BFC 32302 : TRAFFIC

ENGINEERING AND SAFETY

LECTURER : ASSOC. PROF Ts. DR. KAMARUDIN AMBAK

ROOM : NORTH TOWER, LEVEL 4, NO. 9

PHONE (O) : 07 4564379

EMAIL : kamardin@uthm.edu.my
 COURSE CONTENT

Chapter 1: Traffic Flow

Chapter 2: Highway Capacity
Chapter 3: Traffic Management and Control
Chapter 4: Intersection Design
Chapter 5: Traffic Safety
CHAPTER 1 : Traffic Studies

Consist of:
 Traffic Data Collection and
Measurement
 Volume, speed, travel time and delay
 Fundamental on traffic flow theory
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY

 Traffic volume is defined as the number of
vehicles passing a given point during a specified
period of time or the number of vehicles that
passes over a given section of a lane.

 It is important in traffic planning, operation,

design and research.

 Important of understanding:
- the efficiency at which the system works at present
- the general quality of service offered to the road users
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

 Traffic volume is also an important parameter

in the design of road pavements,where traffic
volume is converted into standard axle loads,
which determines the pavement thickness and
its load bearing ability.

Two methods are available for conducting

traffic volume counts:

(1) Manual count method

(2) Automatic count method
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Manual counts are typically used to gather

data for determination of:
- vehicle classification
- turning movements
- direction of travel
- pedestrian movements
- vehicle occupancy

Automatic counts are typically used to gather

data for determination of:
-vehicle hourly patterns
-daily or seasonal variations and growth trends
-annual traffic estimates
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

The selection of study method should be

determined using the count period by time
of day, day of month, and month of year for
the study area.

Typical count periods are 15 minutes or 2

hours for peak periods, 4 hours for morning
and afternoon peaks, 6 hours for morning,
midday, and afternoon peaks, and 12 hours
for daytime periods (Robertson, 1994).
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

MANUAL COUNT METHOD

 Require small samples of data at any

given location.
 Normal intervals for a manual count are 5,
10, or 15 minutes.
 Manual Count Recording Methods: tally
sheets, mechanical counting boards, or
electronic counting boards.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Manual Count Method: Tally Sheets

*A watch or stopwatch is
necessary to measure the
desired count interval.

Figure 1 Example of Manual Count using Tally Sheet

 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Manual Count Method: Mechanical

Counting Boards

 Common counts include

pedestrian, bicycle, vehicle
classification, and traffic
volume counts.

Figure 2: Mechanical Counting Board

 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Manual Count Method: Electronic

Counting Board

 Electronic counting boards

are battery-operated, hand-
held devices used in collecting
traffic count data.

 They have an internal clock

that automatically separates
the data by time
interval.

Figure 3: Electronic Counting Board

 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

AUTOMATIC COUNT METHOD

 The automatic count method provides a

means for gathering large amounts of
traffic data.
 Automatic counts are usually taken in 1-
hour intervals for each 24-hour period.
 Automatic counts are recorded using one of
three methods: portable counters,
permanent counters, and videotape.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Automatic Count Method: Portable

Counters

 Portable counters serve the same

purpose as manual counts but with
automatic counting equipment.

 The period of data collection using

this method is usually longer than
when using manual counts.

Additional data collection: Speed,

Classification and Gap of Vehicles.

Figure 4: Pneumatic Road Tube and Recorder

 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Automatic Count Method: Permanent

Counters

 Permanent counters are used when long-term

counts are to be conducted.

 The data collected may be used to monitor and

evaluate traffic volumes and trends over a long
period of time.

 Permanent counters are not a cost-effective

option in most situations.

 Few jurisdictions have access to this

equipment.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Automatic Count Method: Videotape

 Observers can record count data by videotaping

traffic.

 Traffic volumes can be counted by viewing

videotapes recorded with a camera at a collection
site.

 A digital clock in the video image can prove useful

in noting time intervals.

