CA 2019 05 12 Sci

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General Science and S&T Current Affairs by Pmfias.com – May 2019 to Dec 2019
PDF – Contents
{Bio – Diseases – 19/06/04} Nipah virus .......................................................................................................................... 3

{Bio – Diseases – 19/06/22} Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) .................................................................................. 4
{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Ebola outbreak in Congo ...................................................................................................................................... 5
{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Rotavirus vaccine in UIP nationwide from September ............................................................................. 6
{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} UIP: Karnataka to introduce Rotavirus vaccine in UIP ............................................................................... 7
{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) ...................................................................... 7
{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/20} Antimicrobial resistance (AR) ............................................................................................ 9
{Bio – Diseases – 19/08/01} Trial of new tuberculosis vaccines................................................................................... 11

{Bio – Diseases – 19/08/06} HIV treatment drug recommended by WHO ............................................................................................. 13
{Bio – Diseases – 19/08/16} Ebola outbreak in Congo .................................................................................................................................... 13
{Bio – Diseases – 19/08/16} New Tuberculosis Drug Pretomanid ............................................................................... 14

{Bio – Diseases – 19/12/06} Bharat Biotech typhoid vaccine........................................................................................................................ 16
{Bio – In News – 19/09/22} Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) banned ............................................................................... 17
{Bio – In News – 19/09/28} Ranitidine ................................................................................................................................................................... 18
{Bio – In News – 19/10/07} 2019 Physiology Nobel ..................................................................................................... 18
{Bio – In News – 19/10/10} Antibiotic use in cows can affect soil health: Study .................................................................................. 20
{Bio – In News – 19/10/11} Bombay blood group (BBG) ............................................................................................................................... 20
{Bio – In News – 19/10/26} Experts urge Centre to remove trans-fatty acids by 2021 ............................................. 21
{Bio – In News – 19/11/04} Milk: A1, A2 ............................................................................................................................................................... 23
{Bio – In News – 19/11/21} Protein Secretagogin (SCGN) ............................................................................................................................. 23

{S&T – Biotech – 19/05/31} Coloured wheat ................................................................................................................ 24
{S&T – Biotech – 19/06/02} CRISPR-Cas9...................................................................................................................... 25
{S&T – Biotech – 19/12/30} 'Gene-editing' scientist sentenced in China ................................................................................................ 27
{S&T – Cyber Security – 19/10/31} Pegasus spyware via WhatsApp .......................................................................... 28
{S&T – Cyber Security – 19/12/17} StrandHogg ........................................................................................................... 29

{S&T – Cyber Security – 19/12/25} Virtual Private Network (VPN) ............................................................................ 30
{S&T – EV – 19/08/10} Lithium ion battery, Lithium, Cobalt, EVs vs. ICEVs ............................................................... 32
{S&T – EV – 19/09/01} Economies of EV ............................................................................................................................................................... 39

{S&T – EV – 19/10/09} 2019 Chemistry Nobel for development of lithium-ion batteries ........................................ 39
{S&T – EV – 19/11/01} EV extreme fast charging (XFC) technology .......................................................................................................... 42
{S&T – EV – 19/11/01} Li-ion battery that ‘won’t catch fire’ ......................................................................................................................... 42

{S&T – EV – 19/12/05} The Fall in battery prices ............................................................................................................................................... 42
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{S&T – ICT – 19/06/22} 5G .............................................................................................................................................. 43

{S&T – ICT – 19/07/09} 5G Spectrum Pricing is Against National Interest ................................................................ 45
{S&T – ICT – 19/12/11} Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi) ....................................................................................................... 46
{S&T – ICT – 19/12/18} Internet-free messaging .............................................................................................................................................. 47

{S&T – In News – 19/12/11} Unique Barcoding Software – Trakea ........................................................................................................... 48
{S&T – In News – 19/12/13} IBM GRAFT for better weather forecasting ................................................................................................ 48
{S&T – In News – 19/12/22} ‘Core catcher’ installed at Kudankulam nuclear plant ............................................................................ 49
{S&T – Indigenization – 19/07/19} Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile ........................................................................ 49
{S&T – Indigenization – 19/07/19} India’s Missiles ...................................................................................................... 52
{S&T – Indigenization – 19/07/19} Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) ....................... 54
{S&T – Indigenization – 19/12/27} BrahMos missile’s latest upgrade ...................................................................................................... 55
{S&T – ISRO – 19/05/22} RISAT-2B radar imaging satellite launched ........................................................................ 56
{S&T – ISRO – 19/07/14} Chandrayaan-2: India’s second lunar mission .................................................................... 57
{S&T – ISRO – 19/08/14} Why it took Chandrayaan-2 29 days to reach moon’s orbit? ............................................ 59
{S&T – ISRO – 19/10/09} GAGAN, GEMINI .................................................................................................................... 61

{S&T – ISRO – 19/11/26} Cartosat-3 .............................................................................................................................. 63
{S&T – ISRO – 19/12/11} RISAT-2BR1 ........................................................................................................................... 64
{S&T – ISRO – 24/09/19} ISRO initiates ‘Project NETRA’ ............................................................................................. 65
{S&T – Technologies – 19/05/25} Superconductor....................................................................................................... 66
{S&T – Technologies – 19/09/29} Quantum supremacy .............................................................................................. 67
{Sci – Energy Sources – 19/09/04} Detecting H2 gas leaks with high sensitivity .................................................................................. 70
{Sci – In News – 19/05/14} DRDO Successfully Conducts Flight Test of ABHYAS ................................................................................ 70
{Sci – In News – 19/05/15} Fuel Cells: Selenium-graphene catalyst for fuel cells ................................................................................ 71
{Sci – In News – 19/05/20} SI units defined in terms of natural constants ............................................................................................. 72
{Sci – In News – 19/08/22} Oxytocin ...................................................................................................................................................................... 74

{Sci – In News – 19/12/22} Rhea, a moon with an oxygen atmosphere .................................................................................................. 74
{Sci – In News – 19/12/29} Avangard hypersonic ICBM ............................................................................................... 74

{Sci – Space – 10/09/04} Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment (AIDA).................................................................. 75
{Sci – Space – 19/05/01} Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) ............................................................................................ 77
{Sci – Space – 19/05} Terms and Concepts related to Satellite Launches and Satellite Orbits ................................. 78
{Sci – Space – 19/10/09} 2019 Physics Nobel for helping us understand our place in the universe ........................ 91
{Sci – Space – 19/11/02} Solar System: New candidate for ‘dwarf planet’ title ..................................................................................... 93
{Sci – Space – 19/11/16} In News: Voyager 2 & Arrokoth ........................................................................................... 95
{Sci – Space – 19/12/03} Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment (AIDA)................................................................ 102

{Sci – Space – 19/12/07} Nasa’s Parker Solar Probe ..................................................................................................................................... 103
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{Bio – Diseases – 19/06/04} Nipah virus
The Hindu | The Hindu | 04-06-2019 | Biology > Diseases
Context
• The Nipah virus was first recognised in 1999 during an outbreak among pig farmers in Malaysia.
• The disease has also been identified periodically in Kerala.
Nipah virus infection
• The virus belongs to a new genus termed Henipavirus.

• Nipah is an RNA or Ribonucleic Acid virus.
• RNA viruses (most common cause diseases in humans) have high mutation rate compared to DNA viruses.
Transmission
• Nipah virus infection is a zoonosis (disease transmitted from animals to humans).

• A zoonosis could be caused by a virus, bacteria, fungi or parasite; some examples include anthrax, bird flu,
ebola, dengue, rabies, malaria, swine flu, etc.
• Fruit bats (flying fox) (eat fruits and live in trees) are the natural hosts for Nipah virus.
• Nipah transmission takes place when one consumes infected fruits and fresh date palm.
• Loss of the natural habitat of the bats is exacerbating the rate of bat-to-human transmission.
• As the flying fox habitat is destroyed, their immune system gets weaker, their virus load goes up.
• Human-to-human transmission occurs due to direct contact.
Symptoms
• The incubation period (interval from infection to the onset of symptoms) ranges from four to 14 days.
• Symptoms are similar to that of influenza: fever, muscle pain, and respiratory problems.
• Headaches, dizziness, encephalitis (brain inflammation), etc.
• Sometimes a person can have an asymptomatic infection (acts as a carrier without showing any symptoms).
Treatment
• There are currently no drugs or vaccines specific for the infection.
Tests used
• Real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from bodily fluids.

