221 OSPREY· MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

Ontralufmencan mrs
1959-89 ~-

TextiJy
CARLOS CABALLERO JURADO
and NIGEL THOMAS CoIOllrplates iJy SIMON McCOUAlG
Publi"hed in 199<1 b)
OSPlT) Puhli,llillg' I.td
59 Gros\,(:llor Sll'tTl, I.ondl,n \\'1 \: gD,\
,~ COP) right 191)0 O'PIT) Puhlishing: Lid
,\11 rit;ht" r",,·r\cd ..\parl rrom .111~ t:lirdcillil1t; fill' Ihe
pllq)(~ orpri\ au' slud~. n.·..'eareh, n-iliei"lIl or n'\ ie\\.
lis rlt'nnillN:1 ull(it"r ,he Cop~ rill:hl D,-...;;it;n~ ;llld Palcnt.-;
.\,'1, 19SH. 110 p,ln orlhis publit'aliflll ma~ 1)('
1'l'!)f(Klunxl. "Iol"('d in a rell'it'\,ll s)slClll, or transmitted
in an) 101'111 or b) al1~ llW,lns. ekt'lronic, ell'elrica[.
dlt·mit·;ll. lluTh:II1IC'll. o]Jtlt'al, p!101OCOP) ill,!;.
nTc!rdillg:orl'thrl"\\ ist>, \\illu!lItl!le prior pt'rlllissiotl or
Illl' I'OP) right 0\\ Iwr. El1quiric, should I>c addn'sst'd to
Ill(' Pub[isll('r"o.
/lritllh I.ihrary CataJoguin,t in J'lIhliration /)ata
Thon1;\". :"igd. /9tG
Cenlral ,\nll'rit';111 wan>, 1959 B9.
I. Cl'nll~ll.\rnl'rica . .\Iililar) e(luipnwllt histol)'
I.Title II. Sl'ries
fl·.Q',097o;t1l
Film~1 in Greal Hril;\in
I·rinuxllhrout.;h Uookbuilders Lid. !long Kont.:
Authors' Note and Acknowledgements
'I'hisstlr\'ey Ofef'llll'al Amel'ica and the Carihbe:lll
would llot ha\'l' h"cl1 possible without the kindness alld
unslintin~ ;\ssistal1{'t' ora numlX-f oreorrespondellts
;lIld II-il'nds. man} O\cr mall} }t·3rs. :"il;"e1 Thom.1S
\\ollid like to th;lllk Peter .\boolt al\\3\"s a lo\\eTOr
~11'('n~th :Jean- '",es Coni: Dr. .\larc I";'ndr); .\1.
.\lIlt'rl .\lcndel:Julio ,\, .\Ionlt"": Frank Slcff;
1.1. Cdr. 1'('1. W. .\l.lidand Thornton OIlE: and hi,
[lInil}, 1leathel', ,\1('x.lnd(·1' ;Ind Dominick. Carlos
(;ahalknl aCkllt'\\ Itxlg{~ gralefull) \'it'('1l1C' '1'011011,
edilt,rof'Ol"fi'lISa' mag-azillt" fiJI' hi, help III pro\'idillg
a ,l{re;L\ deal ofillfi!rmatioll, dlll'urneniation and
phtltl!1J;raph,..\n> nHTI'ctiOll,.llld addilion;11
infi,nnalion \\ould Ill' \\e!conw(! rrolll readf'r...
.\s \\ ilh an~ ren'nt or currl'nt conflie!. the authors
.Irc' n.llurall~ ;1\\,11"(' tll.ll t1Il'Ct'Il\r.lI.\nlt'ncall
"illl...ion arou'C... lInder.;,taIJ(Llhl~ ... tfOIl~ politi,.ll
Ilpiniolh amol1.~ nl.lll) dilfel'l'1I1 J.(roups. E\cq dlo...
h"" IX'en made 10 :\\-oid Set'mill\{ to rnakt, polilical
judg-c1l1ellls in a Il'xl \\ hich is illlf'll(kd solely a.~ an
objlTti\T rccorel orract~
Artist's Note
R(',ldt>r-- Tll;\~ cart· II) nOIC Ih.u the origin;ll pairllirll.,ns
fl'olll \\hich the (IIIIIUI" platl'S ill thi:- hook wcrc
prl'l>.lrlxl are .I\,lil.l1)11' ror pri\ ;111' s;lle.. \11
J"('pl"(lllueliol1 nIp) ri,ghl \\ haL'Clt'\l'r is retainl'd b) the
puhli:.her. .\11 t'nquiries should he addressed 10:
Simon \!cCouaig
I YL'()lnall'~ Clt!~e
Stok.'l\i,hojJ
Bl'isl(,1 BSg IDII
The publislwl1i n'~I"('llhatlhe} e;1I1 enter into 110
('orrespondcIICt· upon Ihi" math'r.
 Cm/raJAmerican Uirs /959-89

111trot/II(fio1/
In the conflicts covered in this text we \dll not
cncounll:r huge tank battles. savage aerial COlll-
bals nor bold naval operations. \\'c arc concerned
here \\jlh less spectacular ~ucrl'illa wars, where
most fatalities arc c:lu~cd by bnllal aets Orlt'ITor-
ism or reprisal rather than b) rOl1\clHional \\:11"-
fare. However, it would be a sl'rious error to
underestimate the importance of these disputes ill
Central America nnd the C:lrihbcan, sOllletimes
called 'the Korth American :\It:ditcrrnncan', In
fact malty analYSiS rdcr to the region as 'the
United Stales's secQtlc! Vietnam', and predict thai Gener.l Fr....dOfcO T.be....ill•• Army CIoid" or StaIr, ~
Conlr.lmir.nl.. Julio Rodripu C.ld..ro... ~.V) ~ .
il will become "the :\liddle East Drill(" Year ':.1000', 51.rr, ;n 8:.t;51.'. Armed Force.., 'g.s& T.btrwilla _ _._.. eM
An examination of these conflicts suggcsts 1\\0 IIland.rd Cuban tiShl I.n H.rv;ce dre Of_
types or problems. In almost all these countries
lheft' are serious divisions in sHciet)', combined 01" lo('al armies, to diplomatic i-<;o: iall! n .me!
with the pressure orlarge foreign interests, notahly ecol1omic blockade. Part orlhis stralt·~~ h" ber'n
thoscoflhe Unitcd States. These factors encourage Ihe trainin~ of tens of thou~al1ds or Latin-
a desire for social and economic change \\ ithinthc Amcrienn soldiers in anti-guerrilla \\arfare tech-
country. St'condly, in most of these COUlltries there niques at the 'School of the Americas', fUllctioning
("xist po\\erful intlTcsls which seek 10 prcvent in t he Panama Canal Zone since 1946.
peaceful political cvolution. FUI·thermort', the For the first time in their history, Latin-
armed IOITes have usuall) tri(·d to prcvent a Amcrican states have recemly established a dip-
democratic solution 10 these problems by eoups lomatic framework to head off the dangeroffulure
d·ctat followed by military dictalorships. United States military interventions in the region.
\\'estern countries have not adopted a uniform In 198~~, when tht' US invasion of Grenada seemcd
policy towards this situation. Europcan statl'S tend 10 presage the imminellt invasiOIl of Sandinist;l
to prclcr a dipfom:llie Solulion linked to a pro- Nicaragua, the states of ~Iexieo, Venezuela,
gramllle ofe(onomie developmelll; but the United Colombia and Panama SCt up the 'Contadora
States, \\ith impOrtalll stratcgic and cconomic Group·, later joined by foul' morc South American
interests in the region, has llsually opt<"d for a coulitrics. This diplomatic pressure group bas
military solution. Sinee Fidel Castro·s victory in soug-ht 10 prevent the escalation of conflicts. and
Cuba in January 1959 the Uniled States has been cncouraged peaceful solutions, as in the First and
concerncd that :lI1Y change of governlllent in a Second Esquipulas Accords.
Central American COLIn try should not usher in a In(]uellced by the 'Vietnam syndrome', the
similar Soviet-backed communist regimc; and to United States has adopted a Strategy to deal with
prcvent this it has developed a range of responses, the low-intensity conflicts in the region. In aceor-
from dirt'ctmilitary inlervention, through support danee with lhe 'domino lheory', it works to
prc\'ent the inSlallatioll of revolution'll'} n:gimcs
\\hich might trigger off a chain-reaction il1lleigh-
bOll ring coulltries.
Although all the \\ars under stud} ha\'C origins
predating Castro's victory in 1959 dating from al
least 1926, in the case of Nicaragua), \\e concen-
Irate here 011 lheir evolutiotl ~irln.· theil, II lVas to
take 20 years, until July 1979. lor a left-wing
movemcnt to emulate Castro's achie\'emcllt, \\ith
the establishment. not )et consolidated. of the
Sandinista regime in ~icaragua, but theabscnccof
victory b) l'e\'oIUlion:u'} forces do<'''' Jlot mean that
the)' havc been eradicated, Fol' the forcsc(:ablc
fl11urc Celllral America and the Caribbean will
remain a powder ke~.
C/fba
Ca~tro's vinor)' in Cuba in 1959 opcn~ our
histori('al pcriod, " charismalic kader, Fidd
Castro Rlliz. a la\\ student. \\as ahle, \\ ilh a small
force \\ hich 1l('\'C!" exceeded 3,O(){) guerrillas, to
clcfc,at Gen. Fulgcncio Batista',; 1'1",,;16 (;0".51;-
lur;OIwl (;ollstitutiollal,\rm) \\itI138,ooosoldiers
and Ilwmhcrs of the Guard;a Ruml, His aehic\e-
1l1t'\lI eontradicled Ill(' ~ larxisl-I.t'ninisl tlu'lois thai
onl\ a ma....' mO\'CIlH'llt under a revolutionar\'
\\Ol:kt.'n;' part) could !>eil.e !>o\\{"r. and this onered
Ilt'\\ t'hanll('!, ufrC\olutionary possibilities,
Cuba. nominall) indepcndent on to December
1898 \\ith the L'nited States' defeat of Spain. the
colrJllial occupier, wa~ 10 bccome a virtual Amer-
ic;lll ("olol1~. The Unitcd States, under the Pial!
AnH'ndrnClit 01' 1~.JUllt' 1901, unhcsitatingl} inter·
\('Iwd militaril) in 1906, 1913. '917 and 1933,
l,:n~lIring" that 1>oIiticai po\\er remained \\ith pro-
L'S politiciam. in spite of nationalist and !eft-\\ing"
opposition. From 5 September 1933 Batista,
ori!-;inally an afmy scr~cant, effecti\'c1y ran lhe
cOlllllry lhrollg:h a s('l"ies of puppel presidellts
bdiwe final!) becoming president himsclfin 1952.
III{Teilsing opposition to his corrupt ruk pro-
du('("(1. on .!6.Jul) 1953, an attack b} III armed
11l('n It:d b} C;blroon ~Iollcada barracks, Santia~o
de Cuba, Ol'i"llt(, PrO'ince, The attempt failed
and Castro (led 10 ~lcxic(), establi,hing Ihere Ihe
··..!(i.!ul} l\10\','I1Wnl', On ~ Decemher 195611\' and
fI'1 mcn Jandl'd from llll' ship (.'r(//I11/(/ 011 Las
Coloradas h('ach in th(' Sicrra '\[aeslra, Orienlt"
I'ro\inec, a l'('g:ion or rnoLllltain~ and jungle" to
illitiate.t ~u('I'l'illa "OIl' \\hich culminilt("d ill hi~
Ca",lro lIIn1t;cu!lu"" durinlll hi. victory .~ch at Sanla Clara,
January '!tS9. afler Ihe caplure oftbe lown by 'Che' Gue... ra,
 \'iClorioliS Ctllr~ inlo Ha\'ana 011 8.Jalluar~ 1959,
Ca"tro \1<lS deli'ated in his first cla.'>h with
rl:gular troops 011 5 Deccmb..:r 1956, but he
rq.;-roulx'd \\itlt 500 r('cruits <lnd 11('\\ supplit.."S. On
.18 ~Ia~ 1957 h..: captured £1 Ln-ro barracks, an
achie\Tlllent commemorated 3.'> till' roundation or
his fj'm'ifli R,bdd, Rebel .\rm~ . In c.arl~ 1958
C:;l.'~tl'O 0llClled <I :.(.'cond li'ont ill til<' Escombray
~Iollntains, L"s \'i1lns Pro\'inee. The l;llited
Slat..:s sllspended aid 10 Batista in ;\1:Il'eh, alleging
hUIll;tI1 righls \'iolations; but in April a general
strik(' t'alll'd by anti-Batista Iheliom bikd,
Batista's army was organised, from west to east,
inlO the Glh Rural Guard Regiment ill Pinal' del
Rio Prm'ill("('; tlw Inbnll"\ Division under
Ct'n. Rodriguc!- 1St 'Cualro de Septi('mbre' and
2nd 'Oiez de ~Ianw' inf. regts.. tank regl., air·
burn(', anilkry and cngincn bns. and 5th Rural
Cuard in H,wana: Jlh Rural Guard in ~latanzas;
3rd Rural Guard plus illr.lIllr~ bll .. lank and
arlilll'l"~ detadll11t'Jlt in Las \'illas: 2nd Rural
Guard in Camagljt:~: alld in Orientt:, 71h Rural
Guard Ililh int:.lnll'y 1m, and lank detachment at
I-Iulgllill, 1st Rural Guard plus two infhlllry bns ..
t\\'o tank and two artil1t:ry cklachm..:nts al Santi-
ago, inl:lllll') reg!. plus tallk and arlillery delach-
...,.
Th.. unil palch and lab or '2506 Brird..·-...... Cuban ..xil...
who rOuShl aad lost at ~bi"011 Bay ("Bay or PiS_') in April
lI1ellh at Ba~amo. and ;111 illf~lIltr) I>n, plus tank
and artill(.... ~ dewdlll1('lIh at Guanianalllo,
In ~liI~ Batista unl(.'ashed a general oni·nsi\,e. 1959 b) the ne\\ FII'f:::.as ,Irmadas Rn'oiliciollarias
\\hi('h Kround 10 a halt inJul~, \Iilh Castro wclI Rt'\olutionary .\rlm'(l Forces'" 25.000 strong,
t'Slabli~h(-d ill alltht' prO\inccsexcepll-la\ana and compri~in~ .\rm) , Xa\) and Air Force, backed by
~Iatanzas, In ,\ugusl 19:;8 the t\\O be~t guerrilla ~lililia re~imellls, Labour Youth Arm) and Civil
commandcrs. Camilo Ci('nruegos and the .\rgen- Dt'Ii:'IH'(' Forct'",
tillian Ern..:slO 'Chc' Guc\'ara. scnt thl·if columns
racing towards Ct:tl\ral Cuba from Ih(' wesl and The Bay of Pigs
casl r('speni\'c1y, and 011 011C occa~ioll 'Iool{lIerril- On 17 April Ig61, 1,'H3 CIA-backed Cuban exiles
las dcfc.:att'd 5.ouo c1crnor<llised IroopS. l'Ilcallwhilc in,~ix 200-man 'b"llalions'-Ist (Paratroop), 2nd
olhel' allli-Balista groups were joining Castro's (Jnf;ulIl'y), 3rd (ArlllolJrcd)~ 4th (Heavy Gun),
fi,rn's, On 28 December 1958 Santa Clara. capital 5th (Infhntry). and 61h (Inranlry), collectively
ufl-as Villas PrO\'ince, rell, alld 011 I January Ig59 called '2506 Brigade'-Inndcd in Ihc Bay of Pigs
Batista fled Cuba, on Ihe soulh coast of Central Cuba, They were
The rebels. \\dl led and motiV<lIt..'(I, had ex- confronted by a fierce counterattack by Castro's
pluit('(1 opposition to Ibtista. and allract(.'(1 sym- lroop:. and militia. and on 19 ..-\prillhc surviving
pathiscr'S by humane lrcatment of the chil popu- 1..100 exiles surrendered, Castro then signed a
lalion. The arm\, \\ ilh too 1ll<l1l\ scllior on.cers milil:!r) alliance \\ ith Ih..: Soviet L;nion. \\·hich was
ehost'll lor politic;llloyalt). had 10;1 hear!. Disban- 10 lead 10 the Cuban missilt' crisis orOctobcr 1 gG'2.
ded in January 1959, it was initially replaced by One of Castro's dedared objectives W<lS the
Ihe 'Re\'olutionary ,\ I ilitia' (I ~Iay Ig80 renamed cxponing or revolulion 10 Asia, Ardca and Lalin
'Territorial Troop ~lililia'-l'Il'l~r), and in mid- America. as proclaimed in the 1066 Tricolltinelltal
1Is06 Brisa.de pri5Ofter_f_war, .ome •• m wearin,; the
brilllade'" camouOa,;e field uniform, under Ibe watchful eye
oCCalilro'. People'. Militia, wbo helped defeat the ia....dlN' •.
Conrerellce in Havana. Rcvolutionar) groups in
Lalin America sought to clllulatc the Cuban
victory, and Castro was implicatcd in sC\'cral
attempts to CSlablish gucrrilla mO\'cmcnts, thc
most famous beillg in Bolivia in 196i under 'Che'
Guevara. Howcver, his prime conccrn was to
dclcnd Cuba against counter-revolutionary
groups backed by the United Statcs. 'fhe US
government, lor its part, sees the hand of Castro
behind all len-wing movements in CClltral Amer-
ica, hence the Grcnada invasion (sce ~IAA 159).
These suspicions arc diflicult to prove. but there is
undeniably a large Cuban military prescnce
overseas, from military missions in .\Igeria,
Ghana, Guinea-Uissau, Somalia, Libya, Tan-
zania, Zambia, S} ria and :\rghanistan. ~':~zeable
contingcnts in Angola (at its peak 50.000 soldiers,
8,000 civilians), Congo (500, Ethiopia 19i8-Rt-
(4,000), ~Iozambique (600), South Yemen 500)
and Nicaragua, 500 soldiers, 3.000 civilians).
Current forces
.\t presCllt the Cuban Arm} has threc armourcd.
thrcc mechanised alld 13 illl;\lItr} divisions in
\\"esteru AI'Ill} (Pinal' del Kia, Havana
provinces)-onccorps; Central Anll) (l\latallzas,
Las \'illas)-ollc corps; Eastcl'll Army
(Camagiiey, Oriclllc)-I\\O corps: Isle of Youth
(formerly Isle or Pincs)-ollC inlhntry division.
Each corps has three infhntry divisions (lhree two-
battalion regts.; anillery reg!.; recce. bn.; ser-
vices); and each Army HQ has one armoured
division (one anillery, one mccb., three tank
regts.) and OIlC mechaniscd division (one artillery,
aile arme!' rccce., one thrce·ballalion tank, three
t\\'o-ballali01i mcch. regts .. services). There arc 26
independent AA regts. and SA~I brigades, eight
infantry regts., one Special Force Brigade (two
bns.) and one i\irhOfliC Urigade. There is also a
12,ooO-strong i\'av)' with a marinc ballalion; an
18.500-strong Air Forcc; 17,000 State Sccurity
troops (like SO\ iet KGB.; 3.500 FronLicr Guards;
and in rcservc, 1,200,000 ~Iilitia. 100,000 Labour
Youth and 50,000 Ci\ il Defence.
 The long (three-year) military service period;
eflicielll, well-trained armed forces; extensive com-
bat experience in Africa and o\sia: and a \ igorous
rescrve force, make Cuba the greatest military
I>o\\cr in the Caribbean after the United States.
1-10\\ ('\'er, an analysis of its ('(Iuipmcnt-\\ith few
amphibious landing-craft or transport aircrafl-
suggests that the FAR is primarily a dctCnsivc
forcc, permallemly on alert for a US invasion,
J11exico
Despite its turbulent histor), culminating in a
rcvolution lasting from 1910 almost to 1930,
i\lcxico, the northernmost counlry or Central
America, has esc<lped the spiral ~lf violellce-
military dictatorships, coups d'etat, guerrilla
\\arfare-endemic in the region. The peculiar
~lexican political system, \\ith the PRI I~artido
Rrm/udol/ario Illstitutiollal-institutional Revo-
lutionar~ I'arty as the onl~ de faciO 1>oIiticai
party, and the social system created by the rcvo-
lution, havc prcvcnted the emergence of an effec-
li\·c rural guerrilla force in spitt" of scvcral aoor-
ti\c altempt:> in Guerrcro State, 1967 741 or any
sign of urban guerrillas. The decelllraliscd Army
and police fOI'ccs ha\'c IX'en able to stop :In) such
activity at sourcc,
Evcn so, i\le:.;ico's foreigll policy is traditionally
opposed to lhe United Slales (it has nOI forgotten
t\\o defcats by ils northern nloighbour in 18+6 8
and 1916 17. and ~Icxico sUPl>orts 1>OIh politi-
call~ and diplomaticall) Castro's Cuba, Sand-
inisla :\icara~ua and the Salvadorean guerrillas.
In IgBl ~lcxico announced all cxpamioll pro-
~ramnll' for the armed forces. \\hich had declined
Th~ M.,xican Mini.l.,r of Dc:f~nc:e, backo:d by otll~r s~n~ral
and fi~ld offic~r•. Th~
black dr.,.. cap beau 1Il0td tac~ p_k
b;~iJ:~~~;::~~~::::::-:~';~~~:1:~j~:/~:1:~t8.,:}::~:~:
cn<:k"d~. Th., pat., IIln uniform 8hiN worn with a whit.,
und.,uhirt h . . lIlold ooll;o.r inllilllni", and black .hould.,r
board. with 'ill".,r "tarll, lIlold bUllon, lIlold 1D0tif and lIlold
lace. Th., national .houldcr titl., i. sold "",d ....roo... In faci
the Mex.i<:a1> Army unifOnD ill impr.,. .;""" ... it. adherblc:e to
a COlllinUO". tradit;o.. of d.,,,,,,,lopmtnt, "",d by LatiD.·
American llandards i. ",o:ry reslra;,'o:d in its oraalDtnlau-.
(ECPAI
 The :.!3,OOO-strolll.:" ~a,·~, Kcared lor coastal
delrnce. int.'lude:. 3.800 .\(arines in on~ airborne
hri~i1de, olle Pre:.idcnlial Guard bn" 13 groups
and 3.! securil~ companies. The 6.500-strong Ail'
Forct' (\\ ilh a parachule hrig-adc Of2,OOO) cOlllaill.~
a, a priorit} COIN all<ltr:lnspon aircraft. FillalJ~
there arc 30o,()(X) resent'S. and the p;:lramiJitar~
Rural Ddcnc(' COqh the r."11ll0US Ruralts' \\ith
1,w,ooo mcn on police duli("S under .\!ilitary ZOll("
COlllmanders,

