury = wide,
haline = saline). eg. migratory fish like Hilsa and Salmon
Stenohaline
Organisms which can live within a narrow range of salinity, are called stenohaline (steno =
narrow, haline = saline). Most organisms are stenohaline.
The aquatic organisms living in oceans, lakes and rivers face many water-related problems.
The important problem is quality of water (chemical composition and pH)
The salt concentration of water is measured as salinity in parts per thousand (ppt)

6
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

Type of water Salt concentration

1. Inland water less than 5% (<5% or 5 ppt)

2. Sea water 30 - 35% (30-35 ppt)

3. Hypersaline lagoon more than 100% (>100% or 100ppt)

A fresh water organism cannot live for long in sea water or a marine organism in fresh water
because of osmotic problems.
3. Light (PAR - 400 - 700 nm)
Importance of light for plants
Light is important because autotrophs make food with the help of light (photosynthesis)
and O2 is evolved during this process.
The small plants like herbs and shrubs (sciophytes) can perform photosynthesis under
very low light conditions as they are overshadowed by tall trees (heliophytes).
The plants depend on sunlight to meet their photoperiodic requirement for flowering
For many animals, light is important in that use the diurnal and seasonal variations in lights
intensity and duration (photoperiod) as cues for timing their foraging, reproductive and
migratory activities.
Sun is the source of both light and temperature. So, the availability of light on land is
closely linked with that of temperature. But, in deep oceans (ie, >500m) the environment is
perpetually dark and its inhabitants are even not aware of the existence of a celestial
source of energy (sun).
The UV component of the spectrum is harmful to many organisms.

Category Wavelength Effect

UV - C 100 - 280 nm Lethal

UV - B 280 - 320 nm Harmful

UV - A 320 - 400 nm Least effect

In ocean red, brown and green algae are distributed at different depths depend on wavelength
difference. Red algae is likely to be found in the deepest waters. It is known as chromatic
adaptation.

7
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Light Zonation of Lakes

(Depending upon the penetration of light)

A. Littoral Zone :
Shallow water zone around edge of lake which supports rooted vegetation. Exposed to
wave action and is highly productive.
B. Limnetic Zone
Open water zone beyond littoral zone light penetrate up to 20 - 40 m deep into water.
It is characterized by of luxury growth of phytoplankton
C. Profoundal Zone ro Aphotic Zone : (Below 500m)
dark zone where light does not reach.
Photosynthesis is absent
Source of energy chemosynthesis, hydrothermal or geothermal, organic and inorganic
matter from the top.
The organisms in deep sea areas are either blind or bioluminescent
Benthic Zone :
Bottom of lake and pond where sediments accumulate. The type of sediments that determine
the category of thriving organisms.

8
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

eg. Barnacles, Musseles, Sea stars, Corals

4. Soil - Study of soil - Pedology
The nature and properties of soil varies with different places.
The nature and properties of soil depend on the climate and weathering process.
The soil composition, grain size and aggregation determine the percolation and water
holding capacity of the soil
The vegetation determines the type of animals that can be supported
The nature of sediments determines the type of benthic animals (bottom dwellers) in the
aquatic environment.
Soil Composition
Mineral particles - 40%
Organic matter - 10%
Air - 25%
Water - 25%
Response to Abiotic Factors
Homeostasis
The process by which organisms maintain relatively constant internal environment under
varying external conditions, is called homeostasis.
For example suppose a person works best at 25oC and wishes to maintain it so. He can get
this temperatures at home or in the car while travelling or at work place by using air
conditioner in summer and heater in winter. Here, the person’s homeostasis is maintained not
through physiological, but artificial means. All organisms are not able to spend more energy to
maintain homeostasis.
Different methods to cope with stressful Abiotic conditions
Different types of living organisms meet different stressful abiotic conditions through various
methods. They are (i) regulate (ii) conform (iii) migrate and (iv) suspend.
(i) Regulates
Regulates are the organisms which maintain their homeostasis by physiological or
behavioural means to ensure constant body temperature (thermo regulation) and
osmotic concentration (osmoregulation) irrespective of fluctuation in the external
environment.
Example : All birds, mammals and a few lower vertebrate and invertebrate species.
Animals having a regulated body temperature are called endotherms (warm-blooded
animals)
The success of mammals is largely due to their ability to maintain a constant body

