4 Cap 4

DISEÑO VIAL
Part 2: Traffic Operations

Engineers must understand the basic characteristics of
the driver, the vehicle, and the roadway, and how each
interacts with the others.
Chapter 4
Traffic and Highway Engineering
Nicholas J. Garber Lester A. Hoel
Traffic Engineering Studies
• To reduce the negative impact of highways, it is necessary to adequately collect
information that describes the extent of the problems and identifies their
locations.
• Traffic studies may be grouped into three main categories: (1) inventories, (2)
administrative studies, and (3) dynamic studies.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES
1. Inventories provide a list or graphic display of existing information
2. Administrative studies use existing engineering records, available in
government agencies and departments.
• Recorded in automated data processing (ADP) systems
• Aerial photography.
• Field measurements
We are going to focus on this
3. Dynamic traffic studies involve the collection of data under operational
conditions and include studies of speed, traffic volume, travel time and delay,
parking, and crashes.

SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles
in a stream of traffic at a particular location on a highway.
• Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones,
speed and passing restrictions.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices
• Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs
• Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics.
• Evaluate the effect of speed on highway safety through the analysis of crash
data for different speed characteristics.

SPOT SPEED STUDIES
1. Locations for Spot Speed Studies
• Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or highways.

• Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering
problem.
2. Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies
• Depends on the purpose of the study
If the porpoise study The study be conducted when traffic

is to establish posted is free-flowing
speed limits
Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
3. Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies
The calculated mean (or average) speed is used to represent the true mean value of
all vehicle speeds at that location.
Average Speed: which is the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Median Speed: which is the speed at the middle value in a series of spot speeds
that are arranged in ascending order.
Modal Speed: which is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a sample of
spot speeds.
The ith-percentile Spot: Speed which is the spot speed value below which i
percent of the vehicles travel
Pace: which is the range of speed—usually taken at 10-mi/h intervals—that has the
greatest number of observations.
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Standard Desviation of Speed: which is the speed at the middle value in a series
of spot speeds that are arranged in ascending order.
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Standard Desviation of Speed:
• The minimum sample size depends on the precision level desired.

• The precision level is defined as the degree of confidence that the sampling
error.
• Level of significance (α), where α= (100 - confidence level).
• The basic assumption made in determining the minimum sample size for speed
studies is that the normal distribution describes the speed distribution
The standard deviation can be estimated from previous data, or a small

sample size can first be used.
SPOT SPEED STUDIES

Standard Deviation of Speed:
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Median Speed:
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Median Speed:
Example 4.1:
As part of a class project, a group of USFQ students collected a total of 120 spot speed
samples at a location and determined from this data that the standard variation of the
speeds was 6 mi/h. If the project required that the confidence level be 95% and the
limit of acceptable error was 1.5 mi/h, determine whether these students satisfied
the project requirement.
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Median Speed:
Example 4.1:
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
4. Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies
The methods used for conducting spot speed studies can generally be divided into
two main categories: manual and automatic.
Methods
Road Radar-
Electronics
detectors based
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Road Detectors:
Pneumatic road tubes and

Induction loops. Collect
data on speeds at the
same time as volume data.
Pneumatic road Induction loops

SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Radar-Based Traffic Sensors
Radar-based traffic sensors work

on the principle that when a
signal is transmitted onto a
moving vehicle, the change in
frequency between the
transmitted signal and the
reflected signal is proportional to
the speed of the moving vehicle Traffic Sensors
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Electronic-Principle Detectors
In this method, the presence of

vehicles is detected through
electronic means, and
information on these vehicles is
obtained, from which traffic
characteristics, such as speed,
volume, queues, and headways
are computed. Traffic Sensors
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
5. Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data
Example 4.1:
Table 4.2 shows the data

collected on a rural highway in
Virginia during a speed study.
Develop the frequency histogram
and the frequency distribution of
the data and determine:
1. The arithmetic mean speed
2. The standard deviation
3. The median speed
4. The pace
5. The mode or modal speed
6. The 85th-percentile speed
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Example 4.1:
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Frequency Distribution
Example 4.1:
Observed vehicles Speeds