ClIflteJlldfi

In Ihe mid-t96m Guatemala looked set 10 l>C1:omc

a ~('cond Cuha, alld indced has hccn ill it Stalt.· of
virtual civil 1\,lr lor 30 ycars. III t9.')0 the thell
pr(·,idenl. Col. .Jacoho ,\rhell/. Cuzm:ill, carrief!

A G ..ate.....lan Special Fore.,.. Irooper p .....d1y w.,.. ..... Ioi. r ....

berelll." he .,.1. h..i" lasl!;ood ..."",t bdore t"",vln!; on ajun&le
ro:<:onn.a;.....nee palrol. NOie 'Kaihil' qualifie.uioD lab1l on
berel and left .houlder, (Peler Abboll)

Troopers of the :lnd Dngoon R"llirn"nl, M",.iClI.n ClI.vlI.lry, In

field-plI.rade drns wilh while pll.nd" neck_lcarv"", olive
llr.,.,. unifornu., and CIlvalry ~bro:l, (Vieenle T ..lon)

ill cm"cli\,('IlCSS Ihrough IIl·~k(·t, in ol'dn 10 pro-

motc itselfa .. a rC.l{ionall>O'\Cr financed h) hugcoil
rc"cnues. Thc ~ub~(:qu(>1ll ,ollapsl' in Ilorld oil
prices broughl serious financial problems whiLh
forccd ah:lrldollrl1l'nt of the expansion. and so tbe
Arnl} rcmains rdati,d~ wcak,

Current forces
The .\lcxil'an Arlll)' is basil'ally organised Illr
illtcrnal sccurity, It lias IJ'h500 IllI'II dispcrsc'd
amongst 36 i\liJilar} Zones in inclqwlld('1l\ units-
6g inlantr} battalions, 2+cl\'alr} rl·ginH.:lIls some
lllotoriSt"{1 and IIlrct" aniller} regimenI'>, There
arc two infalllr) brigades each I\ith onc
armoured r('C(T.. Oil<' anil1er}. tllO infillltr) bat-
larions) estabrishn! 1968, in i\lexico Cil)': but the
most important unit is Ih(' dilC Prl'sidcnlia[
Guards .\lcchanised Brigade Ililh HQ. I-III in-
f:llur) bns., Assault Troops. anillel"}. tr.lIlspon.
armoured recce, tllO armoured car. olle lank. 1\\0
SI)G companies) b:lIlalions. .\lonar Croup, 10-
g-islics. cngincer and Illedical companies.
Thi.. serae ..-peak....ol .. m ..... boul c.he 1......._ betweora the
Crntral Amrrica_ . .Idiu .nd l.he rural popWati_, a G... t~
mal.... f.rmrr ..-landll riSId w;tlo f",.r a .. he i.. ;aterrosalm by
Anny paralroopeu ..nrchins for s ..errill.... Note Soooth
Korell" camo..O.se fali~e......d 1.... "'1i "rlmel. (V'C'II'III'"
Taloa)

OUI a l>cric~ nrl>()cial <lnd political rcrorms \\hich

pro\'okcd an ill\-a...iOIl in 1951 b) groupsormcrccn.
arit·s organi'ed h~ the CI.\ (\\ 110 provided
Ullmarked ,upp()rt aircr;ltil alld supported by
nlll~rl"\'ali\T political partil's, till' Church and part
or the J\rm~. Col. Carlos Castillo Armas \\as
~uh~l'qll('lllly ;tppoilltl'd pre,ickllt, but bllT in
195"~ \\a~ (;1{Td \\ith a rebdlion b~ nationalistic
Army cadets. 011 I:{ ;-.Im'emher 196n his Sll(TeSSOr,
Cell. Ydig-oras, bccd anolln;r rcvolt, this timl' by
nationalistic alld kli-\dllg" sl'l'tiulls of the Arlll)';
ami mall) ol"the )Ollllg"ollkns implicated in these
uprisillg's \\elll Oil to cl>t:tblish llie Cual("malan
guerrilla groups. t\tier Ydi!-:"oras came a series or
militar~ or l11ilitaril~ ('otltrolkd gO\"l'rnmcntS,
through fi'audukrll t'le('!iom or coups d"i"tal, unlil
the fi'cc electiOn urthe Christian Democrat Vinic-io
Ccrezoill 1985.
'Machismo' (e"'.SSeralm m • ..-c.. I;"'ly)., alw.y• • powrrf..1
psycho)OS'cal force ;.. Lalin America, i..- partic..l.rly pro-
no cm in the C"lIt",onalan Special Forces; Ihill .."'rs......1
w L1.,. playf..lly wilh. j ....gle pytho... (Peler Abbott)
 Arai'!;l Osorio, rrailled by 1,000 US Special Forces,
carried our throug-hour 1966 7 ambitious oper-
atiom 10 eradiratl' rhe FAR's Frtnt, Edgar Ibarra
fi'olll its strong-hold in the Las ~linas ~Ioun«lins,
Eastern Guatemala, 'I'll(' g-uerrillas tumed their
attelltion to rhe 10\\ 1I~, a('hining worldwide pub-
licit~ hy as:.assinating L'S diplomats, Evcn so, their
efiectiw'l1essdeclirled alier 1970, \\ hen Araila, now
preloidcnt, un!<.'alohl'<! a har<,h c:lmpai'{l1 against
them, \dlh the rull support or ultra-righH\'ing
paramilitar) I~TOlllh,
The guerrilla Ilal' relill'd \\hen ,\mila stood
dO\11l ill 1971, Ilhen l1e\\ guerrilla groups were
rormed: the 'Guerrilbt Arm) orlhe I)oor' ECP in
1975, and the '.\rmed People's RCI-olulionary
Organizillion' ORP.\ in 1979, BOlh groups
recruited mainl) rrom the Guatcmalan Indians,
the mosl dcprin'd social group ill the: counlry. The
lIar a~ainst t111'1ll has kd 10 ;:lllthenticatcd in-
.\otances or massacres or Indians ill those provinces
\\ here thc guerrillas arl' ~trollg-QlIichc, H uehlle-
tcnan~o and San ~l.lreo.\o, \\'cstern Guatemala.
Thcsl' breaches or human I'ights led President
Carter 10 sll~pend mililar) aid in 1978, only ror
Gualr....1aA "'C... erymrn firldwill"orm., th"ir CUIU"," Israel tostep in as the main sourceol"aid.
boel.... y;nS cI."ir lDdi... or;s; (P"t"r Abboct)

Thl' first gUl'rrilla '{roup. ronned in 1962 in

Izabat PrQl inn', Ealotern Guatcmala, b) ex-Arm)
officers,calted itsell'till" I:i ~o\en1ber ~Iovemcllt'
Later it combined with various small extreme-len
organisations choosing' thc armed struggle, as the
'Rc\'olutionar) Armed Forces' (FAR), "hich in
1963 con((~ived the over-ambitious plan of sur-
rounding: the capital, Guatcmala City, and isolat-
ing ir li'OI11 the ITsr ol'lhc ('ounrr)'. The Army, tlOW
expanded to 8,oou, ca~ily ddi.:art:d rhcm, bUlthey
managed to estabti~h a ncw guerrilla splillter-
group, rhe 'Edgar lbarr;l FrOllt' TIll; Army's
~lIccess was compounded by political quarrels
amongst the gucrrillas, Ilirh rhe disaOccted
'Guatemalan Workerll' Ilart) , (PCT) selting up ils
independcnr guerrilla 11llih.
In Ig66 thesc internal di~pllt(,S were resolved
and guerriJla numl.>cl"s began to incrl'ase. :\lean-
while the Guatcmalan Army, under Col. Carlos

III Ig82 the four g:uerrilla groups-FAR, PGT,
ECP and ORPA-formed an alliance, the 'Cuate-
malan ~atiOllal Rc,'olutionary LTnion' UR:\'G.
to ('(}-ordinate stratcgi<:s. TIl(: same year ~et an-
other coup brought G(·II. Efraill Rios ~Iontl to
p(mer, proclaiming a ~t.ltl: of siege in order to
·fini~h the guerrilla~ Ol]{'(' and for air. He \\;lS
suc("('(·c!t.'d, also through a ("oup. b~ Gen. ~lejias
\\ ho, in order to requalif~ for L"S aid. im·oh-ed
Guatemala increasingly in tbe anti-Sandinista
political campaign, and mo,·cd to\\arc!s grcalCI
democracy This allowed President Ccrezo to win
power inJ;lIluary IgtlB and. in February, toapply
the 'Esquipulas Accords' which united Central
.\mcriean president:. in ~Ia~ Ig8+ andJullc Ig87,
and to begin negotiations" ilh the UR~G..\
scelioll of the Arm) ,d!>hill~ to continue the ,\01r
ag:ainst the guerrillas rt.-spol1(led ,\ith an aborti,·e
coup. After losing more than 2.500 men official
.\rm) figures; guerrilla ('Stimates arc much hi~her
in Ihe civil war, the Army stm \\ ished to prc,·('nt
peace llegotiations. Today the 1.500 strong guer-
rillas arc confined to remote areas \\ hilst the Army
receives increased aid from the U.S.A.
Current forces
Although Guatemala still has territorial d illls,
Belizc-formerly a British colony, alld iIHr 21
Septl'lnber Ig81 an independent ComnUH1\\rahh
state protected by a British Arm~ .wd R.\f
garri~oll the Guatemalan Army is not prepafl-d
for .. con\"{:ntional \\ar, but is or't3ni,t'd lor
coulltl'r·insurgency operations. I t has expanded.
from 11.000 in 19Bo to 38,000. dispersed through-
out 19 ~Iilitary Zones. There are 39 infantry, one
~JiIitar) Police and one engineer battalions. one
armoured squadron, 18 field and twO AA bat-
teries. se\·cn reconnaissancc squadrons (with
Israeli RBY·I and US i\18 armoured cars), 1St
Paratroop Battalion (formed I January 197t) and
tbe 'K,\IBIL' Special FOITes Group (two bns.).
Tbl' last relllnant of the lonner brigade organis-
ation is the two-battalion I'residential Guard
Brig:ade. There arc fe\\ heavy \\eapons; most of the
lie;ht \\(~apons arc hracli.
TIJ(' 1.500-<;lron~ :'\<1\) including a 6so-\trong
:\Iarill(' B.ltlalion offour ('ompanics and the 700-
~Iroll.l; .\ir Forcc arc of minimal valuc. The Rios
:\Iontt ~o,('rnment orK;llli!)l'd a 'Ci,il Defence
Patrol" PDC, to ddeml ,illages against guerrilla
in(·Ul... ion~: tbough poorl) trained, it is 110\\c\·cr
. T15,OOO st rOllg.
 The guerrilla \Iar has cost al It'ast 20.000 li\'es
oflkial figure, . hut it has lost till' ilHellsit~ of the
1960~ "hen it \\,., Central ,\merica's most '>('rious
eonniet. .\lthoul.{h \I(·ak. thl' glH:rrilbs haH' not
h('ell eradicated in ,pite of ,\rmy mcthods~
ma~~i\(' displaeclTH'llu of lX>pulatiolls illto 'model
\illag:es' guarded h~ the PDC; raids agaiml re-
tLlg:LT camps ill ,\!('xico; and ri\'ir ,u,tion pro-
gr;Immcs, e,llit'd '(;llllS and Bt'alls'-,lnd tll(:ir
prnl'nee hasdi\'t'rtl'd the .\rll1~ fi'om a more actin:
r(,le in Central AmtTiClll af!;lir"
E/Sfllvflrlor
Thi, country. Ill<' ~mallest onl) 8.111 ,quare
mill's) and n10~t dl'llSdy populated in Ct'lllral
Amcrica, hassutlt'l'ed lrellll'lldollSSocial uplH'avals
fi)!' Illany year>;. [II 1932 17.000 30,000 peasants
I\('f(' killed by lhe dina tor ~laximiliano llern:"ll-
cit·,. ~Iartinez"'ann\ aftn til(.' ·I/,.ko R(·\ult·. aft('r
\Ihieh the eommu;li"'t k;tdl'r Farabundu ~Iarti
\1;" executed, In dl'knding: their ,celional iUll·IT·..."
lht· ruling 'Fourtt'l'n Familit.·.... ha\c relied OIl the
SUPIXlrt of the C nitnl Statl's, "hieh II as n:puledl~
ill\OI\'NI ill tht' l'OUp d'bat olJanllary Ig61, Frolll
1961 to 1979 Ihl' 'National COlleiliatioll Party'
(corllrolled b\ the Salvadorean I\rm)) dominated
the political S~el1t" lim:in,!.\:;1 I.{ro\1 in,!.\: extrellli~lll h~
opposition ~Toulh,
[II 1969 EI Salvador conducted lhe 'Football
War' :l).;'ainst Honduras, The ori~in oflhe dispute
"a, 300,000 illegal !'lahadorl'an immigrallls in
Hondura... and tl·n..iflll increaM'C1 after l\1 0 football
mat('ht'~ inJulle 19(~} had each rcsulted in \i~iling
supp0rtt·l.., brin!.;' aHacked b~ the local Honduran
or S,ll\ ;ldoreall ptlpUlalion, On I J.J uly thcre \1 ('re
hnrdn da"lws, and un the I ph the Salvadon"all
.\rlll) (peace-lime 'itrl..'Ilg'lb ~,500 with Ihree
sillgk-IJallaliOll il1lhlllr) regimellts, a Illcehanised
c:nalr), anilln) ami t.·ngineer battalion, expan-
ded to l~l'OOO b) muhilising I~ rt.'Sel"\T inr.'lntl·~
battalion.. cros'\4.'(1 into Honduras. occup~ ing
:\uc\a OcOtqX'qUl' :\onhcrn Honduras and EI
,\ll1atillo and Xac:tOI1t:' Easlern Honduras', The
3,jOO-.,lrollg- Honduran ,\rlll} I't'laliatcd "cakl~,
bUI iI' .\ir FOlTe t'\t'lltually ac!lic\(:d air superior-
ity, 011 18.Jul) Ille OIWlIlisalioll of American
Slatescallcd a t'l'asdire, finally illlposillgtTOllolllic
sanctions 011 EI Sal\ ador alil'r further It)('alised
fi).;'htin,I.{, and liwcinl.{ il lO \1 ithdr,l\\ from I-Ion-
durall ...oil h~ :} .\ugmL TIH' \1;\1' cost 3.000 de'ld
and II()unded, ami intensified the hostile c1imatc
b"'''H'CIl the t\lt>eulIntries,
Thi.. milital'~ ;lchelllur('made Salvador's inter-
nal ,itualioll clt-teriorate, and 110\1 gucrrilla grOllp...
l'll1l'rgt'cL In Ig70 a splinter group of Ihl: Salva-
dorean C:OIllIllUlli~1 Pany fllrlllcd the ']>upubl
Liheration Forn" Farabulldo ~Iani' (FPI.-
F~I , huildill.l.{ 011 experiCl1Cl" gained ill all al-
tl'mpted rcvolt ill the 1960s. III 197~ the 'Peoplc's
Rt'\()lutionar~ .\nll~' ERI) \Ia.. t'Stab1i,ltcd b~
Idi-\I ill!.;' Chri,ti,1l1 and ~laoist groups: in 1975 the
'.\rllled Forc<-'S ofXational Resisl<lIIce' Ft\RX 01'
RX), an ERl'splilllC"'~~TOllP,and tlil' 'Re\ohltion-
ary I'an~ ofCelllral.\llleric:lll WorkeD;' (PRTC),
Finally, ill 1979, ('arne lhl' 'Lihl'l';Hion Armed
Forces' (FAL), llit' military win)..\" of lIu' C01ll111U-
llistl'.lrl},
.\t present lhe FPL-F~L nO\1 called F~IL8,
"ith ~.600 guerrillas, and the ER p's 2.700 account
for 80 per cent of the gucrrilla strcnglh, the other
grOll(>S F.\RX 600 guerrillas', FAL,500 and
PRTC (250)~b<:ing Illuch Icss significant. There
are also three foreign guerrilla grotlps~A!faro ,rive
Car(~io (Ecuador), 7 II/mc Amam Weru) and SOl/dUG
A member of the Sal"ador.,...n National Guard'" crack
'COPARA' rapid reaction anti-terrorillt company pose" with
hi. ¥uIIOllta" Moo rifte-Srenad.,launc:her, Uulio A, Moat...)
Roja \'cnczucla -opcratin~ in EI Sah'ador. ,\11 A Salvador",• • • rmaur~ car ~w r",ias Hl"o.... IDovial
.pinst !u",rrill. positialls aear Sum;IMo., July 1"1. nr..e
groups arc supported b} political parties, trade «URDU (r;sht) i. r-.dlns Lh", Spa.a.ish .,mu- Dr R~~$
unions alld other national organisations. Di,,,,.,;
hi. compa.;•• i. th"'dri... u-ob.or....,."... (ViC>ftIu Tal_)