• Antibody detection via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
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• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
{Bio – Diseases – 19/06/22} Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES)
The Hindu | The Hindu | 22-06-2019 | General Science > Biology > Diseases | GS2 > Issues in Health sector
Context
• Cases of acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) have claimed lives of more than a hundred children in Bihar.
• Bihar loses hundreds of children aged between 2 to 10 years to AES every year.
• The deaths are linked to malnutrition and litchi fruit cultivation in an around Muzaffarpur.
• The yearly outbreak starts in May and ceases in intensity soon after the monsoon rains begin.
• Ongoing heatwave and delayed onset of monsoons seems to have exacerbated the crisis.
Acute encephalitis syndrome (AES)
• AES is a collective term used for referring to neurological manifestations which include mental confusion,
disorientation, convulsion (sudden movement caused by involuntary contraction of muscles), coma, etc.
• Meningitis caused by virus or bacteria, encephalitis (mostly Japanese encephalitis) caused by virus, encepha-
lopathy, cerebral malaria, etc. are collectively called acute encephalitis syndrome.
• While microbes cause encephalitis, encephalopathy is biochemical in origin.
• Encephalitis: An inflammation of brain cells due to a viral or bacterial infection.
• Encephalopathy: brain damage caused due to an environmental toxin.
• There are different types of encephalopathy. In the present case, it is associated with hypoglycaemia (low
blood sugar level) and hence called hypoglycaemic encephalopathy.
• Unlike hypoglycaemic encephalopathy, encephalitis does not cause low blood sugar level.
The link between hypoglycaemic encephalopathy (HE) and litchi
• The spike in AES cases is a result of malnourished children suffering brain damage after eating litchis.
• Litchis contain a chemical called methylene cyclopropyl glycine (MCPG).
• These are naturally occurring toxins that cause hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar level) in children.
• In malnourished children, when the reserves of glucose from the digestive tract and the liver are exhausted,
fatty acids are oxidized to supply blood sugar to the brain. MCPG toxin thwarts this mechanism.
• This can send the brain into hypoglycaemic shock triggering convulsions and, if unaddressed, even death.
Are litchis the primary culprit?
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• Hypoglycaemic encephalopathy outbreaks are restricted to April-July, with a peak seen in June. This is be-
cause litchi is harvested during this period.
• However, litchi does not cause any harm in well-nourished children, but only in undernourished children who
had eaten litchi fruit the previous day and gone to bed on an empty stomach.
Is any virus involved in causing Hypoglycaemic encephalopathy?
• It is an observed fact that malnourished children between two to 10 years fall ill and die due to HE.
• It is not known why older children or adults do not suffer the same way.
• This clear discrimination by age is also a reason why the underlying cause of the illness cannot be a virus.
Treatment
• Complete recovery can be achieved if affected children are infused with 10% dextrose within four hours after
the onset of symptoms.
• Infusing 10% dextrose restores blood sugar to a safe level and also stops the production of amino acid
that is toxic to brain cells by shutting down the body’s attempt to convert fatty acid into glucose.
Measures to be taken to prevent similar health crisis in future
• Overhauling the healthcare apparatus to deal with a crisis of this magnitude.

• Local public healthcare centres must stock up anti-convulsion drugs as well as dextrose.
• The state must effectively implement schemes that provide nutritious food to children.
• The public must be sensitised about the causes of AES and the necessary preventive measures to be taken.
Parents’ responsibility
• Children shouldn’t be allowed to skip their evening meal.

• Parents must make sure that undernourished children do not eat plenty of litchi fruit.
• During the heatwave periods, children should be made to stay indoors.
{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Ebola outbreak in Congo
Source | The Hindu | 19-07-2019 | Biology > Diseases
• WHO has declared the Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo a Public Health Emergency
of International Concern.
• Declaring an event as a global emergency is meant to stop the spread of the pathogen to other countries
and to ensure a coordinated international response.
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• WHO has been criticized for declining to declare a global emergency until the virus was spreading explosively.
• WHO held off partly out of fear a declaration would anger the countries involved and hurt their economies.
• This is the fifth time that the WHO has declared a global emergency.
• The earlier occasions were in
1. February 2016 for Zika outbreaks in the Americas,
2. August 2014 for Ebola outbreaks in western Africa,
3. May 2014 for the spreading of polio, and
4. April 2009 for the spreading of H1N1 pandemic.
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD)
• Ebola virus was first discovered in 1970s near the Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
• Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) is a disease in people and nonhuman primates (monkeys, gorillas, chimpanzees).
• The viruses that cause EVD are located mainly in sub-Saharan Africa.
• Ebola virus spreads through direct contact with an infected person or through direct contact with an
infected animal (bat or nonhuman primate).
• There is no approved vaccine or treatment for EVD.
• A vaccine was found to be effective (97.5% efficacy) in a trials conducted by WHO. But it is not yet approved.
• Symptoms of EVD include fever, headache, muscle pain, weakness, fatigue, diarrhoea, etc.
• Diagnosing can be difficult as early symptoms are not specific to Ebola virus infection.
• Recovery from EVD depends on good supportive care and the patient’s immune response.
• Ebola survivors may experience difficult side effects after their recovery, such as tiredness, muscle aches, etc.
{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Rotavirus vaccine in UIP nationwide from September
PIB | Biology > Diseases | GS2 > Issues related to health sector
• Government is committed to ending morbidity and mortality in children due to diarrhoea by 2022.
• In India, every year 37 out of every 1000 children born are unable to celebrate their 5th birthday, and one of
the major reasons for this is diarrheal deaths.
• Out of all the causes of diarrhoea, rotavirus is a leading cause of diarrhoea in children.
• Rotavirus vaccine along with proper sanitation and hygiene, zinc supplementation and vitamin A supple-
mentation will go a long way in reducing the mortality and morbidity due to diarrhoea in children.
• Keeping in view the burden of disease, National Technical Advisory Group on Immunization (NTAGI) recom-
mended introduction of rotavirus vaccine (RVV) in the Universal Immunization Programme (UIP).
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• Three doses of rotavirus vaccine are provided along with other vaccines, free of cost under UIP at one and
half month, two and half moth, and three and half month of age of child.
• Rotavirus vaccine was introduced in 2016 in a phased manner, beginning with 4 states initially.
• Rotavirus vaccine is now available in 28 States/UTs.
• The vaccine is expected to be available in all 36 States/UTs by September 2019.
Suggested reading:
1. {Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)

2. {Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} UIP: Karnataka to introduce Rotavirus vaccine in UIP
{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} UIP: Karnataka to introduce Rotavirus vaccine in UIP
The Hindu | 17-07-2019 | Biology > Diseases | GS2 > Issues related to health sector
• Karnataka is all set to introduce Rotavirus vaccine (RVV) as part of Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP).
• The vaccine that costs around ₹600 a dose in private healthcare facilities will be given free of cost to all infants
at the age of 6, 10 and 14 weeks.
• This vaccine is in addition to three vaccines have been introduced in India’s UIP, including Inactivated Polio
Vaccine (IPV), Measles, Rubella (MR) vaccine, and Adult Japanese Encephalitis (JE) vaccine.
Rotavirus
• Rotavirus causes severe diarrhoea and death among children under the age of five.
• Rotavirus is a highly contagious virus.
• Rotavirus transmission occurs primarily by the faecal-oral route, or indirectly via contaminated fomites.
• In India, around 78,000 children die from Rotavirus diarrhoea annually.
• It is estimated that Rotavirus accounts for 40% of the hospitalisation among children in India.
• Diarrhoea causes 9.2% of the total deaths among children under five years.
• If not treated adequately, it may result in dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, shock and death.
{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)
Source | Biology > Diseases | GS2 > Issues related to health sector
• Universal Immunization Programme (UIP) in its current form has been introduced in India in 1985.
• Ministry of Health provides several vaccines to infants, children and pregnant women through UIP.
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Immunization
• Immunization is the process through which a person is made immune to an infectious disease.
• Immunization typically involves administration of a vaccine.
• Vaccines stimulate the body’s own immune system to protect against subsequent infection or disease.
Vaccines provided under UIP
• OPV is given orally in the form of two drops.

• Rotavirus vaccine is given orally in the form of 5 drops.
• Rest of the vaccines under UIP are administered through injections.
Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine (BCG)
• It is given to infants to protect them from tubercular meningitis and disseminated TB.
• BCG vaccine is given at birth or as early as possible before one year.
Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV)
• OPV stands for Oral Polio Vaccine.

• It protects children from poliomyelitis.
• OPV is given at birth called zero dose and three doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks.
• A booster dose is given at 16-24 months of age.
Hepatitis B vaccine
• Hepatitis B vaccine protects from Hepatitis B virus infection.

• Hepatitis B vaccine is given at birth or as early as possible within 24 hours.
• Subsequently 3 doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks in combination with DPT and Hib in the form of
pentavalent vaccine.
Pentavalent Vaccine
• Pentavalent vaccine is a combined vaccine to protect children from five diseases Diphtheria, Tetanus, Per-
tussis, Haemophilic influenza type b infection and Hepatitis B.
• Three doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks of age (can be given till one year of age).
Rotavirus Vaccine (RV)
• It gives protection to infants and children against rotavirus diarrhoea.
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• It is given in select states.

• Three doses of vaccine are given at 6, 10, 14 weeks of age.
Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV)
• PCV stands for.

• It protects infants and young children against disease caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae.
• It is given in select states.
• The vaccine is given as two primary doses at 6 & 14 weeks followed by a booster dose at 9 months.
Fractional Inactivated Poliomyelitis Vaccine (fIPV)
• It is used to boost the protection against poliomyelitis (polio).

• Two fractional doses of IVP are given intradermally at 6 and 14 weeks of age.
Measles, Rubella (MR) vaccine
• In few states, a combined vaccine is given to protect from Measles and Rubella infection.
• First dose is given at 9 completed months and second dose is given at 16-24 months.
Japanese encephalitis vaccine (JE)
• It gives protection against Japanese Encephalitis.

• JE vaccine is given in select districts endemic for JE.
• First dose is given at 9 completed months and second dose at 16-24 months of age.
DPT booster
• DPT is a combined vaccine; it protects children from Diphtheria, Tetanus and Pertussis.
• DPT first booster is given at 16-24 months of age and DPT 2nd booster is given at 5-6 years of age.
Tetanus toxoid vaccine (TT)
• TT is used to provide protection against tetanus.