SPOT SPEED STUDIES
Example 4.1:
Cumulative Distribution
VOLUME STUDIES
Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles
and/or pedestrians that pass a point on a highway facility during a specified time
period.
• 15 minutes to as much as a year
1. Average Annual Daily Traffic(AADT): is the average of 24-hour counts collected

every day of the year.
2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT): is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a
number of days greater than one but less than a year.
a. Planning of highway activities b. Measurement of current demand c. Evaluation of existing traffic flow
3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV): is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point
on a highway during a period of 60 consecutive minutes.
VOLUME STUDIES
4. Vehicle Classification (VC): records volume with respect to the type of vehicles,
for example, passenger cars, two-axle trucks, or three-axle trucks.
a. Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-radii

requirements, maximum grades, lane widths, and so forth
b. Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car equivalents of trucks
c. Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines
d. Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so forth
5. Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT): is a measure of travel along a section of road. It

is the product of the traffic volume
METHODS OF CONDUCTING VOLUME COUNTS
Traffic volume counts are conducted using two basic methods: manual and
automatic.
Involves one o more

persons reconrding
Manual Method
observed vehicles
using a counter.
Volume Counts Require the laying of

detectors (surface
or subsurface)
Automatic Method
Those that do not
require the laying of
detectors.
Types of Volume Periodic

TYPES OF VOLUME COUNTS Counts Volume Counts
Pedestrian
Cordon Screen Line Intersection
Volume
Counts Counts Counts
Counts
Periodic
TYPES OF VOLUME COUNTS Types of Volume Volume Counts
Counts
Cordon Counts Screen Line Counts Intersection Counts Pedestrian Volume Counts
The information obtained These data are used

from such a count is useful mainly in determining The counts are usually
for planning parking phase lengths and cycle taken at these locations
facilities, updating and times for signalized when the evaluation of
evaluating traffic intersections, in the existing or proposed
operational techniques, design of channelization at pedestrian facilities is to
and making long-range intersections, and in the be undertaken.
plans for freeway and general design of
arterial street systems. improvements to
intersections.
Periodic
TYPES OF VOLUME COUNTS Types of Volume Volume Counts
Counts
Periodic Volume Counts
Continuous Counts. These counts are taken continuously using mechanical or electronic counters.
The data from these different periodic counts are used to determine values that are then
Control Counts.
employed in the estimation of annual traffic characteristics.
These counts are used to estimate ADT, using expansion factors developed from control
Coverage Counts.
counts.
TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA PRESENTATION
PRESENTATION
Intersection Time-Based
Traffic Flow Maps Summary Tables
Summary Sheets Distribution Charts
Traffic Flow Maps

Intersection
Summary Sheets
Time-Based
Distribution Charts
Summary Tables
SAMPLE SIZE AND ADJUSTMENT OF PERIODIC COUNTS

Periodic Counts needs the determination of daily, monthly, and/or seasonal expansion
factors for each class of highway.
1. Determination of Number of Count Stations
The random selected stations has a t distribution.



To determine a representative value for the ADT on 100 highway links that have
similar volume characteristics, it was decided to collect 24-hour volume counts on a
sample of these links. Estimates of mean and standard deviation of the link volumes
for the type of highways in which these links are located are 32,500 and 5500,
respectively. Determine the minimum number of stations at which volumecounts
should be taken if a 95–5 precision level is required with a 10 percent allowable
error.
𝑡𝑡5−99 =1.984
2. Adjustment of Periodic Counts

Expansion factors, used to adjust periodic counts, are determined either from continuous
count stations or from control count stations.
Expansion Factors from Continuous Count Stations.
Expansion
Factors
Hourly Daily Monthly

expansion expansion expansion
factors (HEFs) factors (DEFs) factors (MEFs)
Hourly Expansion factor

Expand counts of durations shorter than 24 hour to 24-
hour volumes
Daily Expansion factor

Determine weekly volumes from counts of 24-hour
duration
Mothly Expansion factor

The AADT for a given year may be obtained from the ADT for
a given month

A traffic engineer urgently needs to determine the AADT on a rural primary road. She
collected the data shown below on a Tuesday during the month of May. Determine the
AADT of the road.
We try to find a similar road to compute the expansion factors




PARKING STUDIES
Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or another be parked for either a
relatively short time or a much longer time, depending on the reason for parking.
Parking studies are therefore used to determine the demand for and the supply of parking
facilities in an area.
1. Types of Parking Facilities
On-Street Parking Facilities Off-Street Parking Facilities

PARKING STUDIES
2. Definitions of Parking Terms

• Space-hour defines the use of a single parking space for a period of 1 hour. (number of
parked vehicles x hours parked)
• Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park in a study area during a
specific length of time. (cars/day)
• Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at any specified
time. (parked cars/hour)
• The parking load is the area under the accumulation curve between two specific times.
• Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking bay. (we can
estimate the time when it is free)
• Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking space. (Parking volume of the hour/
parking spaces)
PARKING STUDIES
3. Methodology of Parking Studies
Inventory of existing Identification of parking Collection of information

Collection of data
parking facilities generators on parking demand
• Times of operation and limit on duration of parking
• Type and number of parking spaces
• Restrictions on use
• Parking fees
• Type of ownership
PARKING STUDIES