1980 sa\\ thc gucrrilla \\ ar e'«::dating from acts

of tcrrorism. 'I'he governmcnt sl(~pped UI) the sJx)Ilding to the :\rmy's West, Central and East
oppression and 'death squads'-s('('ret assassin- :\Jilitar} Zones:
ation grOllp~ reputedl} under extfl'mc·right
control-clllergcd. On 22 January an anti- 'Fdici:lIlo Ama' Western Front)-Santa Ana,
gm·crnnH:llI delllonstration \\as put do\\n \\ilh Ahuachapan, Sonsonata PrOVillC('Sj
'100 dead or injured; and 011 24 i\larch Archhishop ':\Iodesto Ramircz' (West Ccntral Front)-La
ROlllcro, all outspokcn critic of the government, Lilwrtad, San Salvador, Cuscutlan. Chala-
the extrelllC right and the ruling oligarchy. was t('I1;1I1,1.\"0;
gunned dowll in cold blood. Now the entire lcrt- 'Anastasio Aquino' (East Celltral Front)-La Paz,
wing opposilion united ill thc 'Dnnoeratic Rcvo- San Viccnte. Cabailas;
lutionary FrOllt' (FDR), composed of political 'Frall("is('o SadlCz' (Eastcfll Frollt)-Usulalan,
parties, trade unions and othcr national organis- San J\ligud, La Union, i\loraz;'tn.
ations. In Octoher 1980 the guerrillas combincd as
the 'Fambundo i\larti National Liberation Front' There \\crc 6,500 7,000 lull-time guerrillas in
Fi\1 LN"), allying with the FOR to co-ordinatc «>gular units: local guerrilla groups. \\hose part-
political and diplomatic action, \\ith the ambition time: Illembcrs combined fighting with their usual
ofrepc,lIing the Sandinista victory ill ~icaragua in jobs: and support groups. providing information,
July 1979· suppli('S. evacuation and escape-routt'S,
The guerrillas divided their activit) into four In OecemlX'r 1980 CS Pr('SidentJimmy Cartcr
ZOI1(,"S, co\Cring EI Salvador's '4- provinces, named suspcnd('(! militar} aid to the S<tl\'adorean Gov-
afler r.,motls anti-government activists, and corre- ernmcllt in responsc to human rights abuSf.'S b~ the

'3
 \'incial capitals, Despite Army countcr·otlCmivcs
the F~ILj': maintained the pressure through 1982
and into 1983,011 27.Janu;u") IgB2 it attacked the
Air Force IIQ at lIopango Airbase. Central Sal.
\'ador, dt'Stro~ in~ or damaging 12 aircraft and
,>('\'('n helicopters almost 50 per cent of .\ir Force
str('ng:th -Im...cs imlllediately made ~ood b) the
L-nited Statc,>, On 28Januar;. IgB3thcy attacked I
Bri~ade IIQ ncar San Salvador, The) no\\ can·
trolled ollc-third of the countn. but were dcnied
final \icwr) b) continuing L-S aid to the Salva-
d()J'{'~lIl ,\rm\,

B~ lllicl-l!)H:~ the .\rm)'" po,itiOll began I()

Salvador"aninfanlryonlhemarch,lhellold;er(righl)c:arry-
;ng a morlar tube. (V;c:enle Talon)
Arlll) , National Police and l\ational Cuard; and
imprme. II'> numbers 15,000 1!)80 ,>trenglh.
].000 and L'S a{hi.. CI"i, ()fTi("iall~ limited to 5.').
\\ere Irall,filrmillg it ill to a l()l'ce \\ith three
nllllpOlll'lll,: six brig'adc~ (f(Jl'merJ) three) fill'
"t;ltic c!efelllT oftO\\ ns alld slr;lle!{ic<lll} important
locltiotls; Iwavil) anned BIRIA Battalions,
1,100 1.IO() strong'. airponahlc. u~in,l.( Bell UH-
I H helkoptt'l"s in '<;earch and destroy' missions;

inJallUar) Ig81 the guerrillas Iaullcht·d a COuntry· and I I Ran,l{c'r Battalions. small ': 350 ~oostrol\g).
\\ide ~(,Ileral oOensivc. The .\rm). "ithout the li~htl~ armed and mobile, distributed nne per
resourn"'l0 retaliate. had to "ail until.Jul) when
Ronald Reag:an's Republican admini~tration,
seeill~ in the g:uerrillas a SO\ict·backed communist
threat. resumed aid. The .\rm~, b) stricti) apply-
inl{ the draft la\\, cxpandcd its Ilumbers and
established 11('\\ countcr-insurg:cllc) units: the 'Im-
lll('Cliate Reaction Infantr) Battalions' BIRJ.\,
of\\hich the ',\tlacalr Battalion foug:llI in the.Jul)
coulller-oflensin', and in late 1983 the ·Cal.adorcs·
Ralll{ers).
The f.\"uerrillas achieved SC\Tral diplomatic suc-
cesses, notably Ihe Franco·:\!t'xican declaration of
August Ig81, recof.\"llising the FDR.F:\ILN as a
legitimate force. In June Ig8':.! F~ILN guerrillas
had st'ized control of Chalalenango Province
(Cetltral Salvador) and J\loraz;in (Eastern Sal-
vador), and established strong enclaves elsewhere,
such as Volcan de Guazapa (San Sal\'ador), \\ hich
the Army scarcely dared enter. Guerrilla tactics
included s.'lbota~ing lines of('ommunication, pub-
lic utilities, electrical and lelephon(' lines; attacks
on militu) bases and brigade I-IQs, often success-
ful; and tcmporarily occuprin~ to\\ ns. even pro-

Sa.l dorean lroopeu or llo.e 'EI Pilpil' Special Forces &1.1-

tali DO d,e onarc:h, proudly dU;play"'~ lb,,;r maroon MreUl
w:illo. baltalion bad~e. (V;c:eDte TatoD)
pro,inC(', Irain('d ill counter-insurgcllc) al a local
Ind, The:.e troops were wpponed h~ pro-
~mmN. from the 'Ci,'ie-:\lilitM) ,\clion Illsli·
lUI' and '~aliOIMI c:ommi...."iOIl for iiI(" Rehuild-
in~ of ,\rea:.', l'olilic;i1ly, Ihe d<'Ttion of Chris Ii an
[)(omocral JOS(' :\apolcoll Duarte in .\Ia~ 1983
a\oidcd an illlt'l1~ificatioll or hostilities hC'tllccn
('. trcllle-rig-ht p;ll'arnilitar) g:roups and tht, g:ucr-
rillas, Kew 'loll illtCllSity \\,lr' lactics p1'Opo~cd by
C. achiscrs IICl'(' i11lcndcd to ("ontain tile g-ucrril-
lOll> in certain pnH'inces II hen' Ihe) \\Otdd 1)('
deitro~ed b) th... \rlll) , and to promote ci"ic
aClion projech to di'>Collra~e IO('al \lIpport lor tIl('
~errillas,
Since IgBl L'S ~hipm{'llt\ or 1I11glJ('~ ,)Oo.\ID
attad. helicopter,. Bell L'II-I:\1 hdim}>t<"r HUll-
ships. Douglas (:-17 'putrtlu' .\Ia!-(ic Dra,~(Jn' and
,\·37B groulld-att<ld: 'lircr<lft. modern tn'h- A Salvador...n armed e.cort for ",uppl.ie. bound for Sanl.
Clara, c.,nlr., of an op.,ralio" againlil FMLN gu.,rrilla. in
nolog). and imprm'cd traillill\\" of Sail'adorc:l1I AUllu.II9811.(Vi«nt.. Talon)
troops. haw' enabled the .\rm) to contain ,IJ('
~uerrillas. sllill,!{ing the balance ill it.'> l;l\ollr ~ill('"(' lll(' FDR-F.\I L:\ li'om the end of IgBt: lhe\l'l'lldl·d
1985. and thu'> brillE;"in~ the I\ar to a stalem;ltl'. \\ithout ~U('Ce,,~. but \\ere fl',>utlwd in .\lI~lISt IgB7
Onc(" in 1>01\('1'. Duarte 1)('t.:";Ullle~otia,iOlh\\ith aft('r the :wd E'>quipulas .\ccord. \\ilh Ihe saml:
di~.lppoilltin~ re'>ult .. \t pre'>Cnt the F:\IL~ cannot
FMLN I"urillall proudly display lh...ir red and while bauJe- retaill control of Iar~c arCilS, a<; in 1980. but ldll
Ibl 10 lJr,e v;nall:en of San .'ra"ci"co Javier, U.ulu(an
Pro"inc.., caplured fn>rn lh.. Salvador..an Anny Ihe pr.. "iou~ operate fred) throll~hollt the country. atl.ld.inl!,
cby, 25 January '983' Two of Ihe ,uerrillas w... r complete lhe Arm) and til\' economic infrastructure. ilnd i,
_Uil.ry uniform., only lack of ;n.ngni. distinguilOhing I.hcm
from Il:0v.,rnm..nllroups (VicenleTalon) now \t rung- el1ollJ.:h 10 carry the wars to the lOll us.

'5

Current forces
The .\rm) has, ~3.(x)O men, dividilll.\' til(' l'uuntr~
into three ;"liritar~ ZOlle,> \\'l'~1. C('ntral and
East. g-arrisollcd h) six I nlhntr~ Bri.l.\'adl"s (for-
1lll'l'ly rl",l..(irncllts): 2nd Brig-ade (HQS<llIla Ana) in
thl" \\'e~tl"rll ZOllC: ph (ChalatcnallKO and 5th
lSan \'icerllel ill CClltral; 3rd ISall ~liguel and
6th lCsulutalil ill Ea~tl·rn. ,\ Brigade has thrccor
four illl;:lIltr) hallaliOlh numbered illh'rnall~
tSt ~th, totallilll.\' 11 ballalioll.... There arc :tlso
<;('\en illdqx-nclcllt ';"lilitar) Oetachllwllt~'. e:tch
1\\0 or threc hatlaliorh ... tron~-D;"II Chalaten-
;lIIgo ,D;"12 Sellsuntep{'que,.0;"13 La L:nioll ,
0;"1\ San Francisco GOIera, D;"IS
(Cojutepcque), Di\16 {Sonsonate}, D;"I i
(Alluaehapall) allc1 the Engineer Detachmelll
(Zacateroillca). E;ICh hrigadcordetachmcllt com-
mander (a colond) l'UlltroJs all Army :llld Polin'
t'ornhat units ill his arca, including tht' 'Anti-
Terrorist Reactioll Inntntr) Battaliolls' (BIATs)
lorrn('d ill lllall) garrisons and the 14 provincially
1I11OC'lled Rall~er Battalions c.g, 'Cazadores
Jiboa', 'Cazaclofl-s ~onualco' Indq)(:ndelltllnits
include the ...ix 'BI RI.\s· ',\tlacatl', 'Ramon Bdl-
oso', '~\tonar all f'i)flm'd 19& . ,pipir, ';"Ianucl
.JuS(' Arce' both f(mlled 1983) and 'Eusebio
Brileamontc·. Otll('rs arc thc 'Tcniellll' Coronel
Os(';1I' Osorio' Artillery Reg!. (Ihn'(' battalions),
rOllll'OlIing the A/\ Dc/I'ne(' Bn. (companies div-
ided I)(,t\\e('n Ilopang:o .\irba<;c and 3rd Brigadc';
lht· C'l\;\lr~ Rt,l.\'!. t\HI mechani<;('(1 bm .. HQ
CU).. Rccondo Group: the ,\irhonll' Bn.
lIopan~o "iIlCC I9BJ n'\erting: to ,\nn) cOlllrol:
al)(I t\HI hig:hl~ cl;,,~ifi{'d 'Sped:tl Forn'" Groups'
COESJ-l,t 'Prial' rJ.RRI' unill, :.!lId 'llacha'
S,\S-t~pt' unil .
Tltere is a i,50o-strollg ,\ir Forc(', and the 1,500-
strOllg Navy includt'S tht' 6oo-...trung 'l'l de Octo-
bre' ;"larine 1311. (BIi\I) at Usulutan, alld the
'Barracuda' and 'Piranha' I\a\-al Commando
companies each 100 men at La L:nion. There arc
also ],600 :\'alional Guard Rural Securit) I, 6,000
:\'ational Police L' rhan Sccurity ,2,-100 Treasury
Police Frolllier Guards and 1 ],000 Civil Defelice
\'illa~(' militia. All af(' hea\ily involved in the
\\ar. Although trainillg and morale has improved
since 1980 Ihe Armed Forces do not appear to be
able 10 defeat 6,500 7,000 regular Fi\1 LN
guerrillas.
EI Salvador's futurc remains unclear, Duarte's
terminal cancer forced him to withdraw /i'om the
;"larch 1989 IlresidClllial EleCliolls, which were
\\011 b) Roheriod'Aubuisson'sextreme right-wing
'Nalion:lliSI Repuhlic:tn Alliance' p:trl),
(,\RENA). In Septcmber 1989 AREi\A initiated
ncgotiations with th(' F;"IL~, but \\ith little
succe:ss. The war has COSI iO,ooo liw'S (mostl)
reprisal victims rather th:ln casualties of the fighl-
ing), and thecxileofollcquarlcrofthe population.
The go\ernmelll rcmains dependent 011 Uniled
Slalcsaid.

HOllduras
This thinly populated, impoverished country is <l
ha\'cn of peace compared with the guerrilla wars
dcvastating Guatcm,t!a, El Salvador and Nica-
ragua. 'fhe Hondur'lll Armed Forces regularly
illlcrvcnc in politics, but lIot with the same
brutality as in neighbouring countries; and the
go\'crnrncnt, though basically conservative, is sen-
sitive 10 developing social trends.
A guerrilla movcmCIl1, lhe 'Cinchoncros',
existed at the end or lht last century, but the
present level of guerrilla activity is minimal.
Today's guerrilla organisations commenced oper-
ations in 1975, but were bardly noticed until the
Sandinislil victory in Nicaragua in July 1979.
Thai year the 'People's Liberation Forces-
Cincboncros' (FPL-C) was formed; in Ig80 the
'\Ioraziin National Liberation Front' (FMLN),
and in Ig81 the 'Rcvolutionary People's Forces-
LorCllzo Zelaya' (FPR-LZ), The Salvadorean
PRTC is also acti\·c. III the early J970S these
groups carried out kidnappings and assassinations
in the towns, and in Ig87 agreed to co-ordinate
activities.
The expansion orthe Honduran Army (10,000
in J980; 14,600 tOday) is not due to the guerrillas,
but to a finn military alliance concluded with the
Reagan administration. The United States has
decided to transform Honduras into the 'aircraft·
carricr' of the region. There are virtually con-
tinuous large US-Honduran military manoeuvres
in counter-insurgency. The United States military
presence is permanent in large bases such as
Palmerola, and the Americans have financed a
large road and airfield construction programme,
with dear military implications, Although Hon·
duras is traditionally hostile to EI Salvador, the
J\\'O armies collaborate in operations against S"I-
vadorean F?\ILl'\ guerrillas on Honduras's south-
em border, permitling the establishment of the
'Regional ?\Iilitary Training Centre' (CRElvt) in
.\Iay 1983 to train SalYadorean battalions. Fin-
ally, Honduras hosts the main operational base of
the Nicaraguan 'Contras', with thousancls of men
Honduran Artned Forces Cotntnander Gen. Gustavo Alvarez
Martinrz in '986 with Honduran cotntnandeu in fidd uni.
fortn. Note the tni"ture of tnual lind subdued insignia, now
unifortnly subdued; and th., 'duck-hunter' Clitnouftalle fat_
igu.,s worn by the officer displaying jUtnp-winlls on his cap.
See Plate E.
'7