• Tetanus toxoid vaccine is given at 10 years and 15 years of age.
• Pregnant women-TT-1 is given early in pregnancy; and TT-2 is given 4 weeks after TT-1.
{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/20} Antimicrobial resistance (AR)
The Hindu | The Hindu | 19-07-2019 | GS3 > Issues relating to Health | Biology > Diseases
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• The WHO defines antimicrobial resistance (antibiotic, antiviral or anti-malarial resistance) as a microorgan-
ism's resistance to an antimicrobial drug that was once able to treat an infection by that microorganism.
• E.g. In Multi Drug Resistant TB (MDR-TB – resistant to multiple antimicrobials), the TB bacteria are resistant
to two of the most important TB drugs, isoniazid (INH) and rifampicin (RMP).
• Micro-organisms can develop resistance mainly in two ways: intrinsic resistance and acquired resistance.
• Intrinsic resistance refers to the innate ability of an organism to resist a class of antimicrobial agents.
• Acquired resistance refers to micro-organisms acquiring the gene coding (genetic mutation) for resistance.
• Acquired resistance is more common than intrinsic resistance.
Issues
• Treating resistant microbes require alternative or higher doses of medication (expensive + toxic).
• In 2016, upto 4,90,000 people developed multi-drug-resistant TB globally.
• Drug resistance is starting to complicate the fight against HIV and malaria as well.
• Organ transplantation, chemotherapy and surgeries would be compromised without effective antimicrobials.
Causative measures
• Overuse, misuse and improper use (e.g. taking antibiotics to treat viral diseases!) of antimicrobials.
• Greater access to over the counter antibiotic drugs in developing countries.
• Using broad-spectrum antibiotics over narrow-spectrum antibiotics (targeting specific microbes only).
• Dumping of inadequately treated effluents from the pharmaceutical industry.
• Antibiotic use in livestock feed at low doses for growth promotion is industrialized countries.
• Poor sanitation and hygiene that forces the extended use of antimicrobials.
Measures required
• Global collective action through international treaties on antimicrobial resistance.

• Preventing over the counter sale of antibiotics.
• Swatch Baharat, awareness, etc.
2019-05: World’s rivers loaded with antibiotics waste
• The concentrations of major antibiotics like Ciprofloxacin (treatment for intestinal and urinary tract infec-
tions) and metronidazole in water bodies were several times above the limit in many parts of the world.
• Discovered in the 1920s, antibiotics are used to treat pneumonia, tuberculosis, meningitis and a host of
deadly bacteria.
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• Overuse and misuse of the drugs are thought to be the main causes of antimicrobial resistance.
2019-05: Novel compound treats colistin-resistant bacteria
• A tridecaptin family compound shows promise in killing bacteria that are resistant to colistin.
• Colistin is a powerful last-line antibiotic.
• If colistin-resistant bacteria are found in the blood, there is 80% chance of death.
2019-07: Colistin banned in animal food industry
• The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has prohibited the manufacture, sale and distribution of colistin
and its formulations for food-producing animals, poultry, aqua farming and animal feed supplements.
• The move is a “massive victory” for the movement against anti-microbial resistance.
• Colistin is a valuable, last-resort antibiotic that saves lives in critical care units.
• In recent years, may patients have exhibited resistance to the drug.
• Therefore, preventing arbitrary use of colistin in the food industry, particularly as growth supplements
(growth factor) used in animals, poultry would likely reduce the antimicrobial resistance within the country.
{Bio – Diseases – 19/08/01} Trial of new tuberculosis vaccines
IE | 01-08-2019 | Biology > Disease | GS2 > Issues related to health
• Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) launched trial for two new tuberculosis (TB) vaccines.
• The incidence of TB was nearly 2.8 million and MDR TB was 1,47,000 per year, respectively.
• India contributes to 27 per cent of the global TB burden; the highest share globally.
• That is why, in 2017, the central government had committed itself to eliminating TB by 2025.
• The new vaccines that are being put through the trials offer a chance to contain the accelerating spread of
multi-drug resistant TB.
• Treating TB requires a multi-drug course of treatment lasting six months; longer still for treating drug-re-
sistant TB.
• Treatment failure and recurrence can have devastating consequences.
Why new vaccines?
• Scientists felt a critical need for new TB vaccines that are more effective than the Bacille Calmette-Guerin
(BCG) vaccine.
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• The BCG vaccine is used in the routine Expanded Programme of Immunisation (EPI) in countries across the
world. It is generally given at birth or in the first year.
• The vaccine is over 100 years old and, while it has been partially effective in protecting infants and young
children, it provides poor protection against pulmonary disease in adolescents and adults.
• It is for these reasons a need was felt to develop more effective preventive TB vaccines.
Which vaccines?
• There are two vaccines being tested are Immuvac (mycobacterium indicus pranii) and VPM1002.
• Depending on the test results, the recommendations would be sent to the Ministry of Health.
Tuberculosis (TB)
• Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

• Tuberculosis commonly affects the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body.
• It spreads from person to person through the air, when people who are infected with TB infection cough,
sneeze or otherwise transmit respiratory fluids through the air.
• The most common risk factor associated with TB is HIV and other conditions that impair the immune system.
• Symptomatic Diagnosis: Coughing for more than 2 weeks, loss of weight, loss of appetite, fever and night
sweats, fatigue are common symptoms of tuberculosis.
Treatment
• For new TB cases, the treatment in intensive phase (IP) consists of four drugs: Isoniazid (INH), Rifampicin,
Pyrazinamide and Ethambutol.
• For previously treated cases of TB, the intensive phase is of 12 weeks, where injection streptomycin is given
for eight weeks along with four drugs.
• CBNAAT (Cartridges Based Nucleic Acid Amplification Test) is used for early diagnosis of MDR-TB and
TB in high risk population.
Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB)
• The bacteria that cause TB can develop resistance to antimicrobial drugs used to cure the disease.
• Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is TB that does not respond to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, the 2 most
powerful anti-TB drugs.
• The 2 reasons why multidrug resistance continues to emerge, and spread are mismanagement of TB treat-
ment and person-to-person transmission.
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• Most people with TB are cured by a strictly followed 6-month drug regimen.
• Inappropriate or incorrect use of antimicrobial drugs or use of ineffective formulations of drugs and prema-
ture treatment interruption can cause drug resistance.
• In some countries, it is becoming increasingly difficult to treat MDR-TB.
• Treatment options are limited, and expensive.
• In some cases, even more severe drug-resistant TB may develop.
• Extensively drug-resistant TB, XDR-TB, is a form of multidrug-resistant TB with additional resistance to
more anti-TB drugs.
{Bio – Diseases – 19/08/06} HIV treatment drug recommended by WHO
The Hindu | 06-08-2019 | General Science > Biology > Diseases > HIV
• Assessing benefits and risks, WHO has recommended the use of the HIV drug dolutegravir (DTG) as the
preferred first-line and second-line treatment for all populations, including pregnant women.
• The risk of side effects like neural tube defects are significantly lower than what the initially thought.
• DTG is more effective, easier to take and has fewer side effects than alternative drugs.
• It also has a high genetic barrier to developing drug resistance.
AIDS – Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
• AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.

• This means deficiency of immune system, acquired during the lifetime of an individual.
• AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a group of viruses called Retrovi-
rus, which have an envelope enclosing the RNA genome.
• Transmission of HIV-infection generally occurs through body fluids.
More info: pmfias.com/aids-acquired-immuno-deficiency-syndrome-human-immuno-deficiency-virus-hiv/
{Bio – Diseases – 19/08/16} Ebola outbreak in Congo
IE | Source | The Hindu | 16-08-2019 | Biology > Diseases
• WHO in July declared the Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo a Public Health Emergency of
International Concern.
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD)
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• Ebola virus was first discovered in 1970s near the Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
• Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) is a disease in people and nonhuman primates (monkeys, gorillas, chimpanzees).
• The Ebola virus (EBOV) is one among the four related species of the genus Ebolavirus.
• The viruses that cause EVD are located mainly in sub-Saharan Africa.
• Ebola virus spreads through direct contact with an infected person or through direct contact with an
infected animal (bat or nonhuman primate).
• There is no approved vaccine or treatment for EVD.
• Symptoms of EVD include fever, headache, muscle pain, weakness, fatigue, diarrhoea, etc.
• Diagnosing can be difficult as early symptoms are not specific to Ebola virus infection.
• Recovery from EVD depends on good supportive care and the patient’s immune response.
• Ebola survivors may experience difficult side effects after their recovery, such as tiredness, muscle aches, etc.
Congo’s Ebola outbreak may be controllable now
• The haemorrhagic fever caused by the Ebola virus may finally be curable as two experimental drugs called
REGN-EB3 and mAb114 have shown survival rates of as high as 90 per cent in a clinical trial.
{Bio – Diseases – 19/08/16} New Tuberculosis Drug Pretomanid
IE | The Hindu | The Hindu | TH | IE | 16-08-2019 | Biology > Disease | GS2 > Issues related to health
• Worldwide, TB has surpassed HIV-AIDS as the leading cause of death due to infectious diseases.
• The incidence of TB was nearly 2.8 million and MDR TB was 1,47,000 per year, respectively.
• India contributes to 27% of the global TB burden; the highest share globally.
• As per WHO, an estimated 4.5 lakh people have MDR-TB and nearly 37,500 people have XDR-TB.
• Out of these, India has 24% of MDR-TB cases in the world.
Tuberculosis (TB)
• Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

• TB commonly affects the lungs (pulmonary TB) but can also affect other parts (extra pulmonary TB).
• It spreads from person to person through the air, when people who are infected with TB infection cough,
sneeze or otherwise transmit respiratory fluids through the air.
• The most common risk factor associated with TB is HIV and other conditions that impair the immune system.
• Symptomatic Diagnosis: Coughing for more than 2 weeks, loss of weight, loss of appetite, fever and night
sweats, fatigue are common symptoms of tuberculosis.
14
TB Treatment
• For new TB cases, the treatment in intensive phase (IP) consists of four drugs: Isoniazid (INH), Rifampicin,
Pyrazinamide and Ethambutol.
• For previously treated cases of TB, the intensive phase is of 12 weeks, where injection streptomycin is given
for eight weeks along with four drugs.
• Most people with TB are cured by a strictly followed 6-month drug regimen.
Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB)
• CBNAAT (Cartridges Based Nucleic Acid Amplification Test) is used for early diagnosis of MDR-TB.
• In MDR-TB, the bacteria that cause TB develop resistance to antimicrobial drugs used to cure the disease.
• MDR-TB does not respond to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, the 2 most powerful anti-TB drugs.
• Treatment options for MDR-TB are limited, and expensive.
• In some cases, even more severe drug-resistant TB may develop.
Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB)
• XDR-TB is a form of multidrug-resistant TB with additional resistance to more anti-TB drugs.