9
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

temperature
Our constant body temperature is maintained at 37 oC
In summers, when outside temperature is more than our body temperature, we sweat
profusely and the resulting evaporative cooling brings down the body temperature
In winters when temperature is lower we shiver a kind of exercise that produces heat and
raises the body temperatures.
Plants do not have such mechanisms to maintain internal temperature.
(ii) Conform
Conformers : These are the organisms which cannot maintain a constant internal
environment.
Example: Majority of animals (about 99%) and nearly all plants. These organisms change their
body temperature with the temperature of the environment in which they live. Such organisms
are called ectotherms, poikilotherms or cold-blooded animals, eg. most invertebrates, fishes,
amphibians (frog), reptiles (snake), and plants.
Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for many organisms, particularly to small
animals like shrews and humming birds.
Heat loss or heat gain depends upon the surface area. The smaller animals have a larger
surface area relative to their volume. They tend to lose body heat quickly if it is cold
outside. They have to expend much energy to generate body heat through metabolism.
This is the main reason that very small animals are rarely found in polar regions.
Some organisms are intermediate between conformers and regulators. During the course
of evolution, these organisms have evolved to maintain homeostasis upto a certain limit
beyond which they behave like conformers. Such organisms are called partial regulators
or limited regulators. eg. some aquatic vertebrates.
The stressful external conditions may not be permanent. If the organisms are faced with
stressful external conditions for short duration, they have two other options, migrate or
suspend activities.
(iii) Migrate [Escape in place]
Migration is the process of temporary movement of organism from the stressful habitat
to a more hospitable area and return when stressful period is over.
For example, a person who moves from Delhi to Shimla during the summer months.
During winter, many birds undertake long-distance migrations to more hospitable areas. The
famous Keolado National Park at Bharatpur in Rajasthan hosts thousands of migratory
birds coming from Siberia and other extremely cold northern regions during every winter.

10
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

Suspend stage (Escape in time)

Organism which are unable to migrate, can suspend their activities during unfavourable
conditions. They are :
1. Dormancy : Physiological inactive stage
a) Hibernation : Dormancy during winter. eg. Polar bears, Reptiles
b) Aestivation : Dormancy during summer. eg. Snail, Fish, Frog
2. Diapause : Temporary arrest at development of an organism during unfavourable condition.
eg. Zooplankton, Insects
3. Spore formation. eg. Bacteria, Fungi, Lower plants
4. In higher plants seeds and some other vegetatively reproductive structures
Adaptations
Adaptation enables the organism to survive and reproduce its habitat. It may be :
a) Morphological
b) Physiological
c) Behavioural (eg. Migration, Hibernation, Aestivation)
Acclimatisation : Gradual physiological adjustment to slowly changing new environmental
condition.
1. Adaptation in Kangaroo rat
a) They are nocturnal

11
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

b) Use metabolic water obtained during oxidation fat

c) Have no sweat glands
d) Excrete concentrated urine
2. Desert Lizard (Behavioural adaptation)
Some organisms show behavioural responses to cope with the variations in their environment
Some examples are :
1. Desert lizards lack the physiological ability to deal with high temperatures of their habitat
unlike mammals. They keep their body temperature fairly constant by their behavioural
changes. They bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body temperature drops
below the comfort zone.
As their body temperature rises, they would move into shade or move inside the burrow.
2. Some animals have the capacity to burrow into the soil to hide and escape from the
above ground heat. These animals show nocturnal (active at night) behaviour.
3. Adaptation of Animals to cold
1. Mammals from colder climate have shorter ears and limbs to minimise heat loss. This is
called Allen’s rule.
2. Seals (aquatic mammals) have a thick layer of fat (blubber) below their skin that acts as an
insulator and reduces excessive loss of body heat.
3. Some freeze tolerant animals have ice-nucleating proteins. These proteins induce the
formation of ice in the extracellular spaces at low subzero temperatures. The super cooled
cells will not freeze until their temperature reach -40oC to -50oC.
4. Some freeze avoiding animals can tolerate environmental temperature below 0oC in two
ways.
a) By accumulating glycerol
b) By accumulating anti-freeze proteins in their blood
It lower the freezing point of their blood.
4. Adaptation to higher altitudes
Physiological adaptations allow the organism to respond quickly to a stressful situation. At
high altitude places (>3500m, like Rohtang Pass near Manali and Manasarovar in China
occupied Tibet) a person experiences a condition of sickness called altitude sickness.
Symptoms of altitude sickness
1. Nausea
2. Fatigue
3. Heart palpitations
Causes