A!varelr.:o.I. p~•• conferel,,:e 0" .6 "USUSI .g.8:J, .nnounci..s
H<mduras'. "IV;I..;on 10 U..iled SI.tK troops to corne 10
Honduras 10 hetp confronl S.ndini"•• inaani...". (V;C..... I.,
Talo.)
along the eastern border. \Iho regular!} lea\'(: for
offensi\c mi~ions in :\iearagua.
Since l!)Sa there ha\{' been hundreds of border
violations: the Sandil1i:-.ws complain about 'Con-
tra' incursions and unauthorised o\'erOights ill
i'\icaraguan airspace, the IlandurallS about San·
dinisla L1nilS pursuing 'Coillras' illlO Honduras~
operalions thaI \1 ('I"e onl) opposed b} lhe Hon·
duran Arm} from tilt' end 01'1986.
In Oetolwr IgHb tIll' Iionduran Arm}. L:S-
trained and equipped. I\as easil) able to mount iI
2,500-l11an operatiOll to pI'nellt FPL-(: starting a
guerrill;. \larlHlthe norther'll coast IlI'ar La Cciba,
and b('tll('('ll 7 and I I DeCl'mber 1986 itl'epcllt:d a
Sandinista il1cllr~iol1 into £1 Parai:,>o (South-Ea~t
Honduras). Tl\('sc ('o-ordinated air-ground oper-
ations dt:lllollstralcd illlpru\'('d Army dli..'cti\TIWSS
since its humiliatioll in the I!)69 . Football \\'ar'
'I'he HOlldurall-i'\il"araguan ~itualioll bas IJecn
called 'undedared II ar', ami horder incidenb arc
inuea:-.ing in ~eriOll'lll"S. culminating ill the
:"Ibrch 1988 il1cidellt \"It'll L:S i·lilt' troops were
rushed to Honduras to help rqJeI Ilhat wa:-.
Ihought to be a full-,>I',t1e Sandinista ilH"a...iOll. and
a large operation \Ia,> mOUllled 10 t'xpd the
intrudlTS. ;'\Ie\('r 11('1'(' I-Iondura~ and Xicara!;"ua
c1o~er 10 II ar. In summl'r 1969. r(,,~lIhillg li'om the
a~r('l'm('lItS b~ the Central .\mnic<l1I Pn:~idcllt~,
•8
HOJ1dura~ dt'cided to IJt'gill expelling- the COlllraS
fi'om ilS territor).
Curren I forces
The 11.6oo-~trollg Ilondur,lI1 Army has thrcc
illl:llltr) hril{adt'~, ca(']l 1\ itll olll'aniller) and thrt'('
inl:llltr~ baualiom; Ii\(' independent illl'amfY hal-
talioll~: Dllt' anllollred ea\alr) l't'gillll'nt (British
Scorpion and Scimitar tank". Saladin and Israeli
RBY-I armoured cal' : 011(' il1dept'ndnll artillery
rc~imctlt: olle (·tll{inCl'f haualion.: til(' 'SptTi,ll
Force' a baualiOll. fonll('d 1~)73 .: and til(' Pn·sid·
emial Guard COmpilll). The 'Cobra Police
Squadron' an airborne ullil, silll'(' 1!)S3 baltalion-
~i/c i:-. llndt'r Xational Police control.
The pn'~cnC(' of CS trl.lOlh and 'Conlras', the
alliancc \1 ilh the traditional t:tlem~ EI Sakador,
and Ihe COlhlant ri .. J.. of a damal{in~ \1 ar \\ ith
Sicara~ua, ha\e ,.11 ,~elll'ralcd much tension in
Hondllra~, c\ idellced h) the ho,>tile dt'lllomtratioll
outsid(' thc Ll1itt'd Statt·,> Emha'>.s) ill the capital.
TCl{uci~:.lpa. in .\prilt988.
Nimmg/{{f
The \'icarag:uan Ci\ il "'ar, the IOllgt·'" and mOSI
inlenst' in Central .\nl('ril'a, call he tr:HTd hack to
the relX'llion al.::ainst tIlt' 1011.1{ L'nitl'd Statr<; OCI"lI-
patioll, t9'2 33. The libnal populist Cen.
Augusto Cesar Salldino led his I,OOO-Strong
'National SO\·cn.:ig:nIY Defellce Army' (EDSN)
from EI Chipott', North-\\'est Nicaragua, from
1926 until the United States withdrawal ill 1933,
when elections were hdd.
III 192:) thc United StOites had estahli<;hcd the
Guardia. \'(frio/lal witll An;l:,>tasio 'Tacho' SOl11oza
Card;. as Chief Diret'lor. III 1931 SOlllOza had
Sandino killed and 011 2.Julle 1936 appointcd
hi11l~elfpre~idellt, depo~illg Pn'sidelltJ uall Sacusa:
Somoza ITtainnl ("011lml oflht· Guard ami crushed
thc EDS.\', installing a corrupt dictatorship linked
10 CS business illt{·re~ts. I Ie died in 1956, and his
elder ~on Luis SOlllo/.a Deba) 1e ~lIccel'ded as Chief
Director and Pre<;idl'llI; he died in t962. and
·Tacho...· ~lT()nd SOli .\na~t:hio 'Tachito' SOTlloza
DeIJa}1t- ht'CanH' Chid' Diret'lOr and ill 1965
Presidelli .
 This gan,{{ster regime soon earned dw hatred of
most sections of the population, leaving the
Guard-which combined military and police
functions-as its only powerbase, Efficient, bnllal,
cOIBtantly modernised, the Guard was the per-
~onal instnllllt:lIt of the Somoza I:unily, 'an army
OCCUP} illg its 011'11 cuulltry'.
[n 1962 Sandino·s memory ,lIld Castro"s success
in Cuba led to tht: lormation of tht: 'Sandinista
:\'ational Libcration Front' (FSL;-.r), whose illitial
rllral <lnd Urb<lll g:uerrilb successes were jeopar-
dised by a Guard COUrlter-ollcnsi\T in 1963 in the
Boca} region. The repression a,{{<linst till.: FSLN
and other opposition groups increased ill 19GG, [n
196] hundreds ot" unarmed delnOllstrators wnc
gunned down, causing- an escalation ill the war. In
.\ug'ust 196] National Guard operations in Pan-
cas;in (South-\Vest Nicaragua) in([i<:ted snious
lossl's on the FSLN, forcing it to scale dowll its
acti\·ilies lorse\'<:ral years: but allti-Somuza fCcling-
continued lln.lbated as Somoza's illegal methods
weI"(' exposnl, notably when the Guard pocketed
Eatrenched Sandinista guerrillas defend Masaya City with
captured M, Garand riftes against detcrmined but unSuc-
,,"s(ul counterattack" by the Nicaraguan National Guard on
'9June '979> in thc final campaign of the war. (ViceoteTalon)
much of the international aid sellt alie!" the
J\lanagua earthquake 01'23 December 1972
The crisis of the J970S
Oil 27 December 1974 the FSLN scored a huge
propa,{{anda coup by taking hostage, and ransom-
ing. some top go\'ernment offi.ials and Turner B,
Shelton, the United States Ambassador. The
Guard responded with increased repression in the
period 1975 6, In January 1978 Pedro Joaquin
Chamorro, editor of the main opposition news-
paper I.a Prensa, was murdered by the Guard; the
resulting public indignation led to demonstrations
and an unsuccessful general Slrikc organised by the
FSLi\. In August there werc popular uprisings ill
provincial towns. including i\[atagalpa,Jillotepa,
Estcli and l\lasa\'a.
The FSLN, 500 1,000 scrong in 197G, I1llm-
bered in late 19783,000 regular guerrillas. It was
dividcd into three 'tendencies'; the pluralist Terce-
ris/as (Third Force), including Christian, social
democrat and middle-class opposition, lormed in
1976 by Daniel and Umberto Ortega Saavedra
and Eden Pastora Gomez, was the largest (2,000
gucrrillas) and boldest, operating in southern
Nicaragua. The i\larxists-Tomas Borge's pro-
'9

A lroope.. or d.e Hit~ Irn~utar W.rr...e Ban....ion eoro de
="::J~~:~~,:':''::;:r~p;~c~~:S~:':!yc~~;:
Ib"'926-33'" urreetion). H..........,. t.he dill....cti".. SandinillUl
6..ld lUll d.. ri"otd rrom t.h.. So,,;.. t tropical hat, ...d carriu ....
AKM.
Cuba 'Prolonged I)eoplc's War' (GPI»), formcr
rural g"ucrril1as, and Jaime Wheelock's ~laoisl
'Proletarians', formed in 1975 from forrner urban
guerrillas-operated in the north.
In cady 1978 the 7,ooo-strong Nicaraguan
National Guard was organised for illtcrnal secur-
ity with 16 inf:lIltry companies, the Presidential
Guard Battalion, one mechanised company, one
engineer battalion. a field artillery ballcry and an
A1\ ballcl'}'. The only tactical unit \\as the elite
700-strong 'Somoza Combat B:H1alion' under
'Tachito's' son, :\Iaj. Anastasio Somoza POrtocar-
rero. B~ July 1979 ne\\ recruits. trained at the
'Infalltr~ Basic Training School' EEBJ!. had
swollen theGliard'sstrength to 14 15.000. somc in
new 'Special Countcr-insurgenq 8ri~ades·. These
forces. adequate to crush earlier revolts, could not
now entirely eliminate the FSLN.
Sandinistas date thc beginning of the final
campaig:n from 22 August [978, whcn 25 T,,(~r;s/a
guerrillas. under Pastora ('Comandantc Cero'-
Commander Zero" occupied the N:ltionall)alaee.
took 2,000 hostages, and escaped to Panama. The
Caner administration in Washington tried to
crcate a bl'Oad anti-Somoza political front from
the FSLX and consen"ative UDEL and FAO
political groups. bm this plan foundered on 31
:'\ovember 1978 \\hen Somoza refu:.cd to stand
dO\\I1. ~o\\ there was noahcrn:lIivc to \\ar.
On,~ :\Ia) 19i9 there werc morc armed upris-
ings in to\\ns such as Leon. ~Iatagalpa, :\lasaya
and cvcn ~bnagua. The FSLN \\:lS now better
organised militarily. and the Guard was fOrced to
retreat to the 1111;lI1try Training School and Man-
agua airport, Air Force HQ, where the FSLN
besieged it. After 30 days the Guard regained
control of ~Ianaglla, but this could 110t aller the
course at" the war. Other !Own$ were under siege,
and more guerrilla columns moved from bascs on
the Costa Rican and Honduran borders and
liberatcd area.s in CClllral Nicaragua towards
~Ianagua, \\hich 5.000 guerrillas :lnd 15,000
supporting militia attacked. On [i.J uly Somoza
and man} Guard officers nt.'d; Ihe undefeated but
demoralised Guard disintegrated, man)' cnlistt.'d
men being taken prisoner \\hen. on 19J1Ily. the
FSL~ took ~Ianagua.
The Contra War
The figllting" \\a~ not o\'cr, for a ne\\ guerrilla war,
this time against the FSL;-':, began almost illlllledi-
atcJ~. Tht'!"c \\cre t\\'o reasons for this. \"hen the
Sandinista.Jullta tried to impose its radical ~larx­
ist bclicli; on the broadly based Government at"
National Construction the non-FSLN panics
opposed it. lIot \\:lIHing another dictatorship to
succeed SomO/.a's. Then some non-~I arxist leaders
lcfi th(' FSLN itself-in April 1980 \'iolela Barrios
de ChOIllOl'rO, \dfc of the I,a Prmsa ('(Iitol" rnur-
derl..'(! b\ the Guard. and Alfonso Robelo who.
\\ith E~lcll Pastora who rcsign('(! in 1981),
founded the .\RDE 'Contra' group. Secondly. the
Reagan administration sa\\ the Sandinistas as a
hardlil1C commllni:st regime sllpponilll;" ckstabilis-
ing ~uerrilla mO\"Clllents in Cclltral.\merica. and
stopped the 118 million dollar aid programme
 \'oled b) Con~]'ess in 1979. "Regional Commands' (e.g. 'Regional Command
Sornoza's followl.:rs in exile. called 'Somocistas' Quilali'; and lllt" largest. 'Jorge Salazar 2", c1aim-
b) the Sandin]!>!as. organis('d ,hr<:c groups of ing 6.000 mell ill I 8+}. The 'Armed Forces of
'0 . unrics In tg80:tllc 15 ~atl()nal Kt'sistallc{' .~ , , und(:r ternal
September Legion', \\llh "cniol" Guard officers ChamQl'fO. an.' alIiI'd to fDA.
under Col. Enriqul' Bermudez "arela. former In IgBJ a second frOll1 \\as opened on the Co
ca- mililar) altadu::' in Wa_"hilH.;-lon: the 'Xational Ric.U1 fronlln \\illllhdi:>rll1ationofthc 'DemO(
ler Democratic RC\'olutiOll:ln .\ssocialion' tit' Rc\ohllionary .\lli.met·' .\ROE group Ullf
n~ .\DRE:\" " with junior ofliccrs; and the ':\ational Rohdo, and its milita~ \\ill~, the 3,ooo-~tf(
tn Liberation .\rmy' EL:\, with enlisted mcn, 'Sandini,ta R(Tolutionar~ Front', kd by E(
lee HO\\l'\'("r, it wa~ not until Ronald Rea~an's prcsi· Pa~tora and organi~cd in ·ZOIH..~'
a,. (it'llq in JanUiu'y Ig81 that the~ had the backing 'Comanclant(";, column.., platoons and squa
toconUll("nC(' operation,. In f;\ct the Contra war is The ,ituation is funher compli('ah:d by the
,I da~~ic example of illdin'ct e:'\ternal military tahli..hm("nt ill Ig81 oftwoguel'rilla armies arne
illlern'ntion. the \li"kito Indians ol"thc (",hi coast. a COllllllllll
In Ig82 tl1('se groups tiwllled Ihe 'Nicaraguan \\!lith had suflcred t;xces,~('s at 111\: hands of
Democratic..' Forcc' (FDN) \lith t\dolfo Calero Salldinistas-St('adman Fagoth ;\ILillcr's 'N.
,'s Porlocarrero as political leader and Bermudez as 111';\', allied to FDi\)FAR;"I, and Brooklyn River
lIlI military commander. They establishcd training ';\Ii"urasata', formed Ig82 as a splintc!' group r
In ba,es ill Guatemala and Florida and operational ':\Ii"ura' amI alliecl to '~\RDE' ulltil IgRj.,
bast'S in Honduras, 'I'll(' FD,~, 5,000 strong in September 1985 a third ,\liskito ~roup, 'f<\.isa
~~ lC)S:.!, 10 15,000 in mid-lg81, operates in 'Dcwch· \\ ilh 1,000 ~,ooo guerrillas, \\ as formed by Di(
nU'llis', 'Groups' and zoo 2:io·strOIl~ 'Ta~k Saadiai.'. MW(a. u. clo.araetuinic liS....... .-ifon:n••
Forn',' ('.~,
"l';lsk Force P;llI,a...lll "g-rouped illlo (orapho'ovaplo.
\\'~clilr after Fag-ulh ~llIToslldl~ and Rivna L1tl-
sLlccessf'ull} held pean'·lalks II illl til\' Sall{lilli~las.
.\Ithollg-h lhe COlltras at tempI 10 presl'rlt a good
public image, their gt'lluitld~ lilwnariall demcnlS
arc cum promised I») ass\)("iatiIJlI Ilitll tht: pro-
Sorno!.a gruups, TIlt"ir Inel of ;u'ti\it~ ill("J't:ast:d
li'om 15 altacks '9K" jR (19R..! , to owr 600
( 198:J . 'l'IIl'~ ("oncelltrall' on tTOlHlInil' targt:b, the
most 1I0lOriOllS altad. h('inl{ the minilll{ of" ;,\iea-
rag:u;\Il IXln, ill 1983, II hich threalt:llt'd to destro~
lhe coulltr~ \ t'conUlll), ,lIld in 1\ hidl, aceordill\{ to
the Intemational Court in the lIa\{llt" the CI.\
Ilcreill\ohed. Tht'n' ha\(' hl't:n 111<111\ \iolationsof
:\icarag:uan ail1>pare h~ ,lirC1"i1n 'UPI;I~in1{ Contra
lidd units, but including: the homhing:of\lanag:ua
.\irport inll)8:i.
As ... Cuba, wom .... Ii......... in Ih .. Niearllpan SandiniSla
l'olilitia 0 .. an ~ual (oolinS with m ..n.
The S;l1ldillistas hal't' n;:H'lt'd to this threat hy
massil'Cl} c:.;pandillg lIlt'ir arm) the Hjnc/Iii
PO/Jil/II/"S{//ulilliJ/fI, (EPS),ltll"llll'd "" August IqHo,
and the Milieia /~o/JU/ar /-,(ll/dillisto, lormcd 20 Fcb-
ruar~ IgHo-alld I») (1IJtaillirtg' IleapOlls li'om
France from De('t'1l1ber 1981) and the Soviet
L'nion o!iell Ii" Cuha} a!in United Slates :lid
('(·ascd.
t983 wa~ undoubtedl} thc Salldinist:ls' worst
year, \\ith constant Contra pressure from lhe
Honduran and Co~ta Rican IXlrder :lreas, and
Lnited States intervention in Grenada October
1983 ,\ide!} interpreted a.., a rehearsal for an
illva..,iOIl of:\ic3ragua. B) 198.~ the FO~ alone had
3,000 of its 15,000 men l>erlllanentJ~ stationed in
Zelaya Oepartrncllt, Eastern Xicaragua. Attacks
increas(..d to 9-~8, but thi.., was a 100\er rate of
increase than in 1983, and 1981 cannO\\ be seen as
a turning point \\hen the Sandinistas gained the
initiatin-.
Thc gO\ernment made a paC! 1\ ilh some of the
\liskito Indians, \\ho nOI\ surrendered their
I\eapons. On 30 \Ia~ 1!)8+ Eden IJastora escaped
an assassination bomb. bUI I\as expelled from
.\ROE \\hell, as a 'truC' Sandinista', he refused to
all) I\ilh the 'Solllocista' FD;\', as n.·quired by the
L'nitcd States. Rol>elo look ol'er ,\ROE command
and made Ihe alliance, hut ARDE's strength
declined. It was now ol)\'ious that, notwithstand-
ing massi\e CS aid, the Contra 'Freedom
FightcTs'-as Cnitcd SlateS omcials called thclll-
could not delil'cr lhe military success required in
return for sllch a huge invcstlllcnt in training and
equipment, i\tean\\hile the FSLN performed well
in nalional clectioll~, defeating Ihe 'Democratic
COlll'ergcncc', a union ofopposition parties.
The Sandinislas expected;lll increase in Contra
pres~ure with the ~ccorld Reagan administration
starting January 1985, as the US president broke
on-the United States·Niearaguan bilateral talks in
\Ianzanillo (i\lexico). imposing a trade embargo
in April. In spite of the US Congrcss'ssuspension of
Contra aid in Ig8.~ the administration deli"ered 25
million dollars of aid, increasing to 100 million in
IgS6; but there I\'as no corresponding Contra
breakthrough. although atlacksjurnpcd to 1,367
(lgS5 and almost 3,000 (1986), .\RDE guerrilla
activity dwindled to virtual!) nothing. mainly due
to a stricter interpretation of their lleutrality by the

Co~t:l Ricans. In the north EI)S units Ilcre rcsist-
ing- COlltra attacks and ]JllJ'511ing them to their
Honduran bases, le:lving a few small FDN groups
in central and southern Nicaragua, entirely de-
pendent on air-dropped supplies. FromJulIc 1985
It'miDlI' arose bctlle('n ex-National Guardsmen
<lnd other Contras, all no\\ oflicially li;dc....l\ed in
the ':'\atiOllal Opposition Lnion' C:\O, The
L' nited States \\ a:. nOlI 5\1 itchinE; support Cram the
Contras to the Honduran .\rm~, eXI)('ctin~ an
t'\t:'ntual war \Iith :'\icilragua. Border c1"sh<."S
bet\\ccllthe t\IO armies inere'hed dr:lmaticall\ in
1986, reaching a level of'uncleclared \\ aI". ' mant'nt peace, held in ~Iall:lg-lla, \\ere suspended
B) 1987 the cflorts of the allti-S:lndilli.<,ta co-
alitiOl1 were dearly in vain; the Conlras could nOt
achievc military victory, :llld though the economic
hlockade had severely damaged the Nicaraguan
economy, it had not destroyed it. The Sandinistas
abandoned their 'state of sic~e' and boldl) pro-
posl'd direct negotiation.'; \1 ith the Colltras, Con-
taCh \\ ith the 'Xational Rl'~istanee' R:'\ ,thl' n('\\
Ilame Cor C:\O. commenced at the end of IgB7,
but \\ ithout apprl'ciable SllCCess. In Febrlla'1 1988
the L'nitcd States Congres.s finall) prc\'('llled all
Contra aid, Corcing the R:'\ to seek a negotiated
'>cttkntellt. The Sandillistas lIrgelltl~ nceded
pean" as the war (and gOI'eflllllent incompetence)
had provoked a seriollS cconomic crisis al1d tlu:
~ .
FDN Conlra llu.,rrilJa", in '9&1, 80m., wear Ihe blu~r«n
(atilluell, olhen camouflalle uniforms and w.,hbinS nOI di..i.
miiarlO Iholle orlhe Sandini"'I'" en.,my, They carry a mo.lure
o(US.!iuppli.,d M.6 and Caplur.,d A.KM weaponll'
pl'opk, increasingly discontented, were turning to
the opposition Democratic Convergence.
On I ,\pril 1988 the Sandinistas and RN
conclud("(1 a ceilsdire at Sapoa, valid for twO
month.. "lid nOlle\\ .. bl(', This agreement \\ as not
\\ekollled b~ th(' CS gOlcrtlment nor by Bcr-
mud('"l.. but I\as acct'j)tt'd b) the rest of the RN and
the Dl'mocratic COll\ergt'nce. Talks about a per-
in .June through the intr:tmigence of Bermudez's
!ollol\cl's, and the S;tllditli~ta.. now considered re-
openin~ hostilities to deal the final blow to the
COnl1';tS bdore talks lI't're re'>L1llled in Guatemala
ill Septl'mher 1988, During 1989 'Contra' strength
declined, as thc 11('\\ Bush Administration backed
Honduran effort'> to expel them from Honduran
ha:.~, and the Sandinista gO\crnmellt began to
Iilxralise,
Current forces
:\icaral{u<l h,,:. ~n('n :\Iilit<lr~ Rq~ion"-ISt J-1Q
E'>teli {'olefing E..teli, .\ladriz and XUl'v:. Sego,ia
Dl'partnH'l1ts; 2nd (:hin:lI1dega)-J,l'on, Chinan-
ck).{a: :~rd (.\bllag-ua) :\Ianagua: ph (i\lata-

