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Acuan Abnormal Respirations
Acuan Abnormal Respirations
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Introduction
There are multiple types of normal and abnormal respiration. They include apnea, eupnea,
orthopnea, dyspnea, hyperpnea, hyperventilation, hypoventilation, tachypnea, Kussmaul
respiration, Cheyne-Stokes respiration, sighing respiration, Biot respiration, apneustic breathing,
central neurogenic hyperventilation, and central neurogenic hypoventilation. Each pattern is
clinically important and useful in evaluating patients.[1][2]
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Function
Evaluating respiratory patterns assists the clinician in understanding the patient's current
physiologic status. Abnormal breathing patterns suggest the possibility of underlying injury or
metabolic derangements. Early recognition of abnormal respiratory patterns can aid the clinician
in early intervention to prevent further deterioration of the patient's condition.
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Issues of Concern
Breathing is controlled centrally in the brainstem. It receives input from central and peripheral
chemoreceptors as well as voluntary control from the cerebrum. The brainstem also receives
input from the chemoreceptors and adjusts the rate and tidal volume based on pH and PaCO2.
The regular cycle of breathing originates in the medulla. The medullary respiratory center has
several widely dispersed groups of neurons that are referred to the dorsal and ventral respiratory
groups. There does not appear to be separate inspiratory and expiratory centers.
Bilateral dorsal respiratory groups (DRG) control the rhythm of breathing by producing
inspiratory impulses. Neurons from this center send impulses to the motor neurons of the
diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. These nerves also extend to the ventral
respiratory groups (VRG). Input from the airways, lungs, joint proprioceptors and peripheral
chemoreceptors via the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves modify the breathing pattern.
The ventral respiratory groups (VRG) are also bilateral collections of inspiratory and expiratory
neurons in the medulla and are active in exercise and stress. These neurons send impulses to the
diaphragm and external intercostals. They also stimulate the abdominal muscles and internal
intercostals via neurons in the caudal area.
The interaction between the DRG and VRG produces an impulse, the inspiratory ramp signal. It
starts low and gradual, then increases to produce a smooth inspiratory effort.
The pons contains two respiratory areas referred to as the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers.
The pneumotaxic center has an inhibitory effect on the medulla. In effect, its stimulation causes
the end of the inspiratory effort and therefore controls inspiratory time. Weak signals from the
pneumotaxic center increase inspiratory time causing an increase in tidal volume. The apneustic
center stimulates the inspiratory neurons in the medulla and inhibits the expiratory neurons.
Overstimulation of this area produces long, gasping inspirations that are interrupted inadequately
by occasional expirations. This pattern is called apneustic breathing.[3][4]
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Clinical Significance
The types of clinically relevant normal and abnormal respiration patterns include the following:
Breathing patterns associated with brain injury may not be observed due to mechanical
ventilation and sedation. There is a complex interplay in cases that result in brainstem injury.
Autoregulation of cerebral blood flow is affected by CO2 levels in the blood. As CO2 increased,
cerebral vessels will dilate, and as they decrease, the cerebral vessels will constrict. In traumatic
brain injury (TBI), the brain swells and cannot expand due to the fixed volume of the intact skull.
Raised intracranial pressure can overcome perfusion pressure causing further anoxia and injury
leading to brain death and/or herniation. Although hyperventilation can lower PaCO2, causing
vasoconstriction and reduce swelling/ICP, it should be avoided. The effect is short-lived. In TBI,
both hyperventilation and hypoventilation must be avoided. ICP is treated pharmacologically,
surgically, and with medically induced coma.[5][6][7]
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Questions
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References
1.
Fukushi I, Yokota S, Okada Y. The role of the hypothalamus in modulation of
respiration. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2019 Jul;265:172-179. [PubMed]
2.
Somers V, Arzt M, Bradley TD, Randerath W, Tamisier R, Won C. Servo-Ventilation
Therapy for Sleep-Disordered Breathing. Chest. 2018 Jun;153(6):1501-1502. [PubMed]
3.
Stewart J, Howard RS, Rudd AG, Woolf C, Russell RW. Apneustic breathing provoked
by limbic influences. Postgrad Med J. 1996 Sep;72(851):559-61. [PMC free article]
[PubMed]
4.
Weatherald J, Sattler C, Garcia G, Laveneziana P. Ventilatory response to exercise in
cardiopulmonary disease: the role of chemosensitivity and dead space. Eur. Respir. J.
2018 Feb;51(2) [PubMed]
5.
Hopper K. Respiratory Acid-Base Disorders in the Critical Care Unit. Vet. Clin. North
Am. Small Anim. Pract. 2017 Mar;47(2):351-357. [PubMed]
6.
Haddad S, Aldawood AS, Alferayan A, Russell NA, Tamim HM, Arabi YM.
Relationship between intracranial pressure monitoring and outcomes in severe traumatic
brain injury patients. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2011 Nov;39(6):1043-50. [PubMed]
7.
Zhou W, Liu W. Hypercapnia and hypocapnia in neonates. World J Pediatr. 2008
Aug;4(3):192-6. [PubMed]
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