 Videotaping is not a cost-effective option in most

situations.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

EXAMPLES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME

COUNT STUDIES

INTERSECTION COUNTS
Intersection counts are used for timing traffic signals,
designing channelization,planning turn prohibitions, computing
capacity, analyzing high crash, intersections, and evaluating
congestion.

PEDESTRIAN COUNTS
Pedestrian count data are used frequently in planning
applications. Pedestrian counts are used to evaluate sidewalk
and crosswalk needs, to justify pedestrian signals, and to time
traffic signals.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION COUNTS

Vehicle classification counts are used in establishing
structural and geometric design criteria, computing
expected highway user revenue, and computing capacity.
Typically cars, station wagons, pickup and panel trucks,
and motorcycles are
classified as passenger cars.

AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC AND ANNUAL

AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC COUNTS
Average daily traffic (ADT) counts represent a 24-hour count
at any specified location. These counts are obtained by
placing an automatic counter at the analysis location for a
24-hour period. Annual average daily traffic (AADT) counts
represent the average 24-hour traffic volume at a given
location averaged over a full 365-day year.
SPEED STUDY
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

SPOT SPEED STUDY

 A spot speed study is“a study of speed of traffic

at one point or spot on a trafficway. It consists of
a series or a sample, of observations of the
individual speeds at which vehicles are
approaching an intersection or passing a point at
a non-intersection location. These observations
are used to estimate the speed distribution of the
entire traffic stream at that location, under the
conditions prevailing at the time of the study.”
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Spot speed studies can be carried out at the

following locations:

 Trend locations
- straight, level, open sections of rural highways
- midblock locations on urban streets
 Problem locations for specific purposes
- high accident frequency locations
- at points where the installation of traffic signals and
traffic signs is contemplated
 Representative locations for basic data surveys
 Locations where before-and-after studies are
being conducted
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

The course length of a spot speed study can depends on

the average speed of the traffic stream. The
recommended lengths are shown in Table 1.1.

For a spot speed study at a selected location, a sample

size of at least 50 and preferably 100 vehicles is usually
obtained (Ewing 1999).
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Applications of Spot Speed Data:

1. For trends in operating speeds of different vehicle types,
which are obtained from data collected through periodic
sampling at selected locations
2. For speeds at problem locations, to determine whether
speeds are too high and if complaints received are
justified
3. For traffic operation (regulation and control)
4. For accident analysis, to determine the relationship of
speed to accidents which may help in developing
corrective measures
5. For before-and-after studies, to evaluate the effect of
some change in controls or conditions
6. For geometrical design features
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Applications of Spot Speed Data:…cont’d

7. To evaluate capacity in relation to desired

speeds.
8. As aid to enforcement; determine the effect of
speed control measures & measure the
effectiveness of changes in enforcement
programs
9. Research studies

Spot speed data are gathered using one of three

methods:
(i) stopwatch method
(ii) radar/laser meter method
(iii) pneumatic road tube method
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Method to collecting data

STOPWATCH METHOD
The stopwatch method can be used to successfully
complete a spot speed study using a small sample size
taken over a relatively short period of time.

Key Steps to a Stopwatch Spot Speed Study

1. Obtain appropriate study length.
2. Select proper location and layout.
3. Record observations on stopwatch spot speed study data
form.
4. Calculate vehicle speeds.
5. Generate frequency distribution table and determine
speed percentiles.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

STOPWATCH METHOD

Figure 5: Stopwatch Spot Speed Study Layout

 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Method to collecting data

RADAR/LASER METER METHOD
A radar/laser meter is a commonly used device for
directly measuring speeds in spot speed studies. This
device may be hand-held, mounted in a vehicle, or
mounted on a tripod. The effective measuring distance
for radar meters ranges from 200 feet up to 2 miles.