Ed",. P...IO.... ia 19a.., boll! phy.ically and politically a
..hadow or hi. rOrnH~r lieJr, we.rias • aewly srown 'CalJlrO'
beard., bUI rel.ininll; hi. cap badge in Sandin'''la <:oloun-rfli
>lIar on black di.c, indicalinS hi. continued allesiance to Lhe
ide.11i orCene",) Sandino.
galpa)-.\Iatagalpa, Uoaco Jinotl·ga. wcstem
Zelaya: 5th PuCI'lO Cabcza~}-llurthel"ll Zebya;
Gth (Gralladal-Cll';lZO, \[asaya, Ri\'a~; 7th
(Bludields)-Chaut;llcs. Rio San .Juan. southern
Zelaya.
The EPS has 67,000 mcn, with I 7.000 rq~ulars
(Acti\'c \lilital') Sen'ice S\IA) and ~o,ooo tll'O-
)'carcollScriplS (Patriotic \lilitary 5('1'\'i("e-5\1 P,
imtitutcd late 1983), TIlt'l'c an' foul' armoured
battaliom (Soviel ""55 and PT-76 tanl.;s), one
mc{"hani,ed ballalion. olle field aJ'lilkr)' brigade
four bm.), f()Ur field artilkr). om::\.\ ;llld four
ellgineer batlalion~. and 'Sp('cial Out)' Comman-
dos CODEI. The 2~~ infantr) battalions include
one Airborne formed 1982,; at least nine 700-
man anti-guerrilla Irregular \\'nrfare Battalions
Ba/al/oll dr I.ud/(! Irrt,f!lIlar, 'IlU' -'Simon
Boli,-ar', 'Com de ,\nKd(os·. 'Ramon Raudalcs·.
'.Jerman Pomares'. '.J uau I'ablo Umallzor', 'Santos
UlPCZ', '~ligucl Allgtl Ortez', 'Farabulldo l\lani'
aud 'Socratcs SalldillO' ickll\ified so (hr; and some
Ligln Rallg"er BaltaliOIl\ (Jja(f1l/olll,igtro Cf/::.adorrs,
'ULC'), e,g, 'ULe Gaspar Garda Laviana·. Some
of the abO\c units forl11 the tllO mechanised
brigades, each \\ilh aile field artillcry and threc
infalllr~ battalioth and t\\ 0 tank companies.
The 3°,000 reseni.,ts are on.;:anised in I Go
und(Tslfl·nl.\"th b:lttaliom. including Reservc In-
falllr~ HallaliollS u~ing the Cuban lour-digil
numhering ~~,Icm. ('.l{. ~5 21, 25 23, -t7 10,
50 09, jO I 1 orgalli~ed in brig:ldcs e,g. 31S1
Brigade and Pennan('1l1 'I'crritorial Companies
'COPETEs' , Th('l"e ;If(' 7.000 HordeI' Guards
Tropar(.'uardnjrollltrflJ, 'TGF' in s(-'\ en batlalions:
a ~.oO(Htron~ brigad(' 7 ropas Pablo Ch~da
cqui\a[elll to So, il'l \1\'0 troops. under the
'Oin:norate Gelleral of Stiltt.· S(-,Cllrit~' DGSE;
1.000 Sandilli~la :"'av) Jx'r:.onnel. 3.100 Sand-
ini,la .\ir Force, S'llldini~t:I Police. and 50,000
\Iililia in ballalion~ :lnd 'l'elTiwrial Brigades.
The L'niled Stale" objcct'> 10 Ihl' "iz(' of lhe
.\rmed ForCl·". al 13°,000 alm!ht nilll' timt..OS the
formt.·r :"'aliOlI,11 Guard', maximum \\animc
slrength: ~l'l Pn:"idcllt Orl{'ga Iillb of a
60.000 80.000 'Iallding anll} and 600.000 re·
~(·rYC". II ,11'0 point'> 10 l\"icaragua's 175 lanks,
~uitahle for an armoured thnht through the
Cholotcca Cap into llundura,>. all sllgge~tillg all
aggre.,si\(· ililent dcnit'd b) Ortega.
The 24,000 COlltra~ (active strength 12,000
15.000) ha\"{' I :.1,000 FD~ amI 1.000 'Kisan' on the
~orthcrtl Front (I1(l.Honduras), and 1,5°0 3,000
FARN, 500 '~Iisllrasata' ami :wo ARDE in the
'Southcl'll Oppositioll Bloc' (HQCosla Rica), bUl
i1H'~C Ilumbers ;ll"e rcducing as dispirited Comras
abandon a calise II hich ~lTIllS lO have no fUlure.
Costa Rial
This small C"OllJltl"\, the mO~t stable democran' in
Celllral .\merica, 'h,h 110 ~criOlh political or s~ial
lensi()l1~ and, ~inn' 1919, no COllW'lllioual army. III
19--1-811w Co.. la Rican ,\rm~, numbering339in one
in["llllr} c()ll1pan~ and olle artillel"~ batter).
Cuba:
I: 1st Lt., 1st Regt.. 'Cuptro de Septiembre', lnf. Div~ 1958
2; Conumdante Rebel Arm;): 1958
3: Coronel. Infantl')t FAR. t968

A
 I; Cuba: SgL.ln(antl'): I-"AR, 1988
2; Cuba; Warnl.nt Offker. Marine Bn., 1988
3; Mexico; Sgt.., Assault Bn., Presidential Guanl, 1968

B
1: Guatemala: Sgt.. Special FbrcesGp.• 1988
2: Guatemala: Infantryman. 1st Military Zone. 1988
3: EI Salvador: Col.. Cavalry Regt.. 1988

c
 EISahlldor:
I: Sit- National Guard, 1986
2: CapL, lnfanlr'): 1968
3; Cpl., 'Jiboa' Ranger Bn~ 1988
4: Sgt., Marine Inf, Bn.• 1988

D
Honduras;
1: 1st Lt., 2nd Airborne Bn.. 1986
2: 2nd Lt., BOth Inr. Bde.. 1986
3: Police paratrooper, Cobra Bn" 1988

E
 Ntearngua;
I; Cpl., Somoza Bn., National Guard, 1979
2; Comandante. FSLN, 1979
3; Capt., Sandinista People's Arn1); 1988
4: Sgt.. 'Simon Bolivar' BU, 1988

F
Nk:a.ragua:
I: 'Contra'guerrillll,FON,1984
2: 'Contra', FON 'Special FOrces', 1988
3: 'Contra' guerrilla. ARDE. 1985

G
 I: Costa Rica: 181 Lt., Northern BordcrSceurity Bn.. 1988
2: Panama: 2nd Lt.. 7th I'Usilier Co., 1988
3: Haiti: Sgt.. l:>residential Guard, 1988
4: Haiti: National Security \bIunteerti militiaman. 1985

H
theon.:ticall) supported by :13 ~Iilitia battalions, commanded by a Director (a colonel) under the
backed I'fcsicknt Teodoro Pit'ado ~lichalski of the ~Iinisll) of Public Security. The force acts as an
1\atioTlal Republican Pan) Pj\R) in his refusal to ufban police fOfce (rural policing is carried out by
Ican;" oflkc aftn an election ddt.'a\. jose Figueres. :,\.500 Rural Guards and a militar) force. The
leader of the Social Democrats. e~tablished a 6,000 men arc organised in scven provincial
'Caribbean Lq~ion·. which m!'>c up in re\olt to companies practically small baltalionsl-San
("l1forcc Ill(" e1cction rC'Sult. and defcated the .\rm) jose, .\Iajuda. Canago. Heredia, Guanacaslc,
ill a t\\o-rnonth ci\Cil war co~tin~ 1,600 li\C'S. The PllIllarenas and Limon: a baltalion-sized Presi-
19~9 COllstitution aboli5;hcd the .\rlll~. replacing dential Guard: ;Ind twO light battalions the 750-
it \\ ith the (;II(1rdi(l Cil·i! as thl' on" armed forcl.'. man ;\onhern Border Security 8attalion, trained
InJanuary 1955 the Central .\;nerican dictators by CS Spedal Forces, 10 guard the border with
Somo!.a ~icaraglla and Trujillo Dominican Xicara~ua: and a cOlillter·insurgenq baualion to
Republic supported an ill\asiOTl of Costa Rica confront the estimated 900 anti-government guer-
from l':icaragua by exiled supporter!'> of former rillas (three groups). The 3,ooo-strong National
Pfesident RaE.lel CalderOll Guardia, with Somoza Reserve \\ as mobilised in 1955, 1978 and 1979.
supplying air-cover. This operation, seemingly a There is a General Stan~ equipment for 10,000
copy of the 1954 Guatemalan invasion which reservists, a small coastguard (four patrol-boats)
toppled President Arhcll/., at first made good and all Air Unit (II light aircraft, threc
progress, occupying Ciudad Quesada in the north; helicoptcrs).
but Figtlcres reacted quickly, mobilised 16,000
mell and gained United Stoltes and Organisation
of ,\mnican Stoltes support. He retook Ciudad Pfll/fIlII({
QUNiada and dro\'e thl.' invaders back into :\iea-
rngua. In 1978 and 19793,000 Costa Ricans "ere
mobilised to repel incursions b~ :'\icaraguan 1\a- The United States was directly involved in the
tiona I GU:lI'ds against Sandinista bases in Costa revolt leading to I)anama's independence from
Rica. Colombia on 6 ~o\Cmber 1903; and in relurn was
Although Cosla Rica had supported the Sandi- allowed, under the 18 i\o\'embcr 1903 Treaty, to
nislas. Iheir july 1979 \'iClor~ did nOI end tension build the Panama Canal opened August '914
"ith :\icaragua. The Costa Rican government. and bisect the coullIry with the 'Canal Zone',
opposed to the radical excess~'S committed by the under CS garrison. The Unilcd Slates has re-
SandiniSlaS oncl.' they had ~aincd I>o\\el", permit- peatedl) intervened in Panamanian politics, and
led Eden Pastora's ARDE Contras to operate from CS forces have been sent in on 26 occasions.
Costa Rica in 19B2 4. This change of policy Cnited States Army Southern Command is based
towards tbe Sandinistas can also be auributed to in the Canal Zone, responsible for all the Amcrican
United States pressure: since the 1970S economic continent south of the US-~Iexiean border, while
crisis Cosla Rita has heel! f('ceiving massive US thc 'Schuol of the Americ<ls' (established 1946,
economic aid. Border tension has never reached under Panamanian control since 1 October 1984)
Honduranlcvcls, but tbe Sandinistasdid complain has trained generations ofLatin·Amcrican soldiers
about Costa Rica to the Internation:ll Coun in the in anli-g-ut'ITilla tactics.
I-Iague. Panallla's pcrsiSICllt demands to f('gain
E\'Cn so, Costa Rica has worked hard to find a sO\crcignt~ of the Canal and Canal Zone have
peaceful solution to lhc Nieara~uan conflict, not- eauscd storm) relations \\ilh the United States.
ably atlhejulle t9B7 'Esquipulas Aceol·ds'. which cspeciall) during 196~; butllU' eoulltT) is inextrie-
carned President Oscar Arias the ~obcl Peace abl) tied eeonomicall~ [a the United StalC'S. and
Prize. has usuall~ follo\\ed a pro-US polic).
On II October 1968 Col. Omar Torrijos Her-
Current forces rera. commander of the GU(lrdia .\ariot/al-formed
The Costa Ric;1Il Civil Guard. all volullteers. arc ill 195:l from the National Police. \\hi('"h had iudf

33
 \\t'f(' mort' critical of the L'niled SlaleS than "erl'

Ihe ci"iliall politici,llh, e~lxTiall~ lho~ in 0PI>O-

,ilion, .\lthoul{h L'S trailH:d and ('quipped, it
rl'">i,,ted L·nited St'lIt"., prcssufI,todtTlare an anti-
F:-'[L, lillt, ill EI Sal\ador 01' an al1ti-Sandini"ta
lint· in l\'kara~ua, [n 1933 Gnl. Koricg-a became
cOlllmander of tIll' Guard, "hi{'h \\,I-S in 19B~
rellamed 1-'1/((:;'(1$ d, 01''''$(1, and puhlid~ denoull-
n·d Presid('llt Reagan'" Celllral.\nll'rit'an 1>oliC) ,
In Ig87 tilt' L'nit('d Stall'" prl'\SUrl'd for the
di"mi"sal ofXorie~a. I\ho I\a\ \\<lrlted inlh(: L:St\
(Ill drllg-lr;dli('kill~ charges. RdatiollS reached a

cri,is in 'prirlg- IgHB, but ,hn:a'" or t'conornk

hloc"ade or ll1ilita .. ~ in\(nelllion \\er{' pn:~enttd
h~ Xoric~i1;1\ a tactic to rcnq~eOllthe 1977 Tre:lt)
and prl'\ellt tran...li:'r oftlw Coma!. 'I'll{' FD do.'>{'tl
ranI..", Iwhiml him and ,\'oriq.:-a is "till firml) in
p(l\\('r
As in Cosla Rica, the Ddt'ncc Forces fulfil
mililar~ alld polin' funC1iOll". especiall) riot-
control and internal .,t:cllril~. The 19ii T .. eat~
charH"t."S IIw !(Jrce \\ith the defellce of llll' Canal
alln 1999. and so it has shilied emphasis (i'om

ranamanian G"'n, Torrijos in 1!Jllo, w",a .. ;n~ oli...", gre",n

f.tip"", gold br.n.,b (lh" ....nk bad!", now four .. I....) on
P'"ft'n '.,ombal_l"ad.,r' IlhouJd.,r loop••

rq>laced the .\rlll) in 19"II-seiud I>o\\er in a

coup, and rormall~ reqm,,>ted trall~r('r or Canal
and Zone. t\lthoug-h the Cuard had defcaled a
landing- by flo Cuhan gucrrillas in April 1959, alld
ill the earl) 1960s had nushed an incipient rural
~uelTiJla I11m'elllC'1l1. it \\'as not polilk'lll~ rc-
actionar). Torrijos had indoclrillilll'ti it \\ith hi~
O\\1l ideolo~~ -"I'orrijism'. a mixtllrl' ofnalional-
iSIll and populism. "nCr) cars of tough tlcgoti-
atiollS the Torrijos-Caner Treaty of i Seplemher
1977 provided lor tile traIL\!<:r of , he Canal Zone
on I October 1979 and IOtal L'S \\ithdrawal on31
December 19lJ9,
On 31 Jlll~ 1981 the dmriSlllatic Cen. Torrijos
\\as killed ill a lll),,>teriolis aeroplane crash. H(: \\as
st!cceedt'd as Guard Commander hy Florcncio
Florez, hUI Panama enlered a period of polilit'al
lunnoil. i'\ominalh under civilian COlllrol, tIlt'
Cuard held the real'!>o\\er, and ilS Torrijist oflicers
Poli.,..,..,...,.. of Ih", Paaamanian Nalional Gu.rd in staJldard
wtiforon (g..-.. bat• •nd !.rOu...,...... ligbl g""'y ..bin.. ,old
in.ipia;), on.lyth",ir wbistl.... piSIOI. and nighl_stick. ind •..,.I_
inglh",irpoli..",duti......

34
inti·mal sccurity to national ddeTl'c. still with US
training and cquipmclll~allllOugh internal un-
rest. cspecially sin,e :"oricga took command. has
rorced (·xpansion orallti-riot units.
Current forces
The Defence Forccs are \·ohll1tar~. \\ ith .5.l00 men
on militar) dUlics. -1-,.500 men '>Cf\'C in SC\"C1l
'FusilierC'.ompanies inralHr~ Ist·Tigrc· airmo-
bile I-IQPanam;i \'iejal: 2nd ·Puma.s· airportable
Tocumcn .\irport. I)anama Cit ~ : srd . Diablo
Raja· Chiriqui Pro\·ince< Lph ·LJrraca· Central
Barracks. I)anarna City): 5th ·\'i,toriano I.orcnzo·
FOri Amador, Canal Zone); 6th ·Exp(·dicionaria·
Rio HalO); 7th ·i\lachode i\IOllt("· Rangn (Tocu-
men Airp()rt). There are also a I'residential Guard,
c('l"ernOlli:t1 ,avalry squadron. Spc,ial Force cam-
p.lny alld tW() 70o-lnan ill(;llltry hatt:llions. one
jung-Ic-tr:liucd. There is a .l00-mall Navy; a :!oo·
mall Air For,(' (two squadrons); and 3,000 perSOIl-
nel 011 police duties. dispersed <J("I"OSS the len
.\liJitary Zones, or in special unit.s such as the
Puhlic Order Compan} for rial cOlllrol.
Haiti
A black, French-speaking nation. the poorest in
lhe Western Hemisphere. Haiti \\on indqX'ndence
rrom :'\apolconic France on I.lanuar) 1804 under
jean-.lacclucs Dt"SSalines l . From .lui) 1915 to!!1
.\ugust 193-1- it was occupied b) the US .\Iarine
Corps. which replaced the Haitian Army on !!-I-
.\ugust 1916 with the !!.65D-man Gmdarnurj~
d'/lait; ror counter-insurgency duties, under .\Iaj.
Smcdlc) Hutler. CS.\IC. Artcr scveral redesig-
nations it bccamc iJrmi~ Haitim in 1963. From !!2
Octobcr 1957 ullliJ his dcath on 21 April 197'
Fran,ois ;Papa Doc' Duvalier was presidcl1t, from
1964 'Prcsident fOJ" Life', a Ii tic assumed by his son
and succcssor, .Jean-Claude 'Baby Doc' Duvalier,
until his overthrow on 7 February t986.
n" Pre.identi..1 Guard "rt:W or the and ...ire... rl ~n th"
p .......oid ·P.. p .. Dol" Du....Ii"r h..d lOiled i .. Ihe !round" or th"
PnlOidentialp.. tal'e,I!l70·
35