• People who are resistant to isoniazid and rifampin, plus any fluoroquinolone and at least one of three inject-
able second-line drugs (amikacin, kanamycin, or capreomycin) are said to have XDR-TB.
Causes of multidrug resistant-TB
• Multidrug resistance is caused due to mismanagement of treatment and person-to-person transmission.

• Mismanagement of TB treatment involves inappropriate or incorrect use of antimicrobial drugs or use of
ineffective formulations of drugs and premature treatment interruption.
Treatment for drug-resistant TB
• The treatment success in MDR-TB patients is about 54%, while it is just 30% in the case of XDR-TB patients.
• A combination of eight drugs for more than a year is need for XDR-TB treatment.
• Treatment success in XDR-TB patients depends on the extent of the drug resistance, the severity of the dis-
ease, whether the patient’s immune system is weakened, and adherence to treatment.
• Drugs used for treating MDR-TB and XDR-TB can cause serious adverse effects such as deafness.
New Promising Drug Pretomanid
15
• Treating MDR-TB and XDR-TB could get simpler and shorter with the new drug Pretomanid.
• Pretomanid is only the third anti-TB drug approved by U.S. FDA in more than 40 years.
• The drug was developed and tested by New York-based non-profit organisation TB Alliance.
What makes Pretomanid promising?
• The duration of treatment for drug-resistant TB can be cut from 18-24 months to just six-nine months when
three-drug regimen consisting of Bedaquiline, Pretomanid and Linezolid (BPaL regimen) is used.
• The all-oral, three-drug regimen can vastly improve the treatment success rate & adherence to treatment.
• Importantly, the regimen was found to be safe and effective in curing TB in people living with HIV.
• Unlike bedaquiline, which is expensive, pretomanid might become affordable.
Which category of drug-resistant TB patients will benefit from this new drug?
• BPaL regimen is meant for treating adults with XDR-TB.

• In the case of MDR-TB, the three-drug regimen containing pretomanid can be used only in those patients
who cannot tolerate the MDR-TB treatment or do not respond to standard MDR-TB treatment regimen.
• The three-drug regimen is meant only for treating pulmonary TB and should not be used for treating extra-
pulmonary TB, drug-sensitive or latent TB.
What are the adverse reactions caused by the drug?
• The three-drug regimen was reported to have caused adverse reactions including liver toxicity (hepatotoxi-
city), suppression of bone marrow leading to reduced production of red & while blood cells & platelets, etc.
{Bio – Diseases – 19/12/06} Bharat Biotech typhoid vaccine
TH | 06-12-2019 | General Science > Biology > Diseases
• A typhoid vaccine (Typbar TCV) developed by the Bharat Biotech has shown 81.6% efficacy in preventing
typhoid fever at 12 months in a Phase-III clinical trial.
• A single dose of the vaccine was found to be effective in preventing typhoid in children aged nine months to
16 years.
• The vaccine confers protection two-three weeks after vaccination.
• The Typbar TCV vaccine was recommended by WHO’s Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization
(WHO-SAGE) in December 2017.
How Typbar TCV compares with other thphoid vaccines?
16
• The Typbar TCV typhoid vaccine is a conjugate vaccine.

• In a conjugate vaccine, the antigen (polysaccharide in this case) is chemically linked to a carrier protein.
• Two other typhoid vaccines — polysaccharide typhoid vaccine and live, weakened typhoid vaccine —
are already used commercially.
• Two doses of live, weakened typhoid vaccine are needed to reach 60-70% protection.
• The conjugate vaccine can be given to babies as young as six months, while the other two vaccines cannot
be given to children below two years of age.
• According to SAGE, in high-incidence settings, a large proportion of severe typhoid fever cases occur in
children aged below two years.
Typhoid fever
• Typhoid fever is caused by the highly contagious Salmonella Typhi bacteria.

• The bacteria spreads through contaminated food or water.
• While typhoid bacteria can be treated with antibiotics, the microbes have developed resistance against mul-
tiple antibiotics.
• Multi-drug resistant typhoid bacteria are seen in south Asia including India.
• Extensively drug-resistant (XDR) typhoid has been found in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.
{Bio – In News – 19/09/22} Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) banned
The Hindu | 22-09-2019 | Substance Abuse – NCERT
• Union Cabinet approved an ordinance prohibiting electronic cigarettes in the country.

• It makes production, manufacture, import, export, transport, sale, distribution, storage and advertisement of
Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS – e-cigars, vapes, e-hookahs, etc.) punishable under law.
• ENDS are marketed as tobacco-free nicotine delivery devices.
• Instead of burning tobacco leaves like in traditional cigarettes, an e-cigarette produces aerosol by heating a
solution containing nicotine and flavours in the form of liquid.
• The aerosol containing a suspension of fine particles and gases simulates cigarette smoke.
• Following a puff, the aerosol is delivered to the user’s mouth and lungs and the rest is exhaled.
• Like traditional cigarettes, e-cigarettes too deliver ultrafine particles and nicotine deep into the lungs.
• Nicotine solvents can release in varying amounts potential carcinogens such as acetaldehyde, formalde-
hyde and acetone.
17
• Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood circulation, both of
which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate.
• Nicotine “harms parts of the brain that control attention, learning, mood, and impulse control.”
• Nicotine also changes the way synapses — connections between brain cells — are formed.
• E-cigarettes also contain volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, such as nickel, tin and lead.
• Flavours in e-cigarettes have been cited as one of the top three reasons for children to use them.
• Flavours such as diacetyl used in e-cigarettes are linked to serious lung disease.
{Bio – In News – 19/09/28} Ranitidine
IE | The Hindu | 28-09-2019 |
• India’s drug regulator is looking into concerns of potential cancer-causing contaminants in ranitidine.
• The move came over a week after the US Food and Drug Administration flagged the issue.
• US FDA stated that some ranitidine medicines contained “low levels” of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA).
• NDMA is an environmental contaminant found in water and foods.
• NDMA has been classified as probably carcinogenic to humans.
• Ranitidine is an over-the-counter, prescription antacid used in the treatment of acid reflux and peptic ulcers.
• It is commonly used to relieve acid-related indigestion and heartburn by decreasing stomach acid production.
• Ranitidine is a much older medication, but it has less side effects than the modern alternatives.
• The drug is a prescription drug included in Schedule-H and therefore it should be sold by retail only under
prescription of Registered Medical Practitioner,’’ noted the letter.
{Bio – In News – 19/10/07} 2019 Physiology Nobel
TH | TH | 07-10-2019
• William G. Kaelin Jr, Sir Peter J. Ratcliffe and Gregg L. Semenza have been jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for
Physiology or Medicine for discovery of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen.
• The three scientists have uncovered the genetic mechanisms that regulates the activity of genes in re-
sponse to varying levels of oxygen.
• The discovery has paved the way for new strategies to fight anaemia, cancer and many other diseases.
• Drugs have been developed to treat anaemia by making the body produce increased number of RBCs.
• Similarly, drugs to increase oxygen availability in people with heart disease and lung cancer are being tested.
• While oxygen is essential for the survival of cells, excess or too little oxygen can lead to adverse consequences.
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• Oxygen supply temporarily reduces in muscles during intense exercise and under such conditions the cells
adapt their metabolism to low oxygen levels.
• Proper growth of the foetus and placenta depends on the ability of the cells to sense oxygen.
• Many diseases can be treated by either increasing or blocking/inhibiting the function of a particular
pathway of oxygen-sensing machinery.
• Inhibiting or blocking the pathway will have implications in treating cancer, heart attack, stroke and pul-
monary hypertension.
• Cancers are known to hijack the oxygen-regulation machinery and re-programme the metabolism in order
to adapt to low oxygen conditions.
• The reprogramming of metabolism gives cancer cells greater potential for long-term growth.
What do we already know?
• The rate at which we respire depends on the amount of oxygen being carried in the blood.
• Specialised cells present next to large blood vessels in the neck sense the blood oxygen level and alert the
brain to increase the rate of respiration when the oxygen level in the blood goes down.
• Specialised cells present in the kidneys make and release a hormone called erythropoietin.
• When oxygen level is low, as in high altitudes, more of this hormone is produced and released, leading to
increased production of red blood cells in the bone marrow — helping the body adapt to high altitudes.
• Besides increasing red blood cells, the body also grows new blood vessels to increase blood supply.
What are the main contributions of 2019’s winners?
• Prof. Semenza & Sir Ratcliffe studied how the erythropoietin gene is regulated by varying oxygen levels.
• Both researchers found that the oxygen-sensing mechanism is not restricted to kidneys where the eryth-
ropoietin is produced but by diverse cells in tissues other than the kidney.
• Prof. Semenza identified a pair of genes that express two proteins.
• When the oxygen level is low, one of the proteins (HIF-1alpha) turns on certain genes, including the eryth-
ropoietin gene, to increase the production of erythropoietin.
• The hormone, in turn, increases the oxygen availability by boosting the production of red blood cells.
• Prof. Kaelin Jr., who was studying an inherited syndrome called von Hippel-Lindau’s disease (VHL disease)
found that people had increased risk of cancer when they inherited VHL mutations.
• He found the VHL gene seemed to be involved in how cells respond to oxygen.
• The function of the HIF-1alpha protein, which turns on the genes to produce more erythropoietin, is
blocked when the oxygen level is normal but remains intact when oxygen level is low.
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• This ensures that excess red blood cells are not produced when the oxygen level is normal.
Why do athletes use erythropoietin?
• Athletes have been found to use erythropoietin, synthetic oxygen carriers and blood transfusions for doping.
• Each of the three substances or methods is banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).
• The use of erythropoietin in people who are anaemic due to chronic kidney disease helps in increasing the
oxygen level in the blood.
• The use of external erythropoietin by healthy people is likely to make the blood thick leading to an in-
creased risk of heart disease, stroke, and cerebral or pulmonary embolism (clot that blocks the flow of blood).
{Bio – In News – 19/10/10} Antibiotic use in cows can affect soil health: Study
D2E | 10-10-2019 | Misuse of Antimicrobial drugs is an important health issue
• We know that excessive use of antibiotics leads to antibiotic resistance in humans.