12
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

In the low atmospheric pressure of high altitudes, the body does not get enough oxygen.
Cure
Gradually the person gets acclimatised and stops experiencing altitude sickness.
How did the body solve altitude sickness
The body compensates low oxygen availability by,
1. increasing red blood cell (RBC) production
2. decreasing the binding affinity of hemoglobin
3. increasing breathing rate
Due to this reason many tribes living in the high altitude of Himalayas normally have a higher
RBC count (total hemoglobin) than people living in the plains.
5. Adaptation to high temperature in Archaebacteria (Hotsprings)
In archaebacteria that live in hot springs and deep sea hydrothermal vent the optimum
temperature for metabolic reactions is more than 100oC.
Such micro-organisms have minimum amount of free water in their body. They also have
heat tolerant molecules in cell wall and thermal resistant enzyme.
6. Adaptation to great depth in the Ocean
At great depths in the ocean, the pressure may be more than 100 times ; (>100) the normal
atmospheric pressure.
These organism do not posses air sacs
Some animals like Salpa, Jellfish are completely filled with water.
The biochemical adaptation includes differences in the composition of cell membrane
proteins and other biomolecules.
Many deep sea creatures have organic molecules known as piezylytes that prevent the
collapse of macromolecules present in their body.
II. POPULATIONS
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living together in a common
area at a particular time.
Examples :
1. All the commorants in a wetland
2. Rats in an abandoned dwelling
3. Teakwood trees in a forest
4. Bacteria in a culture plate
5. Lotus plants in a pond
Population Ecology

13
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

The study of population in relation with their environments is called population ecology.
Evolutionary change through natural selection take place at the population level. So, population
ecology is an important area of ecology because it links ecology to population genetics and
evolution.
POPULATION ATTRIBUTES
Each population has a definite structure. A population has certain attributes that an individual
organism does not. eg. an individual may have births and deaths, but a population has birth rates
and death rates.
A population has group attributes like birth rates and death rates, sex ratio, age distribution,
population size, etc.
a) Birth rates and death rates
In a population, birth rates and death rates refer to per capita births and per capita deaths
respectively. Hence, these rates are expressed in change in numbers (increase or decrease)
with respect to members of the population.
Examples
(i) In a pond, there were 20 lotus plants last year, and 8 new plants are added to the existing
population through reproduction. The current number of plants in the population is 28.

Number of individuals added 8

The birth rate = =
Initial size of population 20

= 0.4 Offspring/lotus plant/year

(ii) In a laboratory population of 40 fruit flies, 4 flies died during a specified time interval say a
week.

Number of individuals died 4

The death rate = Initial size of population = 40 = 0.1 individuals / fruitfly / week

b) Sex ratio
An individual has a sex eg. male sex or female sex. But, population has a sex ratio. eg.
40% of the population are males and 60% females.
c) Age distribution (age structure or age composition)
A population at any given time is composed of individuals of different ages.
There are three ecological ages
(i) Pre-reproductive, (ii) reproductive and (iii) post reproductive
(i) Pre-reproductive individuals are young individuals which will enter the reproductive age
after sometime. They are the potential source of increase of population. A high proportion of
pre-reproductive individuals occurs in growing or expanding population. Their number is
small in declining population.
(ii) Reproductive individuals are the ones which are adding new members to the population.

14
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

(iii) Post-reproductive individuals are older individuals which no longer take part in reproduction.
Age Pyramids
It is a graphic representation of properties of various age groups of a population. In an age
pyramid, the pre-reproductive group is at the base, reproductive group in the middle, and post
reproductive group at the top. For human population the age pyramids generally show age
distribution of males and females in a combined diagram.
There are three types of age pyramids - (i) triangular (ii) bell-shaped and (iii) urn-shaped.

(i) Triangular age pyramid (represents expanding population)

The population has very high proportion of pre-reproductive individuals. The reproductive
individuals are moderate. Post-reproductive individuals are proportionately fewer.
Because of the large number of pre-reproductive individuals more of them enter
reproductive phase and increase the size of population.
(ii) Bell-shaped age pyramid (represents stable population)
The pyramid is bell-like with pre-reproductive individuals being only marginally more than
the reproductive individuals. The post reproductive individuals are lesser. Population is stable
as there is no increase or decrease in its size due to growth rate being almost zero.
(iii) Urn-Shaped age Pyramid (represents declining population)
The smallest base represented by small number of pre-reproductive individuals.

15
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

A larger belly represented by larger number of reproductive individuals. A small sized tip
represents post reproductive individuals.
As there are fewer individuals in pre-reproductive age group, the population size will decline.
Such population shows negative growth.
d. Population Size (Population density, N)
Population density can be defined as “the total number of individuals present per unit area or
volume at a given time”. eg. 50 coconut trees present per hectare, 100 individuals of the
grass present per square metre, etc.