Haitia.a 1 ~ U. .gBo ...oriaS .... irorttls ~lill e"rr".. I. Nou
til" t..unplar Prnid""tiaI Guard ",b..u1du pale'" ...d eollar
cyph"r.
The 7,6oo-strong "oluntar) Haitian Army ful-
fils military and police functions, but its cOJl\'cn-
tional military value is very lo\\'. There arc ninc
~Iilitary Departments of which threc arc based in
the capital, !)ort-au-PrinCC-lhe 5oo-man Presi-
demial Guard (one inr.'lntl") bn., onc armoured
sqn.), the Dessalillcs infanu) battalion (scvcn
companies) and lhe blue-uniformed Port~au­
Prince Pol icc (six cOll1pnnies). The North, Nonb-
\Vest, Ccntre, WCSt, South and Anibonite Depan-
ments each havc a garrison detnchmcnt. totalling
21 companies, operating as district policc. There
are also a Iwo-ba((el") art iller) battalion, Port-au-
Prince Fire Brigade, Prison Guard Company,
Coastguard (325 men) and Air Force (275). Only
the Presidential Guard, Dt:ssalines Battalion, and
Hite 'Leopards' Ballahon three companies.
formed in 197 I for anti-guerrilla warfare, directl)'
under the Chief-of-Staff) havc any military valuc.
In the late [950S 'I)apa Doc' Duvalicr formed
the 15,ooo-strong ;\'ational Security Volunteers,
from 1971 under nominal arm) control, as a
cOlllHer\\'eight to the Army: and also the notorious
'Tonlons ~Incoutes' secret police, to eliminate
political opponents.
On 19 June [988 LL Gen. Henri Namphy,
Chief-of-S(;lf[ overthrew the ci\·ilian President,
Leslie ~Ianigat. \\ho had tried to dismiss him.
ending a briefexpcrimellt in democraq. only to be
ou.'>tro himselron [BSeptembcr IgSB by Brig. Gen.
Prosper Avril, backed by Army NCOs and the
'D('~salines' Ibltalion. Although Haiti is poor and
oppressed, there is currently 110 guerrilla
DOlllil/i(((11 Republic
Like Haiti, the Dominican Republic \\ as from 29
.'\o\embcr 1916 to September 1924 occupied by
the US ~Iarine Corps, which in 19t7 replaced thc
Army with the Dominican Constabulary Guard,
in 1928 renamed Dominican National Army,
under Chier-of-StaO' Lt. Col. Rarael Leonidas
Trujillo ~Iolina. On 23 Februal")' 1930 Trujillo
\\ as elected I)resident, establishing a ruthless,
corrupt dictatorship until his assassination on 30
~Iay 1961.
Claiming a possible Haitian invasion (Haiti had
occupiedlhecountry I 794-[8ogand 1821 44but,
although hostile, was too weak to invade) and thc
precedent or Castro's Cuban rC\'olution, Trujillo
built lip the most powcrful armed forces in the
region (16,500 men), really intended 10 suppress
internal opposition. He easily defeated an atlack
by Cuban-backed exiles iuJuly 1959; and boasted
of being able to bomb Havana to ashes with his
Boeing B-17 bombers, and ofa swirl occupation of
Haiti.
After Trujillo's death the country lapsed into
politicallUl"llloil. On 25 September 1963 a military
roup deposed the left-wing President Professor
Juan Bosch; but in April [965 Bosch's Army
supporters, the 'Constitutionalists', rebelled under
Col. Francisco CaamailO De110. Fearing another
Castro-style regime, President Lyndon a.Johnson
sent in '21.000 US troops on 28 April 196.'1. oOering
to prevent a civil war between Caam;\Iio's suppor-
ters and the bulk of the Army, uncleI' Gen. Elias
Wessin y Wessin and Gell. Antonio I rnbert Bar-
rera. The fighting continued: and on 6 \Iay the
Orgallisation of American States sent ~,OOO Brazi-
lian, ['aragua} an, Hondurall, ;\icaraguan :\a-
lion'll Guard and Costa Rican troops to join the
L:S Army now 18,000 strong) as the '1llIerame-
rican Pacification Force' F1 P), Fighting between
rival rhctions and against the FIP lasH.-d until
August 1965. The Fill \\ithdrew in September
1966, when Joaquin Balaguer\\as re-elected presi-
dent and Caamai'loand Wessin exiled, Some 3,000
Dominicans died in this civil \\ar.
Since the war successi\"(~ civilian governments
have kept the Dominican Armed Forces oul of
politics. In February 1973 Col, Caamaiio landed
on the island to begin a guerrilla movement, but
was killed in bailie after a few days.
The Dominican Army, numbering 13,000 vol-
unteers, is much less important than in Trujillo's
time, There are four brigades (17 bns,), one
artillery, one armoured, one Presidential Guard,
and one engineer ballalion. The obsolete equip-
ment is being modernised. The 4.6oo-strong iliavy
include'S a 'larine batlalion and a ~a\'al Com-
mando unit; the 3,j6s·strong ,\ir Force has light
aircraft, transports. helicopters, a parachute bat-
talion and an AA battalion; and there arc lO,OOO
:\ational I)olice under an Army officer as Dircctor-
General.
Ti,e Plr/res
.1/: (;II/HI: 7t'llirl/fe Prill/ao. IJ/'Cliall'l) de .)'I'/Jliembn'
Rl'gl .. hUal/fry Division, 1958
Cuban ofliccrs wore US-style uniforms copied by
local tailors ill bettcr quality cloth, often \\ilh 18
carat gold insignia pri\'atcl~ purchaSt.'d from the
San AmbrQl,io PX-the Cuball Harrods. Field
~('r.icc uniform was the CS olive drab
herringbone-twill fatigues \\ith khaki-paintt.'C1 'II
hclmcl. This oflicer's khaki barr:lck dress has C$
pattern branch insignia on the h:lt and collar
points (\\ith regimelltal number) and branch-
colour haH':"ords: infalltr~. crossed rifles ~reen
cords); c:lval1'y, (T()sl>ed saba's (ycllo\\ ; artillery,
crosl>ed Call1l(Jll\ (red): engint.'t.'I'S. rastlt: (crimson),
Clotll elllilroidered unit patt'lH's \lere solllctilllt.'S
\\orn on upper arnb and metal rank im.ignia on
~hollklt.'r "U'.qh: three fiyt'-Ix,intt'd l>tars \cnically
placed for (:mtral: twa-.\!I!.ror (;mua/; one-
(,'mtml til' IJriwu!a: thrt.'C bra.s..\ ,taN in a triangle-
COlOUr!: t\\O hori,wlllally- Tmimlt Corol/tl: on('-
COII/a"danlt: three brass chevrons point do\\n-
(.'t1pi{tin; t\\o Tmimlt Pr;I1/uo; one-SI'.t:ul/tlo
Ttl/it//it: OIW gap at point -Sublmimit eqlli\'~I­
lent L;:-:i Chit,f \\'arralll Oflicer); onc horizontal
bar Slibojirial Warrant Oflicer , Enlisted ranks
\\ort.' CS \11 !)O3 . I o-pollch' \\ebbing. trousers and
canvas gaih:rs, CaIT) ing the \11903 Springfield
rifle. or d\(~ Garand. They omitted collar badges
and wore US-style bufrchevl'Ons point-up on olive
grcen b:lrking Oil upper arms: three dleVl"Ol1S, two
'rockt.'l"s· Sal"f!.l'lI{o dl' Prillll'm; with Olle rocker-
Sargmlo dt Sl'g/i/lda; three chcVl'Olls onl) -Sargenlo
dl' rlu((m: 1\\0 chevrons, onc rocker-Cabo de
Prill/em: t\\O chc\"I"ons-(,'abo; Ont: chevron-
Soldado til' Prillltm; 110 insignia-Solt/mlo RllSO. Of-
fiet.,rs' St:l'\icc dre~~ \\ as the CS-st) Ie khaki peaked
cap and tunic \\ ilh the same insignia: the cap
bad~t., \1<1\ the n:lIional crest on a troph) of arms in
a \\ rC<lth ofhra-.:. or gold-embroidered, and :l plain
bra:s~ ~hit.'ld for cllli~ted men.
.12: Cuba: COII/al/dal/i" R,b,I,lmtl': I'-;scombrtl..' J/oul/·
lains,mr{v l!jjlJ
Conrormill~ to traditional \\orld\\ide guerrilla
practice, rallk and file Llsuall) \\Ol'e civilian
dotht.'s t'olourcd shirt, trousers, stout boots,
straw hat or 'revolulionary' dark beret, with
captured (11' improvised weapon~ <1nd equipmcllt,
Cuerrill;l kackrs cllcouraged a mort.' lIlli/onnl)'
mililar} appearance, with US Arm)' surplus
clothing' oli\e greell latigue shirts and trousers,
the i\11913 '\\'alker cap·. as lavoured by Castro,
with or \\ ithout the stillcned cra\\ n. or captured
\II 11I:lmeh. Brass Cuban .\rm) rank insignia W;:IS
\101'11 on the cap only: a star-ColI/mula"l, com-
P;IIl~ commander: thl'ee chevrons point down-
f.apiJdn platoon leader: t\\O che\ rons- Tmil'llfe
s<luad leader .\s \'iclOry appro:lched, coloured
arm-badges or arm hands wcre \\ am, usually in
Cuban red. \\ hitt., and blu('; tlli~ example com·
Ilwmoratcs Ca~tro'<; ·'.W .Jul~ \Io\'t·ment'. This
37
Commltlallle ha~ allu\\ed his hair and beard to grow,
"to be sha\ed 00' \\hen Cuba is free': he \\e;:lrs
captured :\11903 \\t'bbing and ~por,-,> a ·45 cal. :\13
't{rca.-.c-t{un·.
,'3: Cuba: Corollel, Rn'oluli01Ulry ,Im~l" "ifillllf)':
barrack dress, 1988
In 1959 Castro illtroduced a greell officers' service
dress, relaining Batista's cap badge, and continu-
ing the olive green I:Higues and 'Walker cap' lor
combat dress. Officers' rank in~ignia \\ere \\orn on
jacket shoulder straps and field shirt collars: one
star-Comalldallt~ the hi~hcst rank, later expanded
to five ranks; and four-one chevrons point do\\n
or olle bar, all in brass, for junior officers, XCOs
retained Batista's CS Che\rOliS. On I December
1973 convelllional field and general ranks were
introduced, and by 1980 the present markedly
Soviet-style uniform. Officers and regular NCOs
wear a drab brown service dress tunic "ith gold
shield-in-wreath lapel-badges ,generals, a gold
starin a wreath \\ith a laurel branch collar badge!:
a bro\\n. black-peaked cap, "ith gold chin-cords
black strap for XCOs" green band, and national
cap badge above a gold star "ith the gold initials
'FAR' 011 red boss. On barrack dress red Soviet
collar patches edged gold arc adorned with gold
miniature cap-badge devices. The stifrSoviel-lype
shoulder-boards have olive grecn Russia braid for
generals. with gold Ica\'es below a white star on a
f{.'d left Iblue right rhomboid for Comafldallt~ m
Jif~ Castro, or gold five-pointed stars: four-
Gm~ral d~ t."jirdt6, three-Gmuol d~ Cu~rpo; t\\O-
G'mual d~ Didsio1l: one-Gmuol d~ Brigada. Field
officers have olive green braid, two vertical red
centre stripes, and small gold stars: three-COr/mel;
Iwo-Tel/imle Corol/eI; one-i\/(~or; company olf~
ieers one stripe and four stars-Capiton; three-
Primer Tenimt~; two- Ttflifllt~; one-SlIbltnienle.
WarranlOfficers senior regular ~COs) have red
piping and small gold stars \crtically placed:
three-Suboficial Prim~ro; IWo-Sllbojicial, and Sar-
genlode Prim~m Stan·Sgl.) has four horizontal gold
bars on a uniform-colour shoulder board, Con-
scripts wear an olive green blouse with field
shoulder boards, branch shield on the upper
sleeves and olive green '\Valkcr cap' Wilh gold chin
strap and national shield-in-wreath cap badge,
111: Cuba: Sargl'1llo de Srgll/lda: combal dress, 19/J8
All ranks wear a Soviet-style fatigue tunic or shirt,
trousers and service dress rank insignia: for con-
scripts astilfshoulderstrapslide "ith yellow 'FAR'
belo" three )"ello\\ bars-Sargmlo d~ S~gund(lj t\\O
bars-Sargento de Terum; onc-Cabo; IIOlle-
Solt/ado. Headdress is a plain ''''alker cap', and a
Cuban-manuElclured Soviet i\L~o or Bulgarian
1'.172 helmet. A Soviet 7.62mm i\KM assault rifle
is carried with Soviet webbing-ammunition
pouch on right hip, first-aid pouch and g<tsmask on
Ie/i. OOlceTS "eilr a brown lealher 'Sam BrO\\l1c'
bell. Tank cre\\s \\car Smici helmets and black
coveralls. paralroopers a camouflage overall \\ ith
cloth helmet. i\ Czech-st)lc peaked flapped
camouflage field cap is being introduced with a
camouflaged field tunic and trousers for inElIltry.
wilh rallk insignia on shoulder-slides as here.
B2: Cllbl/: PrimerSllbojicial, i\!llri"e }Jaffalioll: barrack
drw.lg88
The 550-strong Clite Desambarco d~I G'ra"ma
'Granma Landing Cni,'-commemorating lhe
ship in \\ hich CaSlro rcached Cuba in December
1956 wears Soviet-st}le black i\larine uniforms.
This long-service ~CO wcars ollicer's type cap
b<ldge (enlisted men omit lhe wrealh) and 'Sam
Browne' bell. Naval rank insignia is identical to
th... i\rmy's, but field, company ilnd warmllt
officers wear} ellow braid shoulder boards with
gold st<lrs and black stripes, enlisted men black
boards Wilh yello\\ bars and 'FAR' title.
JJ;: .\le.\ico: Sargtl/to Segundo .. lssault Troops Bal-
laliou, Prtsidellt;(ll G'uards Brigade: S~1/lry ulliform, 1988
Oflicers wear dark blue service dress (called 'Azul
Z') wilh three·bullon plain ntfl"patches, The cap
hilS the national cockade (green-white-red oUler)
above the hat band rank insignia. Brass jacket
collar branch insignia branch-colour for enlisted
rank insignia are: crossed rifles, trumpet
scarlctl-infantry: crossed sabres, helmet (bright
blue)-cavalry; crossed sabres. tank (grcy)-
armour; crossed cannons, grenade (crimson)-
artillery; castle (cobalt blue)-engineers; national
crest (cagle, serpent, wreath) on eight-pointed
star-Presidenlial Guards, with appropriate unit
numbers or badge behind lor diflcre!lt sub-uniLS.
Shoulder board rank insi~nia: four vertical ~il\'er
live-pointed stars above gold national crest-
Gmera/ de Di/lision (i\Jinistcr of Defence); three
stars-General de Division; two stars-Gel/eral de
/Jrigada; one star-Gmera/ Brigadier. Three brass
stars only, in a triangle-Coronel;
horizontally- TeT/ientf Corol/el; one-Afro'or; three
venieal linked brass bars-Capitdl/ Prill/iTo; three
(middle bar half-size)-Calliid/l Segundo; t\\"o-
Teniel/te; one-Sub/mimiI'. Enlisted ranks wear
OGr07 latigues (shown here) with black hori-
zontal shoulder-strap bars (Presidential Cuards-
gold diagonal culTstripes) on branch-colour back-
ing': three-Sargen/o Primem: l\I'o-Smgel//oSegul/du;
one-Cabo; one venical bar (Pres. Gd., stripe on
left sleeve only)-Soldado dt Prill/era; no insignia-
!in/dildo.
This Spcci<ll Forers KeG guarding the Na-
tional Palace wears an 1\[ J IH::hncl-lincr with the
national crrst on the frollt, and ullit patches on
both sides-repeated on both upper sleeves; gold
Guards collar patch wit Ii hattalion badge (a figure
of a combat soldier) 011 illbntry scarlet; while
C",ntral An""rican armi",.. ha"., few c.,renl<mi,,1 uniforms
.,ven for generals; th.,s", Guu",m ..lan officer" are ",....:eption"l.
Pr",,,id,,,nl Kjell Laugurud Garcia (righi, ..miling) i.. pictured
in '914 with ...,nior officer.., w.,ariug the flamboyant black
llud gold dress uniform.
39
SalVlldo..-a C_~.... I Jose Cuilli:a Carda, Jlo1iai.I~r of ~
f_e~ .ad Securily, ;a srf:fl> • .,rvi.,~ d"'.... and l\o1iai"try of
Defenc~ .hould~r palch (y~llow .tar in srC'eQ wrealh on red-
msed blu~ di"e), Ian.. 10 yo ....S offi~u ... oljv~ S",~n fi~ld
unito...... with ...bdum i...iS.. i., 19&1. (Vi<:~ .. I~ Talon)
ccn:monial scarf: g-IO\cs and bootlaces. Hc wcars
US partial ',\LlCE' \\cbbitlg, and cnrrie.'s a West
Gcrman G3 rifle. 11\ combat a camouflage.' uniform
and helmet cover are \\orn,
CI: G'ua/fIIw!a: S(//~ttfll/O 7 ,m;ro, ,S~J/!cia! Fora! Groll!):
lomhaldffss,lg88
As in mOSI of Cenlral AnH.:rica, Guatemalan
unilorms arc heavily US influ{'tlced" Oflicers weal
a black ceremonial peaked cap :Ind IUltic with gold
embroidered insignia, or a grcetl or light Ian
service tUllic Wilh malchitlg pcakcd cap; the gold
cap badge is a dovc holding an independencc·
scroll over crossed rifles in a \\ reath. Generals have
heavy red shoulder boards ('dged gold, \\ith vcr·
tical gold stars abovc a gold cap badge: two-
Gm~ral d~ 1J;I';S;OIl; onc-G",mli d, lJr;gada. Ficld
officers \I car verticall) placed linked brass stars on
plain straps: Ihrce-Coro",/: t\\O- T€1Ii",lt Corond;
one-.\la)'or; compan) ofllcer~ wear horizolltally
placed linked brass bars: three \\ith brass Slar
superimposed Capi/till !>rimuo: three-Capitall
S,gwu!o: t\\O T",irnl': one.' Sllhlmi~lIlt. Brass col-
lar branch badg<:s an': cros~ed riflo-infal1lr);
crossed ,abn:s armour: cro,sed cannons and
grenade aniller); c:hllc engineers: Kold laurel
leaf on a gold-edged rcd rhomboid-generals.
Cnit shields appear 011 leli upper ~lct:ves.
Enlisted ranks \\ear light tall ,hil'l and trousers,
and unil shields abo\'(: US-~t)1e )e110\\ chevrons
point up on both upper arrn~: fi\"t: chevrons and
rockcr-Sar,g/'I/Io .\!(!)'or: four and rocker-Sargen/o
TUI/ico; three ami rocktr Sm,fiell/o P,imero;
three-Salgrll/o Sfl~ll/Ido; two-Cabo; one-Salt/ado
til' Primem; no insigllia Soldai/o deSe,/!,lIlId(1.
In combal oli\'e 1-;"l"Cl'n, US BDU 'woodland', or
(as here) South Korean 'wa\'y' camouflage 1:1-
tigues arc \\onl with matching hl'l'l'l, 'boollie bat",
bush hat, or Israc1i OR:lOI Kevlar helmet
(camouflaged bro\\ tl and sa11d Ii)!' paratroopers).
A national flag patch is \\01'11 on the upper right
sleeve. and ofllcers \\earsubdul'd black collar rank
insignia (laurel leaf for generals). Special Forces
\\car a red beret \I ith 'Kt\lIll1: title above unit
badge or (as here) rank badge; ,\brincs a black
berel, paratroopers a black beret \I ilh sil"cr jump.
\\ ings abO\ e a com pan) bacll{e: othel'\\ ise, insignia
are discouraged in the field. This SF lrooper, his engineers; crossed flags-signals. The unit badge is
neat appearance suggesting urban sccurity duty or worn in coloured enamels on a right pocket fob,
a shon;l'ange operation, wears US ~11956 webb- and its design is repeated in lhe len shoulder sleeve
ing, :lI1d carrit's the Isradi tlZI: till: Galil and the patch. The parachute wings above the left breast
.\116 ar't' also uscd. pockct rollo\\ the uS shape wilh an added national
cap badge motH:
(.'2: (;ual,,,,ala: l"ja1/lr..rmall,ISI.\Iililar..I''::olle: combal
drm,ly8!J DI: £1 Soh-odor: Suh-Sargt1llo, Sal;o1lal Guard: field
This s<luad machine gunner, armed "ith the CS 5tn';u drus, 1986
~160, \\l';u'S partial ~1196j \\l'bbili~. Both CS Formed in 1912 as a rural police rorce, Ihe Guardia
BOC~ and less substalllial cupit'" appear to be Sac;o1/a/isorganiscd into I,~ Provincial Companies
\\01'11 b) Guatemalan troops, Thi.. man's onl) in practice. often batlalion-sized organised in
insiKllia is thc arm patch of till' 1st ~Iilital) Zone fi\'e 'Commands': an ~IP Compan}; the '15 de
'Gerleral I.ui'i Carcia Leon') 10 \\hich his bat- Septiembre' IHI\T: a Technical Assistance Dept,
talion is subordinatl'd. The pack appears 10 be the (US advisers and 'SWAT); a Transpol'l Croup;
US nylon lropical ruckS;lck. and 'COI'ARA', a rapid-re;lclion anti-tcrrorist
company. Until Army involvemcnt ill Ig80 this
(.':3: }!,:/ Salvador: Corol/fI, C(!Valry U,gilllnll: service often brutally cflicient force bore Ih(' brutll of the
dress,/gl)l) guerrilla war,
Salvadorean omeers wear copies of thc US Army This obsoletc-looking uniform, inspired by the
~11957 Krcen dress uniform or the r..119_12 khaki Spanish Guardia Cit'il on which the torec was
equivalent, but with the distinctive national cuffof modelled, is still worn; but US jungle utilities or
pointed, buuoned design. Rank insignia arc worn BOUs arc on en seen in thc field. The gloss-black
on the shoulder straps: gold cmbroiderc<! upright ~Il helmet liner bears the n;ltion;l]-colourc<! shield
laurel leaf-General; dHce venic.dly placc<! brass on the I'ight side, and on the front the AI'my cap
stars-Coron,/: two- T",;ml, Corollel; one-,\/a)'or; b;ldge flanked by 'C' and ':'\', in gold. 'GN' cypher
three linkc<! horizontal brass bars-Cap;ldn; 1\\0- badges arc worn on bOlh collars, ;lnd blue and
T",;",/,; oru:-Subl",imlt; one black Cad,lt, Brass
A p de or . .Idiers rro... t.he SalvadoreaQ Ar y'. I.'
branch collar insignia follo\\ L:S pattern: crossed lftf try Bripde, wir-h three ltinds o((at;sue ultilo 011 view
rifles-inf:lIItry: crossccl sabres-armoured ca\'- - OGltry juosle r.riSUn ....d two .tytn or 'woodla.ad'
ca.rnou.8ase. Note Lhe sree.. ..,....,ell WOnt all." u ..official ...b-
aIry: crossed c;lnnons-artiller): castlc- ua;t di,uiacl.ioa, Uulio Moates)