• But now, a study has found that it also reduces the soils’ ability to store carbon.
• Long-term exposure to manure from cows administered with antibiotics can change soil microbiome (they
respire more aggressively) and decrease their ability to store carbon.
• Antibiotics are used I livestock to boost animal growth and treat infection.
Suggested Reading: {Bio – Diseases – 19/07/20} Antimicrobial resistance (AR)
{Bio – In News – 19/10/11} Bombay blood group (BBG)
IE | 11-10-2019 | Biology NCERT > Blood | Blood Groups | Formed Elements
• The four most common blood groups are A, B, AB and O.

• The rare, Bombay blood group was first discovered in Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1952.
• Each red blood cell has antigen over its surface, which helps determine which group it belongs to.
Blood Group Antigens on RBCs Antibodies in Plasma Donor’s Group
A A anti-B A, O
B B anti-A B, O
AB A, B nil AB, A, B, O
O nil anti-A, B O
• The BBG, also called hh, is deficient in expressing antigen H, meaning the RBC has no antigen H.
20
• For instance, in the AB blood group, both antigens A and B are found.
• Often the hh blood group is confused with the O group.
• The difference is that the O group has Antigen H, while the hh group does not.
• If anyone lacks Antigen H, it does not mean he or she suffers from poor immunity.
• Their counts for haemoglobin, platelets, WBC and RBC are similar to the count of others.
• Because of rarity, however, they do face problems during blood transfusion.
Transfusion limitations
• The individuals with BBG can only be transfused autologous blood (same blood group).
• Rejection may occur if they receive blood from A, B, AB or O blood group.
• In contrast, hh blood group can donate their blood to ABO blood types.
• This group is generally not stored in blood banks as it is rare, and the shelf life of blood is 35-42 days only.
• So, whenever there is a demand for a Bombay blood group patient, a donor is required very urgently.
Suggested Reading: Blood | Blood Groups | Formed Elements
{Bio – In News – 19/10/26} Experts urge Centre to remove trans-fatty acids by

2021
The Hindu | 26-10-2019 | GS2 > Issues related to health | Bio NCERT > Fats – Healthy Fats and Unhealthy Fats
• Health experts have written to the Union Health Ministry asking it to advance the 2022 deadline for the
elimination of trans-fatty acids in Indian food to 2021.
• Over 77,000 deaths annually are attributed to trans fats consumption in India.
• Trans-fatty acids are a major factor for spike in cardiovascular diseases, hypertension and type-II diabetes.
• As per the draft notifications of FSSAI, the limit of trans-fats in the fats/oils should not be more than 3% by
weight from January 1, 2021 and not more than 2% by weight from January 1, 2022.
• Experts have added that the Food Safety and Standards Regulations, 2011 should include 2% limit on trans-
fats for fats, oils and “all food products”.
• They have also demanded introduction of a new logo for trans-fat-free (2%) products and restriction on
misleading “No Trans Fats” claim on packaged food products.
Unhealthy Fats – Saturated Fat and Trans Fat
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• The main types of “unhealthy” fats are saturated and trans-fat.

• Saturated fats are primarily found in foods that come from animals, such as meat and dairy.
• Saturated fats are unhealthy because they increase LDL (“bad” cholesterol) levels in your body.
• Many saturated fats are “solid” fats that you can see, such as the fat in meat.
• Other sources of saturated fats include high-fat cheese, butter, Ice cream, palm and coconut oils, etc.
• Trans fats or trans-unsaturated fatty acids are a type of unsaturated fats that are uncommon in nature.
• Trans fats are worse than saturated fats.
• Trans fat is simply liquid oils turned into solid fats during food processing.
• Natural trans-fats, present in very small amounts in certain animal products, are not considered harmful.
• But industrially-produced artificial trans-fats (manufactured by adding hydrogen to vegetable oil) lead to
an increase in bad cholesterol (LDL) and lowering of good cholesterol (HDL).
• Foods containing trans-fat are usually labelled as “partially hydrogenated”.
• Partially hydrogenated oil is less likely to spoil, so foods made with it have a longer shelf life.
• Trans fats are easy to use, inexpensive to produce and last a long time.
• Trans fats give foods a desirable taste and texture.
• These trans-fats are largely found in vanaspati oil, margarine, bakery shortenings, and in baked and fried
foods.
Q1. Statements:
1. Trans fats are considered beneficial for the human body

2. Double bond chemistry of the fat molecules in Trans fats causes a Plaque formation
3. Omega-3 fatty acids are considered healthier than the saturated fatty acids
22
Codes:
a. 1 & 3
b. 2 & 3
c. 1 & 2
d. 1, 2, 3
Ans. B
{Bio – In News – 19/11/04} Milk: A1, A2
TH | 04-11-2019 | In News topics for Prelims
• Casein is the largest protein group found in milk.

• A1 and A2 are two forms of beta-casein, a sub-group of casein.
• Originally, all cows would produce only A2 protein.
• Over the millennia many of them start producing both A1 and A2 proteins.
• While cow’s milk and A2 are used interchangeably, it is relevant to note that all buffalo milk is A2.
• India’s desi cow breeds have a genetic make-up that yields milk high in A2.
• However, over the years, cross-breeding with foreign breeds like Jersey has muddled the gene pool.
• Some argue that the prominence of A1 beta-casein over A2 could be a public health issue, leading to type 1
diabetes, autism, an increased risk of heart disease, and digestive issues.
• However, medical professionals are not buying into the A1-A2 theory.
• Also, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has not validated the A1-A2 theory.
• The European Food Safety Authority had also agreed that there was no cause-and-effect relationship be-
tween consuming A1 protein and the illnesses alleged.
{Bio – In News – 19/11/21} Protein Secretagogin (SCGN)
TH | 21-11-2019 | In News topics for Prelims
• Scientists have discovered a protein called secretagogin that helps manage insulin levels thereby showing
the potential to tackle diabetes and neuro-degenerative disorders like dementia & Alzheimer’s.
• Diabetes is a metabolic disorder with a defect in insulin supply resulting in high blood glucose levels.
• At present, the processes regulating insulin supply and signalling in diabetes are not completely understood.
• The protein (SCGN) binds to insulin and protects it from various stresses while increasing its stability.
• An injection of the protein given to obese diabetic mice has shown to clear excess insulin from circulation.
23
• The SCGN will soon become a diagnostic marker and aid in diabetes management.
{S&T – Biotech – 19/05/31} Coloured wheat
Economic Times | 31-05-2019 | GS3 > S&T > New Developments
• Coloured wheat is developed by Mohali’s National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI).

• The three coloured varieties are purple, black and blue wheat.
• NABI comes under the Union Ministry of Science and Technology.
• Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) gave its nod for human consumption of coloured wheat.
• The wheat gets its colour from anthocyanin.
• While normal wheat has 5 ppm of anthocyanin, the purple wheat has 40 ppm.
• Anthocyanin is a pigment that gives colour to fruits such as blueberries and jamun.
• Anthocyanin is also an antioxidant (can reduce chances of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and obesity).
• Coloured wheat can give the requisite quantities of anthocyanin without the fear of high blood sugar.
• The black one possesses the highest amount of anthocyanin, followed by blue and purple wheat.
• Coloured wheat is also biofortified with zinc and hence can fight malnutrition among children.
• One acre gives about 20 quintals of coloured wheat at best — four quintals less than the normal variety.
• All three varieties of wheat are now being tested by the Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR).
Zinc deficiency rising in Indians
• A new study says rising carbon dioxide levels can accelerate zinc deficiency in crops.
• Zinc deficiency in diet is severe in states with rice-dominated diets (southern and north-eastern states).
• Solutions: National grain fortification programmes, bio-fortified crops, and reduced CO2 emissions.
Importance of dietary zinc
• Boosts immune function,

• Helps in cell division,
• Promotes wound healing.
Health issues associated with Zinc deficiency
• Zinc nutrition is an important determinant of mortality in children (NCERT).