Number of individuals in a region(N)

Population density (D) = Number of unit areas in a region(S)

N
(D) =
S
Although the total number is most appropriate measure of population density, still it is difficult
to determine population density in some cases. eg. if there are 200 Parthenium (carrot
grass), plants in a forest area, but only a single huge banyan tree with a large canopy,
indicating that the population density of banyan tree is low relative to that of Parthenium
amounting under estimation of the more role of the banyan tree in that community. In such
cases, the per cent cover or biomass is a more meaningful measure of the population size.
If the population is huge and counting is impossible or very time-consuming, the total number
is not easily measured. eg. a dense laboratory culture of bacteria, the number of colonies in
the petridish may be the best measure to report population density.
In certain ecological investigations, there is no need to know that absolute population density.
In such cases, relative density is used instead of population density. eg. the number of fish
caught/trap is good enough measure of its population density in the lake.
Sometimes, population size is indirectly estimated without actually counting them or seeing
them. eg. the census in our national parks and tiger reserves is based on pug marks (animal’s
foot print) and faecal pellets.
POPULATION GROWTH
The size of population of any species is not a static parameter. It changes every time. The change
in a population size depends on :
1. Food availability 2. Predation pressure 3. Weather
The changes in the population size give some idea of what is happening to the population,
whether it is increasing or decreasing.
The population density in a given habitat during a given period, fluctuates due to four basic
processes - natality, mortality, immigration, and emigration.
1. Natality - It is the number of births during a given period in the population that are added
to the initial density.
2. Mortality - It is the number of deaths in the population during a given period

16
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

3. Immigration - it is the number of individuals of the same species that have come into
the habitat from elsewhere during the time period under consideration.
4. Emigration - Outward movement

1. Natality and immigration contribute an increase in population density

2. Mortality and emigration contribute a decrease in population density
The population growth or change in the size of population in a given time is determined by :
change in population size = (Birth + Immigration) - (Deaths + Emigration)
= (B + I) - (D + E)
If N is the population density at time t,
Then its density at time t + 1 is
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) - (D + E)]
Under normal conditions births and deaths are the most important factors influencing population
density.
Carrying Capacity (K)
The maximum number of individuals of a population which can be provided with optimum resources
for their healthy living is called carrying capacity of the environment. Beyond carrying capacity
the resources become deficient and the individuals are starved of food and shelter.
Environmental resistance
It is the sum total of all limiting factors that prevents a population to realise its full potential. It tends
to decrease population by checking biotic potential from being realised and increasing the rate
of mortality. Environmental resistance includes limited food, diseases, predation, competition,
adverse weather etc.
Biotic potential
It is the maximum potential natality or birth rate which can be achieved when environmental
resources are non limiting.

17
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Intrinsic rate of natural increase (‘r’)

It is a measure of inherent potential of a population to grow. It is represented by ‘r’.
r=b-d
b = birth rate (per capita births and not the total number)
d = death rates (per capita deaths)
Population growth forms / models
The graphic pattern obtained when a population growth is plotted against time is called
population growth form or model.
There are two models of population growth
(i) Exponential growth
(ii) Logistic growth
(i) Exponential growth (Geometric growth) - J-shaped Curve
The exponential or geometric growth is common where the resources (food + space) are
unlimited.
In the beginning the organisms in the new environment grow slowly (stationary phase)
Then the population grows in an exponential or geometric fashion
The growth of the all population continues and then stops abruptly when the environmental
resistance becomes effective eg. many insect populations shows explosive increase in number
during the rainy season followed by their disappearance at the end of the season.
The equation for exponential growth as follows.

dn
=rN
dt
Where d is the rate of change,N is the number of existing individuals, t is the time and r is the
dN
intrinsic rate of natural increase. represents the rate of change in population size.
dt

By applying the basic calculus, we can derive the integral form of the exponential growth equation
as,
N

t = N0ert
where
Nt = Population density after time t
N0 = Population density at time zero (at beginning)
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase (B - D)
e = the base of natural logarithms (=2.71828)

18
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

(ii) Logistic growth / Verhulst Pearl Logistic Growth

If a population is growing in a habitat with limited resources, shows initially a lag phase, followed
by acceleration phase, and deceleration phase, and finally reaches an asymptote (constant level),
when the population density reaches the carrying capacity.
A plot of N in relation to time t results in a sigmoid curve or s-shaped curve.
This type of population growth is called logistic growth or Verhulst - Pearl Logistic Growth.
Proposed by Verhulst and Pearl in 1839. The logistic growth is described by the following equation.

dN K − N 
= rN  
dt  K 
where, N = Population density at time t
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = Carrying capacity
The logistic growth model is considered to be more realistic one
LIFE HISTORY VARIATION
 Population evolve to maximise their reproductive fitness in the habitat. The reproductive
fitness is also called Darwinian fitness (high ‘r’ value or intrinsic rate of natural increase)
 (i) Some organisms breed only once in their life time (eg. Pacific salmon fish and Bamboo)
while other breed many times during their life time (eg. most birds and mammals)
 (ii) Some organisms produce a large number of small-sized offspring (eg. Oysters and
pelagic fishes), (‘r’ selection species) while others produce a small number of large-sized
offspring (eg. birds and mammals) (‘k’ selection species)