Collection of data
Checking the amount of It depends on

parking during regular the use of the
intervals on different parking facility
days of the week
PARKING STUDIES

Collection of data
PARKING STUDIES

Collection of data
Information on parking demand is obtained by interviewing drivers at the

various parking facilities listed during the inventory
• Trip origin
• Purpose of trip
• Driver’s destination after parking.
PARKING STUDIES

Collection of data
The space-hours of demand for parking are The space-hours of supply are obtained from the
obtained from the expression expression
PARKING STUDIES
The owner of a parking garage located at USFQ has observed that 20% of those wishing to
park are turned back every day during the open hours of 8 a.m. to 6 p.m because of lack
of parking spaces. An analysis of data collected at the garage indicates that 60% of those
who park are students/travelers, with an average parking duration of 9 hr, and the
remaining are shoppers, whose average parking duration is 2 hr. If 20% of those who
cannot park are traveles and the rest are shoppers, and a total of 200 vehicles currently
park daily in the garage, determine the number of additional spaces required to meet the
excess demand. Assume parking efficiency is 0.90.
20 % can not park and 80% (i.e., 200) can park.
PARKING STUDIES
The owner of a parking garage located at USFQ has observed that 20% of those wishing to park are turned back every day during the open hours of 8
a.m. to 6 p.m because of lack of parking spaces. An analysis of data collected at the garage indicates that 60% of those who park are
students/travelers, with an average parking duration of 9 hr, and the remaining are shoppers, whose average parking duration is 2 hr. If 20% of
those who cannot park are traveles and the rest are shoppers, and a total of 200 vehicles currently park daily in the garage, determine the number
of additional spaces required to meet the excess demand. Assume parking efficiency is 0.90.
20 % can not park and 80% (i.e., 200) can park.
Un Sat. (Total 50)

Parked Cars (Total 200)
Parking lot 20
40
60 80
Travelers (9 hours) 200 Travelers (9 hours)

200 50 = ∗ 20% = 50
Shoppers (2 hours) 80% Shoppers (2 hours)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
PARKING STUDIES
Demand:
Parked Cars (Total 200) Travelers being served = 0.6 x 200 x 9 = 1080 space-hr
Served: 1240 space-hr
40
Shoppers now being served = 0.4 x 200 x2 = 160 space-hr
60
Travelers (9 hours) Travelers not being served = 0.2 x 50 x 9 = 90 space-hr

Shoppers (2 hours) Not Served: 170 space-hr
Un Sat. (Total 50) Shoppers not being served = 0.8x50 x 2 = 80 space-hr
20
80
𝐷𝐷 = � 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 = 1080 + 160 + 90 + 80 = 1410 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 1410 space-hr
Travelers (9 hours)
Shoppers (2 hours) 𝐷𝐷𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 90 + 80 = 170 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − ℎ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
PARKING STUDIES
𝑁𝑁
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑓𝑓 � 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 = 170 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ti= 10 hours (8 am a 18 pm)
0
𝑁𝑁
𝑓𝑓 � 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 = 170
0
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 = 0.9 ∗ 𝑁𝑁 ∗ 10 = 170
N=18.89 = 19 spaces

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DISEÑO VIAL

Part 2: Trafﬁc Operations

1. Inventories provide a list or graphic display of existing information

2. Administrative studies use existing engineering records, available in

government agencies and departments.

• Recorded in automated data processing (ADP) systems

3. Dynamic trafﬁc studies involve the collection of data under operational

parking, and crashes.

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

speed and passing restrictions.

• Evaluate the effectiveness of trafﬁc control devices

• Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs

• Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics.

data for different speed characteristics.

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

1. Locations for Spot Speed Studies

• Locations that represent different trafﬁc conditions on a highway or highways.

2. Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies

• Depends on the purpose of the study

If the porpoise study The study be conducted when trafﬁc

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

3. Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

3. Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

3. Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

3. Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

Standard Desviation of Speed:

• The minimum sample size depends on the precision level desired.

The standard deviation can be estimated from previous data, or a small

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

3. Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

3. Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

3. Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

4. Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

4. Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

Pneumatic road tubes and

Pneumatic road Induction loops

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

4. Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

Radar-Based Trafﬁc Sensors

Radar-based trafﬁc sensors work

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

4. Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

In this method, the presence of

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

5. Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data

Table 4.2 shows the data

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

5. Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

5. Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data

Observed vehicles Speeds

SPOT SPEED STUDIES

5. Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data

1. Average Annual Daily Trafﬁc(AADT): is the average of 24-hour counts collected

a. Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-radii

5. Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT): is a measure of travel along a section of road. It