• Reduces children’s resistance to infectious diseases including the risk of infection (NCERT).
• Children are more susceptible to contracting malaria, diarrhoeal diseases and pneumonia (NCERT).
• Poor immune system function.
24
Foods rich in zinc
• Meat, particularly red meat, liver,

• Milk, cheese and other dairy products, eggs, seeds and nuts, etc.
• Shellfish like oysters, crab, mussels and shrimp.
Biofortification of crops
• Fortification is the practice of increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, i.e. vitamins and minerals
(including trace elements) in a food.
• Biofortification is fortification done through agronomic practices (soil management and crop production),
conventional plant breeding, or modern biotechnology.
• In conventional fortification nutrient levels are increased during processing of the crops.
• Biofortification increases nutrient levels in crops during plant growth.
• Biofortification is better than conventional fortification as it is easy to implement.
Examples of biofortified crops in India
• Pearl millet (iron), wheat (zinc), sorghum (iron), rice (zinc), cowpeas (iron) and lentils (iron and zinc).
• Dhanshakti (biofortified pearl millet or bajra) is the first iron biofortified crop to be officially released in India.
Source
Micronutrient deficiencies
• Hidden hunger: a term used to describe dietary micronutrient deficiencies.

• The most common micronutrient deficiencies are deficiency of iron, zinc and Vitamin A.
• Micronutrient deficiencies affect pregnant women and preschool children the most.
{S&T – Biotech – 19/06/02} CRISPR-Cas9
The Hindu | 02-06-2019 | General Science > Biology | GS3 > Biotechnology and its applications
• In a bid to make babies immune to HIV, a researcher from China used an untested gene editing tool (CRISPR-
Cas9) on twin girls to disable the gene CCR5 (encodes a protein that allows HIV to enter and infect cells).
• The announcement of the birth of gene-edited twin girls late last year set off an international furore.
CRISPR
25
• Unusual but repeated DNA structures that scientists had been observing were given a name — Clustered
regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats or CRISPR.
• In 2012, scientists discovered that CRISPR is a key part of the “immune system”.
• For instance, when a virus enters bacteria, it fights back by cutting up the virus’s DNA.
• This kills the virus but bacteria store some of the DNA.
• The next time there is an invasion, bacteria produce an enzyme called Cas9 which matches the stored fin-
gerprints with that of the invader’s.
• If it matches, Cas9 can destroy the invading DNA.
CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing tool
• The Chinese researcher used the CRISPR–Cas9 gene editing technique in the twin girls.
• The CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing tool has two components:
1. a short RNA sequence that can bind to a specific target of the DNA and
2. the Cas9 enzyme which acts like a molecular scissor to cut the DNA.
Mechanism
• RNA sequence that perfectly matches with the DNA sequence that has to be edited is introduced.
• Once the RNA sequence binds to the DNA, the Cas9 enzyme cuts the target DNA (bound by RNA sequence).
• Once the DNA is cut, the natural DNA repair mechanism is utilised to add or remove genetic material.
What’s wrong with the researcher’s misadventure?
• Scientific communities oppose the CRISPR–Cas9 gene-editing technique in embryos.

• There is also consensus that gene editing can be potentially used only to prevent serious genetic disorders.
• Human clinical trials have not been carried to test whether disabling the gene completely prevents HIV.
• The tool could have caused unintended mutations in other parts of the genome.
Can disabling the CCR5 gene prevent HIV?
• Babies without a functional CCR5 gene will become resistant to HIV infection, but certain other strains of HIV
use another protein to infect cells.
• Hence, even people who are born with non-functional CCR5 gene are not completely against HIV infection.
Does the CCR5 gene have any protective role?
• The CCR5 gene’s protective role against the West Nile virus is well established.
• CCR5 gene also helps to protect the lungs, the liver and the brain during certain serious infections.
26
• The gene is known to prompt the immune system to fight the influenza virus in the lungs.
• Without this gene the defence system would fail.
{S&T – Biotech – 19/12/30} 'Gene-editing' scientist sentenced in China
TH | 30-12-2019 | GS3 > Biotechnology and its applications
• The scientist who created the world's first “gene-edited” babies is sentenced to three years in prison in China.
• The scientist had used gene-editing technology known as CRISPR-Cas9 to change the genes of twin girl.
• This caused a backlash in China and globally about the ethics of his research and work.
Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)
• CRISPR are unusual but repeated DNA structures.

• In 2012, scientists discovered that CRISPR is a key part of the “immune system”.
• For instance, when a virus enters bacteria, it fights back by cutting up the virus’s DNA.
• This kills the virus but bacteria store some of the DNA.
• The next time there is an invasion, bacteria produce an enzyme called Cas9 which matches the stored fin-
gerprints with that of the invader.
• If it matches, Cas9 can destroy the invading DNA.
CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing tool
• The Chinese researcher used the CRISPR–Cas9 gene editing technique in the twin girls.
• The CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing tool has two components:
3. a short RNA sequence that can bind to a specific target of the DNA and
4. the Cas9 enzyme which acts like a molecular scissor to cut the DNA.
Mechanism
• RNA sequence that perfectly matches with the DNA sequence that has to be edited is introduced.
• Once the RNA sequence binds to the DNA, the Cas9 enzyme cuts the target DNA (bound by RNA sequence).
• Once the DNA is cut, the natural DNA repair mechanism is utilised to add or remove genetic material.
What’s wrong with the researcher’s misadventure?
• In a bid to make babies immune to HIV, the Chinese researcher used the untested gene editing tool (CRISPR-
Cas9) on twin girls to disable the gene CCR5 (encodes a protein that allows HIV to enter and infect cells).
• The announcement of the birth of gene-edited twin girls late last year set off an international furore.
27
• Scientific communities oppose the CRISPR–Cas9 gene-editing technique in embryos.

• There is also consensus that gene editing can be potentially used only to prevent serious genetic disorders.
• Human clinical trials have not been carried to test whether disabling the gene completely prevents HIV.
• The tool could have caused unintended mutations in other parts of the genome.
Can disabling the CCR5 gene prevent HIV?
• Babies without a functional CCR5 gene will become resistant to HIV infection, but certain other strains of HIV
use another protein to infect cells.
• Hence, even people who are born with non-functional CCR5 gene are not completely against HIV infection.
Does the CCR5 gene have any protective role?
• The CCR5 gene’s protective role against the West Nile virus is well established.
• CCR5 gene also helps to protect the lungs, the liver and the brain during certain serious infections.
• The gene is known to prompt the immune system to fight the influenza virus in the lungs.
• Without this gene the defence system would fail.
{S&T – Cyber Security – 19/10/31} Pegasus spyware via WhatsApp
TH | 31-10-2019 | GS3 > Basics of cyber security
• WhatsApp identified a bug in the app’s call function that was used to install malware into users’ phones.
• In October, it identified the malicious code as Pegasus, a spyware developed by an Israeli company, NSO.
• WhatsApp and its parent company Facebook have sued NSO in a U.S. court.
How does Pegasus come into your phone?
• The code is transmitted by calling the target phone on WhatsApp.

• The code enters the phone even if the call is not answered.
• This is only one of the ways of delivering Pegasus. Several other cases such as alarming SMSs that prompt
targets to click on a link can also be used.
• Once installed, Pegasus can send the target’s contacts, calendar events, phone calls on and messages on
communication apps like WhatsApp and Telegram to the spyware’s controller.
• It could steal messages from even services that offer encryption because it was taking the messages before
the encryption process.
• The controller can also turn the phone into a spying device by switching on its camera or microphone.
• According to reports, over 100 human-rights activists, lawyers, and journalists were targeted across the globe.
28
• This included several lawyers and journalists in India.
{S&T – Cyber Security – 19/12/17} StrandHogg
TH | Source | 17-12-2019 | GS3 > Basics of cyber security
• Home Ministry has alerted all States warning them about the StrandHogg vulnerability in the Android OS.
• StrandHogg vulnerability allows malware apps to pose as legitimate apps and access user data of all kind.
• Attackers exploit Android's control setting called 'taskAffinity', which enables any app to freely assume any
identity in Android's multi-tasking system.
• When a user launches an app, an attacker can display to the user a spoofed User Interface (UI) under attacker’s
control instead of the real UI from the original app, without the user’s awareness.
• All apps on the user’s device are vulnerable, including the system apps.
• The specific malware did not reside on Google Play, but was installed through several dropper apps.
• Dropper apps are those that either have or pretend to have functionality of popular apps, but they also install
additional apps to a device that can be malicious or steal data.
Malware (malicious software)
• Malware is any program or file that is harmful to an electronic device user.

• Malware can perform a variety of functions such as stealing, encrypting, deleting sensitive data, altering or
hijacking core computing functions and monitoring users' computer activity without their permission.
• Mobile malware can provide access to the device's components such as the camera, microphone, GPS, etc.
• Malware can be delivered to a device with a USB drive or can spread over the internet through downloads
without the user's approval or knowledge.
• Phishing attacks are another common type of malware delivery where emails disguised as legitimate mes-
sages contain malicious links or attachments that can deliver the malware executable to unsuspecting users.
Different types of malware
• Virus: malware which can execute itself and spread by infecting other programs or files.
• Worm: self-replicating malware that typically spreads without any human interaction or directives.
• Trojan horse: designed to appear as a legitimate program in order to gain access to a system. Once acti-
vated, Trojans can execute their malicious functions.
• Spyware: malware that collects data on the device and observe user activity without their knowledge.
29
• Ransomware: malware that infects a user's system and encrypts the data. Cybercriminals then demand a
ransom payment from the victim in exchange for decrypting the system's data.
• The 2017 WannaCry ransomware attack targeted computers running the Microsoft Windows operating
system by encrypting data and demanding ransom payments in the Bitcoin cryptocurrency.
• Rootkit: malware created to obtain administrator-level access to the victim's system. Once installed, the
program gives threat actors root or privileged access to the system.
• Adware: malware used to track a user’s browser and download history with the intent to display pop-up or
banner advertisements that lure the user into making a purchase.
• Keyloggers: also called system monitors, are used to see nearly everything a user does on their computer.
This includes emails, opened web-pages, programs and keystrokes.
{S&T – Cyber Security – 19/12/25} Virtual Private Network (VPN)
TH | 25-12-2019 | GS3 > Basics of cyber security
• VPNs is a tool designed for large organisations to securely share their resources with their employees, as well
as connect their employees and branches in a reduced-risk environment.
• To ensure security, the VPN connection is established using an encrypted layered tunnelling protocol and
users can use a host of authentication methods like passwords, certificates, to gain access to the network.
30
• Since the line is encrypted between the network and the device connected to it, the traffic remains private.
• VPN technology can check whether a connected device meets certain security requirements, thus making the
connections secure.
VPN and privacy
• VPN is also a good tool to circumvent censorship.