19
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

POPULATION INTERACTIONS
Animals plants and microbes cannot live in isolation. They interact in various ways to form
biological community.
Plants and animals exhibit interdependence on each other.
The interactions of populations of two different species in a community are called interspecific
interactions. These interactions may be,
(i) Beneficial / positive effect indicated by +
(ii) Harmful / detrimental / negative effect indicated by -
(iii) Neutral interaction / no effect on the species indicated by 0

Population interaction - Two types

1) Positive interaction - eg. Mutualism, Commensalism
2) Negative interaction - eg. Competition, Predation, Parasitism, Ammensalism
Positive Interaction
Obligate mutualism
1. Mutualism (+ +)
An association of two species, in which both species are benefited is called mutualism. A condition
where the two individuals live physically together and are totally dependent on each other is
called symbiosis.
Examples of mutualism

20
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

(i) Lichens
(ii) Mycorrhiza
It is an association of soil fungus with the root of higher plants.
(iii) Rhizobium
(iv) Plant-animal relationships
In this mutual relationship, plants take the help of animals for pollination.
a) Plant-pollinator interactions
In many species of fig trees (Ficus) there is tight one-to-one relationship with the pollinator
species of wasp. It means a given fig species can be pollinated only by its “partner” wasp species
and no other species. Fig possess hypanthodium inflorescence. The female wasp visits a fig
hypanthodium to lay eggs. The wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence while searching for suitable
egg-laying sites. In return for the favour of pollination the fig offers the wasp some of its
developing seeds, as food for the developing wasp larvae.
b) Orchid - pollinator interactions
Orchids show diversity in floral pattern to attract the right pollinator insect (bees) and
ensure guaranteed pollination by it eg. Ophrys is a Mediterranean orchid which employs “sexual
deceit” to get pollination done by a species of bee. One petal of its flower bears resemblance to
the female of the bee in size, colour, and markings. The male bee is attracted and
“pseudocopulates” with the orchid flower. During this process, pollen grains are dusted from
the flower. When this same bee “pseudocopulates” with another flower, it transfers pollen grains
to it and thus pollinates the flower.
Facultative Mutualism
If one species survive even in the absence of other partner species. eg. Sea anemone and
Hermit crab (Also called proto-cooperation)
2. Commensalism (+ 0)
This is the interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefitted.
Examples :
(i) Epiphytes : Plants growing on other plants just for accommodation are called epiphytes.
eg. Orchids (eg. Vanda)
(ii) Barnacles and whale
(iii) Cattle egret and grazing cattle
(iv) Sea anemone and clown fish
Negative Interaction
1. Competition (– –)
An interaction between two or more organisms for obtaining the same resources, is called
competition. Both the organisms suffer adverse effects in competition.

21
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Types of competition
Competition is of two types
(i) Interspecific competition : It is the competition between individuals of different species
in a habitat.
(ii) Intraspecific competition : It is the competition between individuals of the same species.
Competition two forms.
I. Competitive exclusion
II. Competitive co-existence
I. Competitive Exclusion
a) Guse’s competitive exclusion principle states that two closely related species competing for
the same resources cannot coexist indefinitely and competitively inferior one will eliminate
eventually. (Limited resources)
b) The feeding efficiency of one species might be reduced by the inhibitory presence of other
species, even if resources are plenty.
Eg. In Galapagos island, Abingdon tortoise become extinct within a decade after goats where
introduced into the island.
c) Competitive release
A phenomenon in which a species whose distribution is restricted to a small geographical
area due to the presence of competitively superior species, expands its distributional range
when the competing species is experimentally removed.
Connells elegant field experiment showed that on the rocky sea wast of Scotland, the large
and competitively superior Barnacle - Balances dominates the inter tidal area and excludes
smaller barnacle - Chathamalus from that zone.
II. Competitive Coexistence
Resource Partitioning
Species may evolve mechanism to promote coexistence rather than exclusion by choosing
different time for feeding and foraging activities. (Food searching)
Eg. five closely related species of warblers avoid competition by changing foraging patterns.
(observed by Mac Arthur)
Totally unrelated species could also compete for same resources.
Eg. In some shallow South American lakes, visiting flamingos and resident fishes compete
for their common food, zooplankton.
2. Predation (+ –)
Predation is the direct food relation between two organisms in which one animal captures and
feeds on another. The species which eats the other is called the predator. The species consumed
is called prey.

22
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

Predators are of following types.