Radar Gun Laser Laser

 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

RADAR METER METHOD

Key Steps to a Radar Meter Spot Speed Study

1. Select proper location and placement of radar meter.

2. Determine an appropriate selection strategy.
3. Record observations on radar meter spot speed study
data form.
4. Generate frequency distribution table and determine
speed percentiles.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Figure 6 Radar Meter Spot Speed Study Layout

 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Minimize cosine error by keeping angle

<7o on freeways, <9o on urban streets
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Method to collecting data

PNEUMATIC ROAD TUBE METHOD

The pneumatic road tube method is normally used
for longer data collection time periods than those of
either the stopwatch or radar meter method. Using
this method, pneumatic tubes are placed in the
travel lanes and are connected to recorders located
at the side of the road.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

PNEUMATIC ROAD TUBE METHOD

Figure 7: Pneumatic Road Tubes

Figure 8: Pneumatic Road

Tubes and Recorder
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

PNEUMATIC ROAD TUBE METHOD

Key Steps to a Pneumatic Road Tube Spot

Speed Study
A pneumatic road tube spot speed study includes
four key steps (Robertson 1994):

1. Perform necessary office preparations.

2. Deploy and calibrate data collection equipment.
3. Check data and retrieve equipment.
4. Generate frequency distribution table and
determine speed percentiles.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Example of Spot Speed Study

A spot speed study was conducted along a state road experiencing
frequent road accidents. The posted speed limit of the road is 60
km/h. The spot speed data collected are shown in the following
table: Analyse the spot speed data & Present the findings of this
study.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d

Mean speed = 9085/130

= 69.9 km/h
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
Median speed

L = lower limit of the class in which the median lies

n = total number of observations
f L = cumulative number of observation up to the
lower limit of the class in which the median lies
f m = number of observations in the class in which
the median lies
C = speed interval of the group
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
Pace
Pace = the 10 km/h range in speed in which the highest
number of observation was recorded

Therefore, the pace

is 62 – 72 km/h and
30% of the vehicles
are in pace.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
85th Percentile Speed
The 85th percentile speed is the speed at or below which 85
percent of the motorists drive on a given road unaffected by
slower traffic or poor weather.
This speed indicates the speed that most motorists on the
road consider safe and reasonable under ideal conditions.
It is a good guideline for the appropriate speed limit for that
road.
The 85th percentile speed as obtained from the cumulative
frequency distribution curve shown below is 88 km/h.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
Standard Deviation
The description of central tendency is not sufficient to define a
distribution, therefore a measure of dispersion or spread is
required.

Where
f = frequency of observations in the particular class
x = mid-point of each class
n = total number of observations = Σf
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
Findings from this spot speed study:

Mean speed = 69.9 km/h

Median speed = 68.1 km/h
Pace = 62 – 72 km/h
Percentage of vehicles in pace = 30%
85th percentile speed = 88.0 km/h
Driving over the speed limit = 95 / 130 = 73.1%
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Solution:….cont’d
Conclusion:
It can be concluded that speeding is a problem at this
location and may have contributed to road accidents which
have occurred at this location.
This is supported by the results of the findings which show
that mean, median, pace and 85th percentile speeds have all
exceeded the 60 km/h speed limit.
In addition, 30% of the drivers drive at speeds ranging
between 62 – 72 km/h, and 85% of them drive at 88.0 km/h
or below. 95 individual vehicles, or 73.1% of the vehicles,
were detected to have driven over the speed limit.
 CHAPTER 1: Traffic Studies

Suggest ways to control

vehicle speeds at this location?
p/s: kahoot.it
Class exercise:
A table show set of speed data collected on a rural highway in Malaysia during
a speed study. The posted speed limit of the road is 60 km/h.
a) Determine mean speed, median speed, pace, 85th-percentile speed and
standard deviation
b) As an engineer, give your justification based on your findings about the
speeding at this rural highway.

Speed class Frequency, f

km/h
40 – 44 0
45 – 49 5
50 – 54 13
55 – 59 27
60 – 64 50
65 – 69 66
70 – 74 72
75 – 79 52
80 – 84 24
85 – 89 15
90 – 94 5