• We can connect securely to a proxy network via a VPN which, in turn, will connect to a destination website.
• Whenever you are connected to the Internet, you are assigned an IP address – a numerical combination that
is essentially similar to a regular street address.
• With an IP address, you can be tracked down as easily as with a regular street address.
• VPN replaces a user’s real IP addresses with the IP address of the gateway, which can be located in a
different country.
31
You may need a VPN it in the following cases
• You do not want anyone to have access to the data you submit to the internet.
• You do not want your ISP (Internet Service Provider) to know and log your internet activity.
• You do not want various government agencies to track you and your actions on the internet.
• You do not want various sites that you visit, and programs installed on your computer, to collect and send
marketing information about you and about what you are doing on the internet.
{S&T – EV – 19/08/10} Lithium ion battery, Lithium, Cobalt, EVs vs. ICEVs
The Hindu | 10-08-2019 | GS3 > Sci & Tech – developments and their applications and effects in everyday life
Relevance
• IIT Madras researchers have fabricated a rechargeable iron ion battery.

• With increased focus on electric vehicles, it is essential to develop rechargeable batteries that are cheaper.
• With no lithium reserves in India, the stress is on developing rechargeable batteries of comparable perfor-
mance using materials other than lithium.
Lithium ion battery
Schematic of a rechargeable battery (Image Credits)
• Anode, cathode, electrolyte and separator are the main components of a lithium ion (rechargeable) battery.
• The two electrodes are immersed in the electrolyte and are separated by the separator.
• The anode is usually made up of graphite (carbon).
• Carbon graphite has a layered structure that can store the lithium ions in between its layers.
32
• The cathode is made up of a combination of lithium-cobalt.

• Lithium is unstable in the element form; hence the combination lithium-cobalt oxide is used for cathode.
• Cathode plays an important role in determining the energy density of a Li-ion battery.
• The higher amount of lithium, bigger the capacity.
Working of a typical lithium ion battery
• Both electrodes in a li-ion battery can intercalate or ‘absorb’ lithium ions.

• When the battery is being charged, lithium ions are absorbed (stored) in the anode.
• During discharge, lithium ions naturally flow back to the cathode through the electrolyte.
• This creates free electrons in the anode which move along the wire generating electricity.
• The process (to and fro movement of lithium ion) repeats with each charge and discharge cycles.
• Charge Process: Positive electrode (cathode) is oxidized (loses electrons) and Li+ ions pass across the
electrolyte and are intercalated (insert between layers) in negative electrode (anode – graphite).
• Discharge Process (opposite of charge process): An oxidation reaction occurs at the anode (-ve), Li+
ions are de-intercalated and migrate across the electrolyte to be re-intercalated into the cathode material.
• Electrolyte (lithium salt) enables the movement of lithium ions between the electrodes.
• The separator functions as a physical barrier keeping cathode and anode apart.
• It prevents the direct flow of electrons and lets only the ions pass through.
• While the cathode determines the performance of a battery, electrolyte and separator determines its safety.
• Permeable polymer membranes such as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are used as separators.
Why lithium?
• Lithium is the lightest metal and a powerful reducing agent (willing to donate its electrons).
• Lithium ion batteries capitalize on the strong reducing potential of lithium ions to power the redox reaction
— reduction at the cathode, oxidation at the anode.
Iron ion battery developed by IIT Madras
• Fe2+ ions are the charge carriers in iron ion battery (in lithium ion battery lithium ions do the job).
• The iron ion battery uses mild steel as the anode and Vanadium pentoxide as cathode.
• The large inter-layer spacing in vanadium pentoxide makes intercalation easier (loss and gain of ions).
• In pure iron, intercalation is not possible. But, small amount of carbon in mild steel facilitates this process.
• Ether-based electrolyte containing dissolved iron perchlorate is used as electrolyte.
33
• The energy density of iron ion battery is 220 Wh/kg (350 Wh/kg in case of lithium ion battery).
• When compared with lithium metal-based batteries, iron ion batteries would be cheaper yet safer.
Energy density is measured in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg) and is the amount of energy the battery can
store with respect to its mass.
How is iron better than lithium?
• The redox potential (potential to lose or gain electrons) of iron ion is higher than lithium ion.
• The radius of the Fe2+ ion is nearly the same as that of the lithium ion.
• Iron is more stable during the charging process and therefore prevents short-circuiting of the batteries.
• When more iron ions bind to the cathode, more energy (higher energy density) can be stored in the battery.
Comparison: Lead-acid battery, Lithium ion battery & Iron ion battery by IIT
Comparison table Lead-acid battery Lithium ion battery Iron ion battery by IIT
Electrolyte Sulphuric acid Lithium salt (Lithium hexafluor- Iron perchlorate
ophosphate)
Anode Lead Carbon (graphite) Mild Steel
Cathode Lead dioxide Lithium-Cobalt Oxide Vanadium pentoxide
(Lithium-Nickel-Manganese-
Cobalt Oxide)
Applications Inverters, automobile batter- Mobile, laptop, electric vehicle -
ies, solar batteries batteries
Energy Density (Wh/kg) 30 to 40 350 220
Weight and Space Heavy and occupies more Comparatively lighter and oc- -
space cupies less space
Lifecycle Low (2-4 years) High (6-8 years) -
Maintenance Yes No No
Reliability Low (full discharge damages High -

battery)
Initial cost Low High -
Lifecycle cost High Low
Toxicity High Low Low
Lithium
Among twelve minerals identified as strategic minerals, Lithium and Cobalt are significant.
34
• Lithium is lightest known metal. It has a density of 0.534 g/cm3 (half as dense as water).
• It's light and soft and has lowest melting points of all metals and a high boiling point.
• Lithium-ion batteries are key to lightweight, rechargeable power for laptops, phones, electric vehicles.
• Lithium and another battery component, cobalt, could become scarce as demand increases.
• China controls most of the lithium supply across the world.
World’s Lithium Reserves in Million Tons World’s Lithium Production in Thousand Tons
Country Reserves Country Production
Chile 7.5 47% Australia 18.7 43%
China 3.2 20% Chile 14.1 33%
Australia 2.7 17% Argentina 5.5 13%
Argentina 2 13% China 3 7%
World total 16 MT World total 43 TT
Cobalt
• Cobalt is an important ferromagnetic alloying metal having irreplaceable industrial applications.

• Cobalt is extracted as a by-product of copper, nickel, zinc or precious metals.
• Super alloys made of cobalt are wear & corrosion-resistant at elevated temperatures.
Role of cobalt in Lithium ion batteries
• Lithium-cobalt-oxide is used as cathode in rechargeable batteries.

• Lithium-cobalt-oxide is an intercalation compound with the lithium, cobalt and oxygen arranged in layers.
• Cobalt is indispensable to assure the rate performance (rate of charging & discharging occurs).
• When the lithium ion arrives or departs from cathode, cobalt changes its oxidation state (compensates for
the gain/loss of charge) so that the lithium-cobalt-oxide stays electrically neutral.
• Cathodes are commonly oxides made from transition metals such as nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, etc.
• Replacing the costly cobalt with significantly cheaper nickel can be a fire hazard.
• Aluminium & manganese can be added to stabilize, but it lowers the capacity of the cell by a small amount.
Distribution of Cobalt Reserves across India and the World
State Reserves in MT Region with reserves
1. Odisha 31 69% Kendujhar and Jajpur districts
2. Jharkhand 9 20% Singhbhum district
35
3. Nagaland 5 11% Tuensang district
Total 44.9 MT Presently, there is no production of cobalt from cobalt resources.
• India is aggressively pushing electric mobility. All electric vehicles at present use Lithium ion batteries.
• Hence, India has to aggressively push to secure lithium and cobalt (strategic minerals) resources both
internally and externally.
• China has already taken a substantial lead in the race by aggressively procuring these minerals from Congo.
• The demand for cobalt is usually met through imports.