(i) Carnivores
(ii) Herbivores
(iii) Omnivores
(iv) Insectivorous plants
(v) Phytophagous organisms : Organisms which feed on plant sap and other parts of plants.
eg. nearly 25% of all insects.
The role of predators
1. Predation is a ‘conduit’ for energy transfer across trophic levels.
2. Predators also help in maintaining species diversity in a community by reducing the
intensity of competition among prey species.
eg. Experiment of Pisaster
3. Predation keeps the prey population under control. In the absence of predation, prey
species will be increased and causes ecosystem instability.
4. In agriculture, the biological control methods adopted for pest control are based on
the ability of the predator to regulate prey population.
The prey defence mechanism
1. Defence in animals
1. To avoid being detected easily by the predators, some species of insects and frogs are
cryptically coloured (camouflaged). eg. Grass hopper, Praying mantis
2. Mimicry : is the resemblence of one species with another inroder ot obtain advantage against
predation. eg. Viceroy butterfly without toxin mimics monarch butterfly. (The monarch butterfly
is highly distasteful to its predator)
2. Defence in plants
(i) Morphological defence in plants
Thorns protect the plants from browsing animals eg. in Cactus and Acacia.
(ii) Chemical defence in plants
Many plants produce and store chemicals against herbivores. These chemicals make the
herbivores sick, inhibit feeding or digestion, disrupt its reproduction or even kill the animal.
Examples :
(i) Calotropis produces highly poisonous cardiac glycosides as chemical defence against
herbivores.
(ii) Many chemical substances are extracted from plants on commercial scale eg. nicotine,
caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium etc. Plants produce these chemical substances actually
as chemical defences against grazers and browsers.

23
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

 When an exotic species is introduced into a new geographical area the species grow
exponentially in the absence of natural predator.
eg. The prickly pear cactus (Opuntia) was introduced as a hedge plant in Australia in 1920.
3. Parasitism (+ –)
A negative interaction between two different species in which one organism (parasite) derives
food from the other (host), is called parasitism.
Adaptation of parasite :
a) The parasites have evolved to be host-specific in such a manner that both host and parasite
tend to co-evolve.
b) If the host evolves special mechanism for rejecting or resisting the parasite, the parasite
has to evolve mechanisms to counteract and neutralise them.
c) Loss of unnecessary sense organs
d) Presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to the host
e) Loss of digestive system
f) High reproductive capacity
The life cycles of some parasites are complex where one or more intermediate host or
vectors to facilitate parasitisation are present
a) The human liver fluke depends on two intermediate hosts, a snail and a fish, to complete
its life cycle.
b) Malarial parasite (Plasmodium) needs a vector (mosquito) to complete its life cycle.
Parasite affect the host in various ways. They are :
(i) Parasites reduce the survival, growth and reproduction of the host.
(ii) Parasite reduce the population density of the host
(iii) They might render the host more vulnerable to predation by making it physically weak.
Types of Parasites
Parasites are of two types - ectoparasites and endoparasites.
a) Ectoparasites
If the parasite lives on the external surface (outer surface of the body) of the host organism,
it is said to be an ectoparasite.
Examples :
(i) Lice on humans
(ii) Ticks on dogs
(iii) Marine fishes are infested with ectoparasite copepod
(iv) Cuscuta :
It is an ectoparasite (total stem parasite) found growing on hedge plants. These plants lost

24
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

chlorophyll and leaves in the course of evolution.

(v) Loranthus - Partial parasite
b) Endoparasites
If the parasite lives inside the body of the host at different sites (liver, kidney, lungs, stomach,
RBC, etc) it is said to be endoparasite. The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex
because of their extreme specialisation.
4. Amensalism (– 0)
Amensalism is referred to as the interaction between two different species, in which one
species is harmed and the other is neither benefited nor harmed.
For example, the mould Penicillium secretes penicillin which kills bacteria but the mould is
unaffected.
Biotic Community Characteristics
Ecotone : The place or zone where two communities meet and blend together is called an
ecotone. It is a transition zone between two or more communities.
Edge effect : The tendency of increased variety and density of life, often the greatest in
the transition area (Ecotone) at the community border.
Edge species : The species that spend the greatest amount of their time in the ecotone
are called edge species.
Link species : The term applies to those species in a community that act as a link
between a number of other species or play a vital role in absorption of nutrients from the
soil.
eg. Pollinators of flower
Dispersal agents of seeds and fruits
Mycorrhiza
Key stone species : The term refers to those species in a community that have greater
influence or strong effect on the abundance of other species in the community
BIOMES
I. Forest Biomes
a) Tropical Rain forest / Evergreen forests
1. High rain fall - 150 - 350 cm
2. Soil of rainforests is highly leached and has low nutrients. (Oligotrophic soil)
3. Mycorrhizal adaptation is present
4. Stratification is the characteristic feature of tropical rain forest. (5 layers)