4'

Two'COPARA' polic., 'r<Klpnspos., in rield uniform, ,h., I.,n-
hand man in US-II'yl., BOU camouflag., and ,h., righ,.hand
mlln;n olh.,.,jungl., u,ili,i.,,,; w.,apons sre ,h., M79 gr.,nlld...
IllUnch.,r snd M60 rnllchine !Un. In the r;5h, bllcl<g:round can
Ix !I~.. s tr<Klper in ,he old_fsshio..ed uniform iIIuSlra,ed as
Pla'e D •• UulioA, Monl.,.)
\\hitc .\'ational Guard patches on both shoulders:
slcl'\T rank insignia rollO'\ ,\rm~ sC'<luence. The
I;S .\llgG,,-!>hape 'baseball" cap is also \\orn, \\ith
miniature metal rank insignia alxl\e the same
badge as worn on the collar. The \\capon here is
the G3 rifle, \\ith which this xeo
has \\on the
marksmallship badge on lIH,ldt breast.
1J2: EI Sah'(ldor: Capildn. "ifa,,/~)', Sa" Sa/l'ador
Pror·i"u:fir.ltIl)(Jrad,dr~ss, /g88
Ficld uniform ror all ranks consists or US-supplied
OG 107 cottOll sateen shin and 11'OUsers, or .\11967
jungle utilities, 'fhe 1\1 J helmet is often worn with
loose string 1H:lting; the bush hat, 'boollie hat', and
1\1 J96,~ 'baseball' cap arc all worn, the lalter with
subdued oflicers' or brass NCOs' insignia, or
unofficial unit badges. Oflicers \\car black sub-
dued nUlk insignia all (he right collar, black
branch badges on the lert. The parade neck SC;lrris
light bluc ror inrantry, Rangers and Special
Forces: apple green ror General Stan; black ror
armour: olive green lor paralroops: red ror anil-
ler): }dlo\\ (or ellgineers: and or-mge ror signals,
lJnit patch(.'S, \\ hcn \\orn, are appli<.'C1 to both
upper arms.
D3: HI Sa/vadur: Cabo, 'Jiboa' Ca<.(/(Ior JJallaliOll, Sail
FiUlIlt Provillce: combat drtss, /g88
Elitc units-Rangers (Ca;;:adortS) , paratroops,
.\Iarine infhl\tr~, and Special Forces-wear a
camouflage 'boonie hat' or .\11967 beret; US-
supplied or locall) bought copies or) '\\OO(lIand·.
or South Korean 'wa\"y' c;:tmollfla~t.' ratigut.'S arc
normal. Standard .\rmy wdJbing is .\11956, but
t1ite units ha\e received some ,\L1CE pattern
equipmellt. On normal .\rm~ olin:: utilities US-
st}/e chnrons arc \\orn on both uppcr slee\'cs:
three chc\ rolH and a rocker-Sargm/o; threc
chevrons-Sub-Sorgm/o: t\\o-Cobo; nonc-
So/dado, In thc fidd, e1ile units discourage the use or
insignia. like lhe gold-on-black 'C,\Z,\IJOK' litle and
brass rank insignia seen on this Ranger's black
bercI; lllelal battalion insignia ar't.' also sometimes
WOI'Il below lhe Ranger qualirlcation title by
privates, Note US jungle boots and j\ 179 grenade-
launcher.
D-/: I~'I Salmdof: Sub-Sargm/u, ,\lf/rillt IlIfil/l/~v lJal-
folioll: barmd (IrtH, JgR8
Tht., JJa/aIl6" tI~ "uafl/tria (It .\larina, lonncd in 1985,
is ha~l"(1 at L\ulatilll 1)11 tht.'s\\amp~ coastal border
\\ ith Hondlll'a~, olx:rating rram L'S LC.\I·6 and-8
bndilll{ {"raft to PI'I'\"(.'lIt .\'icar;ll:;"lI;lII \\l'apons
"hipllll'lIh rt'achin~ lit(: F.\I L.\' gut.'rrillas, I; ndcr
:'\;I\al ("Olllllland, till' ill.\1 ust.' ,\rm~ ranks and
clit(, unit ullirorm~. The bl;u"k 1>(."I'l't IX'ars Ill'rc Ihe
lInil pall:"h ami rank insignia: till' shoulder or Ihe
CS BDL'~ I~:al's a ~lIlxlu<.-d n'rsion ortht., insignia,
sOIlH'lim('s \\OI'Tl ill combat. In thl' fidd the 'boollie
hat" or a brad 'SE,\L-style' IU'adscal'f' arc \\om,
wilh ~tal1dard US \\cbbing and \\capons.
I~"I: IIIJl/til/raJ: Tmif.lllf, 2/1d Airhomf Halfa/ioll: (Ull/-
hafdan,ly/Jfi
Combat dn:ss for 1110st Horlduralltl'Oopsconsisls of
US-supplied OGl07 COltOll saleerl sllirl and
lrouscr~, or 1\11967 jungle 1Ilililies, \dlh lhe 1\11
helmel or .\1 196~ 'baseball cap'; o(licers lIsuall~
\\ear sulxlucd black-on-oli\'e rank and branch
insi~nia on ril;"ht and [en collars, and cnlisted ranks
~ ellow slecH,' ehe\ roIlS, This elile paratrooper, sent
10 the border in December 1986 to oppose San-
diniSla '!tal PUI'SlIil' or Sicaraguan Colllra units,
wears ;1Il apparently pcrsonall~ acquired re-
lailorl'd H'ro;ion or CS BDL"s, (""lit ,,<; a lig-ht "hin
\\ith slanted pockets injullgle utility st)le, and il
be1"et of the samc material. Insignia includc his
rank bars on a branch·coloul' diamond patch
lx-low L'Sjump-\\ings: a sulxlllt,'d ,\rm~ shoulder
p:lIch in oli\'c and black; and slanted n:UlH: and
national tabs on the chest. Hl' \\ea~ .\UCE
\\ ebbing, tht' pouches pu~hcd back 011 the hips:
note pislol hohler, knitc and grcllac!<:s, The
weapon is the ~116, with a black slillg' ri~{gcd
ass:luIHayle. Noll' also Ihe Israeli OR201 para·
helmet, wilh a (o\'(:r of 'duck hunter' ramouflage.
l:';t: Ho"duras: Sublrrtil'1lU, 110111 hifall(~" JJrig(ld~:
combll{ drtjj, 1986
Photograph('d durill~ the sanl(' operation as EI,
Ihi~ onicer \\ears a complete uniform of ~hirt,
Immel's and I>('ret ill 'duck·lllllller' camouflage,
pn:slllllabl} acquired personally or at unit lcycl.
lnsigllia arc Ihe subdued rallk and brandl badges
in black on olive, 011 ,he colla 1''1: a f'ull·colour Arm}
patch on til(' ri~ht s!el"T; CS 'Ran~('r' qualifi.
cation title. in subdued I01"m. and Honduran
('(Iui\alcnl ''!'esoll' litle. in full colour'S, 011 the left
shoulder: and what is presumably a diamond·
shapl'd unit patch in black on 00, half obseured
on the It-ft pocket. He has a naml' tape on the right
bl'('ast. but no national title opposile. His equip.
melll i" of LS .\I.ICE paltern, \\ilh the early belt
bu(·klt-. \\'e reconstruct the Ie~s :lI1djungle boots.
Ilondur:lIl ofricers' service dress is based on l;S
.'\I'ln} i\11957 grn'n,,; a khaki equi\"alent is \\01'11 in
Sll III I1WI'. The peaknl cap ha~ a /o\'old chin strap ;lllC!
hr;hS Ilatiollal badge. Brass 'R 1-1' cyphers and US·
~t~le brallcll insiKnia arc \\orn 011 the collars alld
1,lpl'ls: crossed riflt:,s for infantr). special for('('~ and
paratroops: cros~'tl sabres, c1"os.~ed cannom, and a
C:htle for armourl'tl c3\alr), artillery and en·
l.{illel:I);. On the ::.houlder lltraps officers \\ car brass
\ enicall} placed stars: fi\'e (;nural de D;dsi6,,;
t'our-(:tIIual tI, IJflj;atla; thrt'(--Coroll,l; 1\\0-
Tell;eIIll·Curolll'l; one-.\lq)'or. C01l1pallY ofJicers
\\e;lr linked horiz()lIt:l1 brass bars: three, IWO :ll1cl
one lor Capiltin, 7 mill/Ie, :lnd SulJlel/itllle,
Four FPL-FM S""rrilt• ., dl"~ Wnrhl! ....d<e...,hid. fO hide
their ideatitin., duri..,; a p ....." racilify (or viIiili..,; jouraa.
IiIi'" '9110_ (Vice".e Tal.,,)
43
 the rear trouser pockets) arc also dyed black.
Army-style clle\'I'OrlS are \\01'11 011 the filtiglles
where appropriate; the cap i.'> the Army's
woodland-camouflage cap d)ed black. The left
f shoulder patch ha~ a gold and blue hooded cobra
motif. Thccquipmcllt is AI,ICE pattel'll, here wilh
eXIra musettes for a rall~C of grenades, and the
gasmask; standard \\capons arc the CARtS and
the Bro\\ning- GP35 automatic,
r FI: _\"imragllll: Cabo. SOlr/o:;.a COli/hal Ballaliol/, )"ica-
mguall.'"aliOlIllI Guard: combo! drtn. ]lIIlUary 1979
The Guardia ,\'aciollaJ officers" sen ice dress w.tS the
L"S-supplied :\11912 khaki pcaked cap with
brown-japanned chin stral) and peak, or black
dress C;IP \\ith gold chin sirap, blnck peak \\ith
gold embroider) ror field and general ranks, and
., silver Iriangular national cap badge, The khaki
tunic had the cap badge on the collar and brass
CS-slyle lapel insignia: crossl.'d riflcs-infalllry;
crQSS(.-d 5;.lbres-armour; crossed c;mnons-
artillery; c<utle-engineers, Generals' shoulder
strap rallk insigni;1 \\a5 fi\'e vel,tic'llIy placed five-
JXlinted silver stars for Gtntral dt Division; fOllr-
,\la]or GmtraJ; th ......c -Gtntral dt Brigada; field
Nicara!u... Pr idnlt Somo. . (ri!ht) "Om..n with advi........ officers wore brass Sl:lrs: thrce-Corontl; t\\'o-
• ft..r th.. Jl>h p .... rthqu..... of Dec.. mber '972' Not .. th..
US... upplied eam.paiSft hal .. and ..h.ki uaiform ... common Tmim/t Corontl; one-.\/ajor; company onlcers
.moDS,1I c..nt.ral Americ.n .rmi... frnm c, '!PO to 197ft, and wore horizOlllallinked brass bars: threc-Copiltin;
th.. M'943 IltiJT.. ned 'W.lker cap',
two- Tmit!ll/t; onc-SlIhlmitlllt, Enlisted ranks
Ellli.'>ted ranks \\l'ar LiS-~t)1e )elIO\\ chcvrons wore yellow on dark-green chevrons.
011 greell hacking: 011 thc upper sleeves of khaki Combat uniform was the DGl07 cotton satecn
uniform shirt~, and on combat IhtiguL"S: threc shin and trousers or, as here, ;"11967 jungle
chevrons. solid diamond, three rockers-Sargl'1llo utilities, with subdued black officers' rank insignia
.\I(~.)'ur; three chcvrol\~, three rockers-Sargen!o on the right collar, branch insignia 011 the left, and
I~rimeru; three chevl'On~,t\\'o rocktTs-S(lrgl'l1lo Sig- yellow chevrons for NCOs. A subdued name-tape
undo; three chn/rolls, olle rocker-Sflrgtll/o; two was worn over the right breast pocket, the national
chevrolls-Cabo; olle ChCVl'Ol1 S/J!dad/J de I~rilllera; title over the left, and unit patches on both upper
nOlle-Soft/ado, sleeves. For field parade a brandl-colour neck scarf
was added (light blue for infhntry), 'l'his NCO
£3: H/Jnduras: Poliet/Hlm/rooper. Cobra Bal/alion, 1988 wears ivl1956 webbing; nOte also magazine ban-
Formed as the Cobfll Policial Escuadron in April doliers, Israeli 5.56 mm Calil assault rine, smoke
1979, this para-trained unit of the Public Sccurity grenades, and Israeli DR201 Ke"lar helmet.
Forces was expanded to battalion strength in 1983.
ft is a rapid-intervelltion gendarmerie unit, alld F2: Xicamgllo: COlflan(/(lfIlt. Samlillisla Xa/iomll Liher-
this uniform was photographed during anti-riot a/ion Fron/: ,\lOT/OgUll,lllllt 1979
duty in Tegucignlpa in Apl'il 1988. The US BDUs FSLN clothing and \\eaJXllls procurement fol-
ha\'c been modified in this unit by thc nddition of lowed the familiar pattern of its model, Castro's
black shoulder straps and reinforcemelH at knees Rebel Army (sec plate /\2), Rank and lile (Comhal-
and elbows; and the pockets including the flaps of imlts', wore civilian clothes, often "ilh 'Cubnn'-
slyle beards and long hair, Leaders (Col1lfllldmlfes)
like lhe chnrismatic Edcn PaslOra pictured herc,
favoured a morc cOIl\'clltionally military ap-
pcarance. Cuba supplit..-(\ olive grecn r.-.tiglle shirl~,
trousers, ;"Ind the characteristic peaked field cap
copied from Ihe l;S .\119+3 '\\"alkercap', Pastora,
leading the non-.\Iarxist Tnuristas, is wearing
some of these uniform items \\ith captured l;S
.\11956 \\ebbing. and the l;S .\llgI 1 Colt '15 in a
shoulder l'ig-, He also appears ta ha\c a slung AK
rifle, and a ha\'crsack-possibl) a Soviet gasmask
satchel? I\a national. rank or unit insignia wcre
worn,
1':,: ,"imfft,!{Ufl: Ca/)ilfin, Sfllulillistfl Prop/t'S .1"'~J':jitld
/)(/ff1dtdrrss, J,gH8
Althoug:1i EPS uniforms arc be('olning: mort' ('Oll-
vl'lllional, lliey still cxhibil 'n:voilition;ll'y simplic-
ity' Cuban-inspired olivl' g:rl'l'lI flllig:lle shirl.
troll~ers and a 'Cas\l-o cap' \\ il110Lll imig:nia scrve
as field and service uniform for all ranks, On
parade \\ hill' glO'Ts an.' worn, \dth Soviet .\140 or
.\160 or Bulg:arian .\17'2 helmcts, or plain bl<lck
berets: honour-guards add \\ hitl' gaiters <lnd belts,
.\1198oonicers· shouldcrstrap rallk insi~ni<l \\as in
,ike 1': the top 1\\0 ranks, primaril) political. arc
CO/1lllndant, d, la Rtroluc;ol/-a star. \\ith a \\hite
embroickf('(1 staraIJO\'C black len and red righl
cros:.ed hranches on the collar: and C01lla"dalltt
(;//,rrilltro blank strap. and \\ hite star on red
tipper and hlack lower shield edged ~ilver on
the collar. Theil 1\\0 stars-ColI/lllulallt, tit /Jr;gatla:
one star COlllfllU!rl1llt': lour ,11('\'I'oIlS points down
SlIhromallllflllle; three-CaIJiltin: 1\\0- Tmientl'
Prill/ao; Ol1e- Tmim/t: one har-Sllhlmim/I', En-
listed ranks \\'ore yellow US.st}1e ,hcvrolls on
ulllll'r sl('eves: threc ellcvrons, thre(' bars-Sal/;fII/o
Prill/l'fO; three ehevrons, lWO bars-Sargflllo Sfg-
undo; t\\O ehcvrons, one bar-SaTKl'lIto 7 truro; one
chcvron, onc bar-So!dado df' Prim/'ra: no
insignia SI)!dllllo. On '2'2 t\ugusl 1986 nl'W ranks
\H'rC intrcxluced for ranks abO' e Capitdll, rctaining
the 1\\0 political ranks, Generals \\l'ar siker stars
aOOn' crossed siker s\\onl and branch on
shoulder-loops: four stars-(,'l'/ural dt Ejtrcil6
Humbcna Onega Saavedra, .\Iinistcr of De-
felice. Armcd Forces Commander); thf4.:e-(;('lltral
tit ClIl'rjJO; t\\o-G",/,ral d, Dil';s;oll; ane-G(,I/tral dt
/Jr;~ada. Field officers have siker st:II..,: three-
Corol/I'I; t\\O- 'I mimI/' C()rontl: on(' ,\It!I'Of. An
oliv/' gl'c(:n bush-jackct can now b(' \Iom by
generals: ah.osuhdued EPS and nallle tape~, ami a
metal b('I'(,t hadge, hut so far no branch or unit
insigllia.
1'/: ,'·i(arag//a: Sargmlo Ttr"ro. 'Simoll /Jo/[mr'
Irr'.t://lar II 'aifart /Jatlalion: COli/hal drt$S. J,t}88
In com hal ('lite units such as the BLI"~ we<lr a
carnoufla~(' ..mock or shirt and trouloCf'<;. in a
\·ariet~ of palll'rns of \\hieh this S('('IlI'" the most
common, \\ ith onicers' siker rank insi~ni:l 011 lhe
collar~. and :\COs' Che\TOIlSOII uppe ....let·vcs. The
mual headgear is the Soviet lropieal field hat,
usual!) \\ itli ,hin strap pulled lig:ht OWl' lhe
("1"0\\11 UI.IS\\l'arlhi:.alall timcsas;l regimental
distinctioll, hut LJS-slyle baseball cap:. and
c<llnoufla!-\"('d 'Castro eaps' are also WOl'lI. ·l'llis
soldier, pos:.ihly ;1 party mcmber, wears ulloflici-
ally a !leck scarrill the lraditional arnarchisl, also
IlO\\ Salldil1i'la, wlours of rcd ('fi"t'edom') and
black 'or death!·), He halo Chinese-pallern ehest-
IJOuch \\ebbin~ "ilb mag<l'l.ines for his SO'iet
7.6:.! mm ,\1-:.:\1 assault riOe. and ~Tenades
(,',: .'·imragua: (,'/("r;lIa. ,'·;rara,!!,uall f)tlllOcra(;c
Frot/t, QpiftJ/; R/,.!!,;ollal Com1llalld; cOlI/htl/Jlrin. JgB"
~one or lhe six Contra g:roups has a standardised
uniform, The} \\ear ci\ilian c1othl-'S, captured
Sandini.,ta ,\rm} or .\Iilitia ulliforms. or CS-
supplied olin' g:reen or camouflaged items, in
variolilo eombinalions. In Ig8:.! the FD:\ achieved
a measure of unifonnit~ through large supplies of
vcr) dark hlui<;ll-green baseball caps, fatigue
shins, jackels ami lrousers, as shown here, The
FDl\' L1se<; posiJional litles rather thall r;lI1ks:
CO/l/(I/II1f1/1/(' df' /{rpJo1/ (reg-ional \"onllllandcr);
COII/III/dflll//' (dctachmenl. group or task-lorn: com-
mander); .7rJ; df' (,'ol1l/)(lIIia (company CO); Jifr dp
P,lo161/ (platoon CO); Jife dt ES(I/(/(Im (squad CO),
hut 110 !'ank insignia, This gUC"I'rilla \\C"ars a Oag-
pin hadge also \\orn by ARDE. and thl' FDN arm
badge. hoth comlllOIl but not 1Il1i\('rsal insignia.
He \\e;trs CS \\ebbing and carril-"S an ~160 ma-
chine gUll.
G2: .\";caragua: (,'llarilla, FDSSpu;a/ Porus: comhat
drtss.lg88
Standin~ sl11al'(I) to attention, this member of the
45
dile COI1/(/Iulo dl' OpmuiolliS Espuialts (COE) is us Arm)' branch insignia on lhe left collar.
identilied by the skull badge on his leli sleevc. I-Ie Enlisted ranks \\car yellow-on-grccn US .\1 19S8
is \\earing captured SandiniSla :\Iilitia fatigues chevrons on both slee"es: three chevrons, one
\\ith Ihe ne\\t.·SI national-flag arm badge; a rocker-Sflrgm/o; t\\'o chcvrons-ellbo; one
camouflaged 'boonie hat' "ith unofficial subdued chc\"fon-RasoprimI'Ta dasl': none-Rasa.
national tab; and CS-supplicd ALICE "ebbing
and tropical boots. His weapon is a Chinese copy of 1-12: Panama: Sub/mim/I'. 71h ".\lado dt .\10"/1"
the Soviet .\K:\I assault rifle, Ihe T} pc 56.' I. F"silil'1 Compall)'. [>tIlwma Dljl'llct Fo1Ct'S: rombat drtss.
,glIB
(,): .\"imragua: Cll~rrilla. RI'['oluliollal) D~",oaafi( Defellet.· Forces officers \\ear L:S :\11957 green
Allianu: (o",bal drtSS. 1985 service dress. \\ith peaked cap "ilil gold national
:\10111) AROE members favoured the green beret. crest. gold \\ ire chin strap and peak embroidery for
for its elite associations, to \\ hich this guerrilla has field and geller'll officers, green jacket and
attached a curious home-made triangular cap trou...ers. The khaki equivalent uniform is also
badge. ,,"e;lring one of a \\ ide rangt.· of camouflage \\orn. The brass national title 'RI)' (Republica de
fatigues (other leaf patterns and tigt.'l'-stripcs arc Panama) appears on the jacket collar, and on the
also encountcrcd). he carries a Rumanian version lapel the bl';llIch badge: star in a wrealh-generals
of Ihe Sovict I\KM assault riflc. Hi~ national and General Staff; crossed rifles-inf;111try. Of-
hreast-badge is also worn by FON guerrillas and, licers' brass rank insignia is worn all lhe shoulder
like Ihe FD,'I". ARDE uses positional titles up 10 straps (or grcen shoulder loops 011 shirl.~), but
and including COlf/andan/e. A~ true disciples of generals and General Stan'always \\ear stiff green
Sandino. SOI11(' ARDE troops still \\ore Ihc red and shoulder boards cdged gold: national nest alXl\'e
black FSL;\ neck scarf. four liH'-pointcd swrs Gml'ral dl' IJrigada (FD
Commander .\Ianuel Antonio ~oriega ; Lhree
1-11: Cos/a Rim: Tmifllil', ,\'orthml fJord" Suuri/l' stars onl} -Coro"tl: IWO- Tmimtl' Cor01ItI: one-
Ballalio,,: combal drtss. 1988 ~ .l/~)'or; three horiZOlllal linked bars-Capiltin;
Easil) mistaken initially for US troops, the field two- Tmil'1l/l'; olle-Sub/mimlt. Enlisled ranks
uniform of the Guardia Chil is a mixtur(' of l:S- wear CS-Slyle?\ 11958 yellow chcvrons 011 green on
supplied OG 107S. :\1 [g67 jungle fatigul'S, and DG 107 fittigue shirt upper slccvcs: three chevrons,
'\\oodland' camouflage shins and trousers of one rocker-Sargmlo dt Prim~ra: three ehc\'rons-
similar pattern hut dincrent cut to CS issue. Sargl'1l/o dl' Sl'gullda: two-Cabo: no insignia-
Headgear consists of the .\1 I 96.l baseball cap, the SoMado Raso.
'boonie hat', and the ~II helmet. ALICE webbing The :\11 hdn1('t or CS peaked licld ,ap i~ worn
is wom, and Slllall arms include both .\116s ::tIId in the lide!. \\ illt OG 1°7 shin ami trouscrsor olive
more obsolete Iypes-~I r Garands, and the jungle utilities. currelllly being' replaced by the US
elderly but excellellt Beretta ~IAB3H/49 sub- BDU c:lllwullagc clothing already \\Ot'll by the
machine gun depicted. l,:.JilC 7th Company. Officers w{'ar brass rank
Above the lcli hreast pocket is worll lhe 'C.R. baclg"Cs Oll the right collar, branch insignia OIL lhe
Guardia Civil' palch; company patches arc seell left. com pan} title on upper sleeves, alld parachute
on the right upper arm. The lSI and 2nd Com- \dllg:s abo\·c lite left IXlckel. He wears US ALICE
panies \\ere formed into a battalion 10 guard the \\ebbing. and can'ies an UZI sub-machine gun.
Nicaraguan border. and after serious claslu.'s with
Sandinislas in hot pursuit of AR DE guerrillas this NT flai/i: Srrgl'lIf-Follm-l'1. Pll'sid~nfial Gllard.
became in :\lay 19Bs the .\"onhern Border Secur- Hili/ian. Jm~)': paradl' uniform. 1988
it)' Battalion, whose )c1low-on-black 'BINICIO' Litle .\lorc common Ihan the dark blue officers'
is seen here on the right shoulder. The brassard ceremonial uniform is the L"S ?\11957 khaki service
indicalcs Coma"do dtl _\orU, 'Xonhern Command'. dress \\ ith black tic. The peaked cap has a gold
Officers \\car standard US Army gold and silver braid chin strap. brass national crest 011 a trophy of
rank insignia on the headgear and riu;ht collar. and cannons as cap badg-e. laurel branches 011 the peak
for field ofliccl's and generals, and laurel encircling
lhe dark blue cap hand for gcnerals. The jackel
collar ('anies the brass litlc 'RD'II' (Rcpublique
d'Haiti), the bp~l hras... hnlrlch illSignia: star-
General Stall: cross~d rifles-illr.lntry, Generals'
shoukkr strap rank imigllia consists of three large
\'crticall) placed silwr Mars: thrcc-I.itll/tllfllil GilJ-
im/: t\\O Gil/iml (/t Dil'isiOf/: ollt'-Gil/irol de
Brigodt: field OmCt'T~, .. mall vcrtical brass stars:
thn:e-Coloflel: 1\\o-/,inllnulIll Colollel: onc-
.\I(ljor: compan) officers, brass linked chevrons,
point dO\\II: thn't' (;apilaillt: t\\o-/,irllimalll;
one ,SoIH·/,iil/lnult/l: one point up -.I(ljlldr11l1
Warrant aAlcer Enli<;tcd rank!. \\ear a khaki
garrison C'lp, :\11957 cap or ob<,()klc :\119.J2 cap
\\ ith plain chin "trap, "hin, tic and IrOllS('rs. and
L·S·<;t~ It- ~ 1'110\\ dll'Hun" Oil dark bro\\I1 hackin~
on upP,,'r ,Il'('\c": thret' {'h('\ rons, Ihrec horizontal
bars-Sf"rgt'llt .\lty'or: thrc(' ("hc\ rons, hollo\\
rhomhoid-Sugrllt Prrmiu: thre(' chcvrons, one
b.lr-Sugrll/ FO/lrrirr: thrc-e chc\Tons-Strgnll: t\\O
CO/1Oml: OIH"-SoJd(11 dr /lrrmiiu dossr; 1I0ne-Soldol.
This uniform \\ith :\11 heimci douhles as field
dn'~. although OC 107 fatigu('S arc also \\orn,
\\ith '\\()()(Iland' or 'duck-hullt("r' pattern
camouflage f.'ltiguc-s for Pr('Sidcntial Guard and
·Leopards'. 'l'heGuard \\cars 'GP' Garde Presid- Col. H,,&o Torr"" political ch;cf or the S••dinillta Anny in
('Iltidlc) titles on the collar (abcwc shoulder strap
rank insig:nia, for om("(:rs and a unit shoulder
.....
'987. wnrinll the new ra ..k ;"II;Il";. inlnoduced ;.. Aupllt