25
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

5. Maximum species diversity

6. Most productive area
7. Most animals are tree dwellers
8. Numerous epiphytes are present
9.Warm and uniform temperature through out the year. (22 - 27oC)
10. Dominant trees are Hopea, Dipterocarpus, Rosewood
b) Tropical deciduous forest
♦ Rain fall - 90 - 160 cm per year
♦ Temperature 22 - 32oC
♦ Dry months - 6-8 - during the year
♦ During summer season most trees shed their leaves.
♦ Forests are prone to fire during hot summer
♦ Dominant trees
eg. Sal, Teak
c) Temperate broad - leaf forest
♦ Height - 1500 - 2400 m altitude
♦ Rain fall - 100 - 250 cm
♦ Temperature - 6 - 20oC
eg. Several species of Oak
d) Temperature needle - leaf forest / Coniferous / Higher altitude forest (Taiga)
♦ Height - 1700 - 3000 m altitude
♦ Rain fall - 50 - 170 cm
♦ Mean temperature - 6 - 15oC
♦ Needle leaf are present in canopy for 2 - 7 years and their for canopy always remains
green
eg. Pine, Deodur, Cypress
II. Grassland Biome
♦ Low rainfall - 25 - 75 cm
♦ Winter severe
♦ Summer drought and sever with periodic fire devastation
♦ Dominated by short and tall grass family ; Poaceae
♦ Productivity is related to rain fall
♦ Animals - Herbivores

26
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

♦ Periodic fire maintain the dominance of grasses and eliminate the woody species
III. Savanna biome
♦ Rain fall - 100 - 150 cm per year
♦ Warm climate. Highly seasonal
♦ Wet seasons alternate with prolonged dry seasons
♦ Well developed grass cover scattered with shrubs and small trees
♦ Could be natural or anthropogenic
♦ Grass C4 photosynthesis, that helps to photosynthesise even with low moisture
IV. Desert Biome
♦ Very low rain fall and water is scarce
♦ According to amount of rain fall, they could be classified into :
→ True desert - rain fall less than 12 cm
→ Extreme desert-rain fall less than 7 cm
→ Extremely hot days and cold nights
→ Very low biomass and primary productivity
→ Vegetation dominated by xerophytes
V. Tundra biome / (cold desert)
♦ Artic region
♦ Permafrost condition (Snow, ice and frozen soil)
♦ Very little rain fall
♦ Treeless region
♦ Poor light and extremely low temperature and cold winds
♦ Vegetation ; lichen, mosses and grass
Ecological Adaptations
Adaptation for water abundance (Hydrophytes)
1. Root
a) Roots are either completely absent (eg. Salvinia, Wolffia, Ceratophyllum) or poorly developed
(eg. Hydrilla)
b) Root pockets are present as balancing organs in Azolla, Eichhornia, Lemna, Pistia etc.
instead of root cap
2. Stem
Long, slender, spongy and flexible (eg, Potamogeton and Hydrilla)
3. Leaves

27
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

a) Petiole may be swollen and spongy eg. Eichhornia

b) Submerged hydrophytes have thin, long ribbon shaped leaves (eg. Vallisneria)
c) Leaves of floating hydrophytes are large, entire and flat. These are often coated with wax (eg.
Nymphaea)
d) Emergent hydrophytes show heterophylly ie, leaves below the water are long, narrow and
dissected and those outside the water are entire and broad (eg. Ranunculus aquatilis,
Limnophilla heterophylla, Sagittaria sagitifolia)
4. Presence of large air spaces and aerenchyma
5. Mechanical tissue ie, sclerenchyma is either poorly developed or absent
6. Vascular tissue specially xylem is poorly developed
7. Cuticle is absent
8. Stomata are absent, floating leaves are epistomatic
9. Epidermis is always single layered

Adaptation for water scarcity : (Xerophytes)

1. Root
a) Roots are well developed, profusely branched and extensively spread
b) Roots are deep in phreatophytes
2. Stem
a) It is generally hard and woody with thick bark
b) Some plants may show modification of stem into leaf like structure called phylloclade (eg.
Opuntia)
3. Leaves
Leaves of xerophytes are generally caducous (e.g., Euphorbia) or may be completely absent
(eg. Capparis aphylla)
4. Presence of thick cuticle on leaf and stem epidermis
5. Presence of waxy layer on the epidermis of leaves
6. Stomatal frequency is reduced. Sunken stomata are present
7. Mechanical tissue and vascular tissue are well developed
8. Epidermis may be multiple
9. Water storage tissue is present
10. Heat shock protein called chaperonins help the other protein to maintain their structure at
high temperature by avoiding heat denaturation.
11. Some xerophytes accumulate proline in their cells to maintain osmotic and water potential in