patch. This soldier \\(';11':. oh~olct(' L"S lo-pouch

\\ehbillg, and carries tIl(' ,\II Garand rifle.
//4.' J/(Iil;: .\/ilit;mnrlll .. \'flliol/fll Sallri!" roillf//urs,
l!J8..j
l\ol to be confused Willi the plaill-clothes 'T011lOns
~Iaeuutes' polilical polin', lhe Volunleers, sup-
posedly tllodc1kd 011 i\111~solini's i\IVSN black-
shirt militia, \\on' (,x-Polin' peakt'd caps Of this
di"tim:tiYC h('l'(,l, hlue "hin and truuser<;, and red
scarves or armband~. Equipped \\ith obsoletc
weapons such as thi~ :\119~Hi\ I Thompson sub-
machint' gun, and lhl' i\ll Carand, or the Israeli
(JZI, thi·Y W('f(' aholislH'd in Fehruary IgRG with the
departure of'ltd))' Doc' DuvalilT.

~,oLen~f~'~)~,~:,;, r~~~r~t.el~S~~"~Il~'~!I~~~.,.,.. n"mho e' r",il, ero;";' e1

co,d","dcr~"'I"c ,'c,lll" ....i...," l"i"l;"""".· etle ,~;m",". A.. I .... ,;.,c-
OT""m"",bo',.,e", 1~)"kl""I.I,h)I""ld... lt'"e"II"•. ",... 'rc,IIo'·''''I'I".·de
r.rn,i-c de< us t1~" Il''''o" 1"" IN r",,,m.,,,la'l1J; Ie 1"'et ,><>i, 'holul;.,.""ai ....
J.....-"I";",ill''''.1"r''Hled·,,''rhcr'lch.''a;l~II)'kl'.rnll·Hul''''''c 1... I,r.... rtlc;l
rd"id"n".."c"...",·VinIlIKo'III"J",lIe'·d.-C;",ro, A]Te"""dercff,nonic
d·"·Ic"llc.,,"r"'I' ...·""''''luilrl '~la''II,...'''...... ..-,iu'''c--di~
B, T,eilh.e' "'IUlI""III""1 'la"'.I 'l·1c " .. io'IKlue.• ''''·.lt;oj..... j;o"ncde "'''II
..or !"o'pa.. s. ...-daI... d .. .-t.. n fAN Ca<;quC'! _ocuqun mod~k I9+'-' e'
~"D built"" ."," 1"''''' lou. leo de.. ~. B.. LD >ol<bu de eelte u"ilt
11OI"1e'" dcs""ilOcmcs 1......... uc ..It-"'''I''''' au. urnlOcmcsdel'l"fame......
Farbtafeln
A' 1m amerih"i~lIe" S"I ~,II"loe"e U,,;fnnn; N"rnmc< u,~l ~ckrc .. >.l"
(;cw.hr.lozc..-h,n a .. fd,,,, Kr"~e" ,,"'''C ~I",,<nkordcl w.i.." ."fl"r..""rie
",,,I da, Rrll;"""1 hill Aa Doc me""''' ,\"r<t.""li",'hc" ",,~e" Zi.. ilbck·
:~~~;~;,':. '~;;,,:::~~;,~r;:c:;~,:~::~~~.~;:~~)::I~~:~~~.~~~~,~:~ill:~~:::
dccRr>'ol,,'ion b''ll,docS'er'''''';II".. dcr k".....","'I.." ,\rmcc. l)ieA<mbi"de
~."u';;~·enA~~~~~,~~~,I~~,~:l~~~·d.:.tl:~:~:.J~,:':f.,'~:r~~~
~t;;~I.'
8, 1m IIOwj<:'i",hcn S"I ",1I.llme 1>.,IIo.-hurulOl'", "'''OC '\""""""ll.
mil
gd""',Ra"'l'lrr,r.n"tx.dcns<:lIuloe""r,re""bc"k.'J..IR" ZdTer.S'O"·... IJO.-
doc Uoinoc .u. dem Jallrr ,I)ot0 ..I", bulll........ hc Ilclme .u. dem Jallr '9,?

~~~::"''':Ir:c~r~:r;;::·;:~:.";~'~:~~I1~::::.:,.::,,:::::~It.~e~;~ ;;'~X~f:~,,,,~~n'=:~::u~'~~':,c;,~;;"~:c~: ::.:...r::::·:~d':'r~~~

deu~ m.. ...-bcs. l:i.."Il,ocdeh:a..,II"
e'mic<".' ........ I ... ,lolldrouIlC.I:
ur ... 'ol ... rotllllOOO'd·'moold.. ' ...,""1c
rpr.IcsIl·".. r'lcol...ert>decllau.."rr ~:~:':~i~a~~'i:l., ~I~~':c.~I=~:~!X::..~:"~~'.:~,,~=~~ I'{.~
t~"llQ""" 1>0<1"" 1""" ocn''''r de dn-monoc Lr f".d CIIl ... f...il allc,nand (;1· K... ~ ...bz.,..hcn tin R,,,,.,lI,,,... lOll'lll ... ne" Sokbl.... wid d:u .... ~'ion~I ......PI"'...

47
C, Ilml<...-"", d" un">uI1:o~c .ud-«M"ffn. al ... I",,,,,, "'''~ d...
~~~=n~·:;'~::"I:;·:::k~~:i"\ ~,,~;"~a~~~'=~U~
1'0,,,, ,I",...
n aur,,,,,,,,, ,t>l",,'hnlcrK"nIKl, \\r.Ur, .... h.l.ll.,Id.<"IllIhrlll.<t .... IIIIIII"'''kd
,.,u""n ~u 011",,,,11,,, A",~ ....n jl;C''''Il'''', Ik<m l ........h' handtll noi<'h um_
dr...... h<:sG,

~~t:+~~:~~~~;,tj~T~~~~~t£~:,;:t C. l>..r ....tl""""nlklor Tanulluuo:: ,,-..""

Sl""".. lnn!......... l{"''''tt<'fl \n dr. \lUlU " ..,
m"
de, ""... B:o.,k mu"......
Qu:ollfik• ...,...'rriknu........... ,...u.........'... R.."o:;"_,, ,
'Atldrf-
h•. DIc
\l11"a,.... C]l'nl.... dr,,~·_ ' .. '.'''d..
m '''l',\,~,. I':l...........,
\u.....'unl[ ... rspri<"h' drm ('\ 1I,,,j6~I,,,,n, Zur h .. lfnunll h dl<" t<.cs,
"""";,...poinl..; .... , _..... drl[ndr ... , , , ~J..,',. ,~<k

_'1(>1'1"" "'eo! e' 1""l[nnd·uni'~nl ,IJ..-.' :lll:lChn.1:o. 1~)Ch<-, ik r~"od \1,6, c.. 1I_""'I....drh" ....hw:ohnrhnnhrhumn"""'ll..-k
_, ....... .-,n ... ,I" );Ou"'It.. ...-hc""ronn,.~.I>c..IIndrp;o~h ..' .. 'e K""",dnt". \RM\' Rlll' 1'un..nibm m.. \flq(o; \""n"'"",ll;..,..... :\t(io
",mht.bk>a"":l1lal'\""""portcn""I:o.I>OI""... ~a""hc. l~:o:-~~~~.;:;t,'~:ij~;~::=~.:'~~~~~,i~~'=.,~],~:=
D. l'niforn", lk",,~l, ",nue"r~ 1);0' la (;",,,1.. (.i",1 d-r.'I"'~I", In<iI[I'"
1\~li""~I"""'d'lrdu"""-lu".in<il[n,(,'I""I,,l,.. ..n.duu"I'.. ,.,,,,1 dcu.• ~~~,I~.un~;'~~~~\I;~;:;:;::;~~rM~,~r
..n ~,:,::I[:~~I(r~~"~~i;.:~I:-t~a:% ..~
• paul.... <hilT,r' r.\ "" 1, .. ,,1, d""."" d. 1[""I,d~n< Ie "ll. ,Ic 1' •• "' '" I.". Ei"h..i".b«;ch."i"',,,d,·rT.....hrt...fr<"l[''''KI...-i,dlll,cc''''I.. r ......
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::::;'~i~'a~::;~~,I~I:~,~~';II~::'::::,7~1~;:r~:~~'II,'~~I'II;I:~:~"~h:I;,~u:;':r~~;:~'I"dem
~:::~';.I:'\~rn~·:'~~I/;,~~~:~;~\~,~i~;.,':~~~~~:,~'i,I;~1'd:,~;I~~;~:::.!;;:~
~ D, .:i,... alimudiJrhc L·",lorm. d"d" ...h "i< 'I",,, ..,,h.. C...,J", (.';,,11....."'110081
....-I~..' 51" Ie ,01 I[,,",h...., .... I""u.. d, «,.... ~; I.. i",il[1l('< d'lI"i,~ "om
qll,Iq.....o.. ~, ... '"' lr. dell' ~p.;olll,. D] C.. mouAal(' ·I,,~ .. /'1' ...
.... m..uAal[<" ""Il"'" .00.............. -., pori'" 100..... den. ,... " .. hampdl" I.....il...
~~~~. ~a~~~I~'\"'=~~ ..~~:~..~~ II~~;?:~"';;~~~:~.~'~~~.~:;:
~~" ... ::' d~':.p"~:;nn~.::~I::,"../(~t' ~~~l['::~l[~;" ~~;""hrn ~u~\mcn""':~, :~:r;:~"i~'::. "'~; ~i~i~:"'hdl~:' ~%: ....m...
.....«', D4 1.n n "1 ' .......,rt .....,r...... :o....... ""',pn'l.... ,""'l.... '......... halru'Pal7ldn>,\"r I>nlli.-h.. "'lOnn .. nd..-h"a ..... Ralll['~ __
d·unH'.qw ......"I li adour"' ,Ie<nl .uf drm .......h'.... Kr.IIl[CD. u,1d ,\btrtlu"I1:"~ ...n auf dcm bn~.... K. . . .
.....,hd.. h Einhn........(....... ,,'ndcn ........ b.m.oo.r .ur briden "'hul__
1'.:11... plup;ortdc.ould.. "porI
1"'""hu'''I'' :0 "'''' ,hr"'.... 'u
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