28
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

their leaves.
12. Many desert plants like Cacti, close their stomata during the day, and open them at night.
They show CAM pathway of photosynthesis.
Adaptation for Salinity - (Halophytes)
1. Root : Mangrooves have specialized roots called penumatophores which are negatively geo-
tropic. These are modified tap roots which have pneumathodes for gaseous exchange
2. Prop and stilt roots : Main stem produces a large number of prop and stilt roots to give support to
the main plant in wet substratum.
3. Stem : Mostly succulent or fleshy
4. Leaves : Evergreen, thin, leathery
5. Presence of thick cuticle on stem. Upper and lower leaf epidermis is thickly cuticularized
6. Stem hypodermis, is multilayered, thick walled. Pericycle is sclerenchymatous, 2 - 4 layered
7. Vascular tissue is well developed
8. Sunken stomata present only in the lower leaf epidermis
9. Some plants have high level of organic solutes like proline and sorbitol in their cells. These help
in accumulating water in the cells by osmosis.
10.Halophytes show viviparous germination. The seeds start germinating while the fruit is still
attached to the plant. Eg. Avicennia, Rhizophora
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING
The phenomenon of warming of earth due to the green house gases is called green house effect.
Green house gases are :
1. Carbon dioxide - CO2 - 60%
2. Methane - CH4 - 20%
3. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) - 14%
4. Nitrous oxide 0 N2O = 6%
Normally, sun rays reach the earth and about one fourth of it is radiated back in to the space in the
form of heat (infrared radiation). But green house gases form an envelope around the earth and
absorb long wave infrared radiation (heat). Some of these radiations are radiated back to the
earth. The molecules of gases radiated heat energy. As a result the environmental temperature
increases. This phenomenon is called green house effect.
The mean annual temperature of earth is about 15oC, in the absence of green house gases, the
earth’s mean temperature would drop sharply to -18oC. If there is excess increase in concentra-
tion of green house gases in the atmosphere, then it would retain more and more of the infra red
radiations resulting in enhanced green house effect. Consequently there will be increase in the
global mean temperature which is referred to as global warming.
Green House Flux : amount of heat rays radiated back to the earth is called green house flux.
Global warming is due to the excessive release of green house gas due to industrialisation, en-
ergy production from fossil fuels and urbanisation.

29
 Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Effect of Global Warming

1. Effects on weather and climate
2. Sea level change - melting of polar ice caps
3. Decreasing food production (Crop productivity)
4. Range in species distribution
5. The temperature of earth has increased by 0.6oC in last three decodes
6. The rise in temperature will leads to the increased weed growth eruption of diseases and pests.
EI - Nino Effect
It is an odd climate pattern that occurs across the tropical Pacific Ocean. Roughly every 5 yrs. This
rise in temperature leads to harmful effects in environment and create oscillations in water bodies.
La - Nina Effect
It is a phenomenon that describes a cooler than normal ocean surface temperature in the eastern
and central Pacific Ocean.
Control Methods
♦ Cutting down the use of fossil fuels
♦ Improving efficiency of energy usage
♦ Reducing deforestation
♦ Planting trees
♦ Taking international initiatives to reduce global warming
♦ Slowing down the growth of human population

[Pelagic zone : Refers to open and free water in the body of the ocean that stretch between the
ocean surface and ocean bottom and are not to close to some boundary like shore or the sea floor
or the surface.
Example for Pelagic organism - Plankton, Sea weed, Jelly fish, Tunafish, Shark
Nektone : Organism capable of swimming against a current.
Eg. Fishes, Marine mammals, Marine reptiles, Cephalopods, Some Crustaceans]

Question 5 :
If a population growing exponentially double in size in 3 years, what is the intrinsic rate of increase
(r) of the population?
Ans.
A population grows exponentially if sufficient amounts of food resources are available to the
individual. Its exponential growth can be calculated by the following integral form of the exponential
growth equation :
Nt = N0 ert
Where,
Nt = Population density after time t
N0 = Population density at time zero

30
 LT-2022-AIIMS-Biology

r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase

e = Base of natural logarithms
(2.71828)
From the above equation, we can calculate the intrinsic rate of increase (r) of a population.
Now, as per the equation,
Present population density = x
Then,
Population density after two years = 2x
t = 3 years
Substituting these values in the formula, we get
⇒ 2x = xe3r
⇒ 2 = e3r
Applying log on both sides :
⇒ log 2 = 3r log e

log 2
⇒ =r
3log e

log 2
⇒ =r
3 × 0.434
0.301
⇒ =r
3 × 0.434
0.301
⇒ = r ⇒ 0.2311 = r
1.302
Hence, the intrinsic rate of increase for the above illustrated population is 0.2311

31