• Recycling technologies for recovery of cobalt from waste Li-ion batteries have been an evolving process.
• Imports of cobalt and alloys were at 875 tonnes in 2017-18.
• Imports were mainly from USA & Canada (13% each), Belgium (12%), Norway & UK (9% each) and China
(8%) & Morocco (7%).
World’s Reserves of Cobalt Content (in TT) World’s Production of Cobalt Content in 2017 (in TT)
Country Reserves Country Production
Congo (Kinshasa) 3400 49% Congo 82.5 59%
Australia 1200 17% New Caledonia 9.4 7%
Cuba 500 7% China 9 6%
World Total 6900 TT Total 139 TT
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles vs. Electric Vehicles
Mains Practise: “The Internal Combustion Engine Is A Dead Man walking.” Critically analyse this state-
ment.
Mains Practise: “The age of the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is over. Electric cars are the future.”
Critically analyse this statement.
EVs are a lot better than ICEVs
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Electric Vehicles (EV) Winner
(ICEV)
Major IC engine, Transmission System. DC/AC motor, digital controller, battery pack. EV
Components
36
Image Credits
Weight Comparatively heavier. Comparatively lighter. EV
Heavy due to large and heavy metallic Motor engines are relatively lighter as they EV
engines with complicated design. have fewer components and simplistic design.
Space occupied Comparatively more because of large Comparatively less ➔ more space for seating EV
by components engines. ➔ good for congested countries like India
Efficiency Less efficient because of loss of energy More efficient as the loss of energy in the form EV
in the form of heat in IC engines and of heat is very low (not many moving parts in
due to friction between transmission motors) and transmission losses are minimum
systems (rotatory motion has to be (the motor engine shaft transmits rotatory
transmitted using a complex set of motion either directly to the wheels or with
bearings and shafts). the help of fewer bearings and shafts).
Maintainance More maintenance (frequent, oil Less maintenance as the battery is the only EV
change, components replacement) is major component to be replaced. (low
required as there are many moving recurring cost)
parts.
The initial cost Comparatively low as the technology is High as the technology is still evolving. IC
of development in place for a century now.
and ownership
Total lifecycle High Low (electricity cost associated with operating EV
economic cost an EV over a distance of 1 km is significantly
lower than the petrol/diesel cost required to
operate a comparable IC vehicle)
Acceleration Comparatively less as there many states EVs are much faster as the transmission of EV
and speed like ignition, four stages of IC engine, power, and rotatory motion is almost instanta-
control transmission, etc. neous.
Environmental High Comparatively low (EV are more efficient)
footprint
Range Once the tank is full ICEVs can travel The range of EVs at present is only a few hun- IC
non-stop for hundreds of km dred km.
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Fuelling Done in a few minutes. Charging batteries take a few hours IC
Infrastructure Filling stations and other infrastructure Charging stations are slowly popping up. IC
is in place.
Resale value Resale value is falling as EVs are the fu- Better EV
ture
Import-substitu- Heavy dependence on imported fuels. Clean electricity can replace fossil fuels. EV
tion. India now generates 22% (79 GW) of its elec-
tricity from renewable sources alone.
Share of major fuels in Power Generation in India
Total Installed Capacity (As on 31.05.2019)
Fuel Giga Watt % share
Thermal Total Thermal 226.3 63.2%
Coal 194.5 54.3%
Lignite 6.3 1.7%
Gas 24.9 7.0%
Oil 0.64 0.2%
Hydro (Renewable) 45.4 12.7%
Nuclear 6.8 1.9%
Renewable 79.3 22.0%
Total 357.9
Demand for EVs is rising rapidly
Electric car battery life is increasing
• One major factor that turned into a bottleneck in adopting EVs is the battery life.
• At present lithium ion batteries in EVs have a lifecycle of 6-8 years which is decent.
• With improving technologies, this is only set to go up.
Battery capacity is increasing, and prices are falling
• Lithium-Ion batteries are increasing in energy density at a rate of 5-8% per annum.
• Battery Costs are falling: The main cost of an electric vehicle is the cost of the battery. Lithium-Ion batteries
cost $1,000 per kWh in 2010. By 2017 that cost had fallen to $200 per kWh, and it won't stop there.
Favourable policy
38
• China and India are aggressively pushing for electric mobility with a slew of measures.
• India reduced GST on EVs from 12% to 5%. Introduced schemes like FAME, FAME II.
{S&T – EV – 19/09/01} Economies of EV
The Hindu | 01-09-2019 | GS3 > Science and Technology – developments and their applications
• NITI Aayog has proposed to ban all IC (internal combustion) engine powered two-wheelers (below
150cc) and three-wheelers in India starting in 2025 for two-wheelers and in 2023 for three-wheelers.
• The automobile industry had objected to the proposal as EVs are still not financially viable.
The battery pack takes up nearly half the cost of an average electric vehicle
• For EVs to be viable, the cost of battery packs needs to reduce significantly.
• The predominant battery chemistry used in EVs is lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion).
• The key-components of the battery contribute the most (60%) to the total cost.
• Labour charges, overheads and profit margins account for the rest.
• Any reduction in the cost of the battery pack will have to come from a reduction in battery materials cost.
Can costs be further decreased?
• The price of Li-ion battery packs has consistently fallen over the past few years.
• This decrease is in part due to technological improvements, economies of scale and increased demand.
• Given that raw materials account for 60% of the cost of the battery pack, the room for further cost reduction
is limited.
What does it mean to India?
• India needs to manufacture Li-ion cells in-house and recycle existing Li-on batteries to bring down costs.
• However, the government has not taken any significant steps in this direction.
Suggested Reading:
• Lithium-ion battery, Internal Combustion Engine vs. Electric Vehicles

• {Envi – Air Pollution – 19/07} Electric Mobility
{S&T – EV – 19/10/09} 2019 Chemistry Nobel for development of lithium-ion bat-

teries
D2E | The Hindu | 09-10-2019 | GS3 > S&T > Rechargeable Battery technology
39
Suggested Reading (Important): Lithium-ion battery, Internal Combustion Engine vs. Electric Vehicles
• John B Goodenough, M Stanley Whittingham from US and Akira Yoshino from Japan won the Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 2019 “for the development of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries”.
• The “lightweight, rechargeable and powerful li-on batteries” today powers everything from mobile phones
to laptops and electric vehicles.
Batteries convert chemical energy into electricity
• A battery comprises two electrodes, a positive cathode and a negative anode, which are separated by a liquid
chemical, called electrolyte, which is capable of carrying charged particles.
• The two electrodes are connected through an electrical circuit.
• When the circuit is on, electrons travel from the negative anode towards the positive cathode, thus generating
electric current, while positively charged ions move through the electrolyte.
• Single-use batteries stop working once a balance is established between the electrical charges.
• In rechargeable batteries, an external power supply reverses the flow of electric charges, so that the battery
can be used again.
Development of lightweight rechargeable batteries
• The lithium-ion batteries are based upon lithium-ions flowing back and forth between the anode and cath-
ode.
Whittingham’s contribution
• When Whittingham began working on batteries in the 1970s, rechargeable batteries were already available,
but were bulky and inefficient.
• Whittingham worked with newer materials to make his battery lighter and more efficient.
• Whittingham created an innovative cathode in a lithium battery, with just over two volts, in 1970s.
• The choice of lithium was obvious as it let go of its electron quite easily and was also very light.
• Whittingham’s battery worked at room temperature, making it practical, but was prone to short-circuits on
repeated charging.
• To make the battery safer, aluminium was added to the metallic lithium electrode.
Goodenough’s contribution
• The big breakthrough was made by Goodenough who changed the cathode to a metal oxide instead of metal
sulphide (titanium disulphide) that Whittingham had been using.
40
• Using cobalt oxide with intercalated lithium ions, Goodenough produced more powerful batteries with four
volts in 1980.
Yoshino’s contribution
• Yoshino started working on Goodenough’s battery and tried using various lighter carbon-based materials as
the anode in order to bring down the weight further.
• He got excellent results with petroleum coke, a by-product of the oil industry.
• Petroleum coke, like the cathode’s cobalt oxide, can intercalate lithium-ions.
• This battery was stable, lightweight, and as powerful as Goodenough’s.
• Yoshino also succeeded in eliminating pure lithium from the battery, instead basing it wholly on lithium ions,
which are safer than pure lithium. This made the battery workable in practice.
• Though the voltage generated in Yoshino’s battery was similar to Goodenough’s battery at 4 volts, it was a
stable battery — it had a long life and could be charged several times before its performance deteriorated.
Graphic form The Hindu

Suggested Reading: {S&T – 19/08/10} Lithium ion battery, Lithium, Cobalt, EVs vs. ICEVs
41
{S&T – EV – 19/11/01} EV extreme fast charging (XFC) technology
D2E | 01-11-2019 | GS3 > Science and Technology – developments and their applications
Basics: Working of a typical lithium-ion battery
• An EV can travel a maximum 150-200 kilometres (km) on a single charge.

• While an AC charger takes around six hours to power an EV, DC chargers are faster and take around 40
minutes to one hour to fully charge a car.
• The US Department of Energy has set a goal of developing extreme fast charging (XFC) technology that
can add 200 miles of driving range in 10 minutes.
• The main obstacle to XFC is Lithium (Li) plating, which happens at high charge rates and significantly
reduces battery life.
• To circumvent the problem, researchers developed an asymmetric temperature modulation (ATM)
method that charges an Li-ion battery (LiB) at an elevated temperature of 60 °C to eliminate Li plating.
• However, LiBs operating at high temperatures leads to accelerated materials degradation.
• To prevent serious materials degradation, the exposure time at 60 °C is reduced to 10 minutes per cycle.
• The ATM method enables XFC of LiB with an excellent life cycle, while substantially reducing battery cooling
needed during XFC.
{S&T – EV – 19/11/01} Li-ion battery that ‘won’t catch fire’
IE | 01-11-2019 | GS3 > Science and Technology – developments and their applications
Basics: Working of a typical lithium-ion battery
• Lithium-ion batteries are vulnerable to fire and explosion, which often happens without warning.
• This is because they are built with flammable and combustible materials.
• Now, the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory has developed a Li-ion battery that will not catch fire.
• The team has announced the discovery of a new class of “water-in-salt” and “water-in-bisalt” electrolytes
— referred to as WiS and WiBS, respectively.
• The electrolytes replace the flammable liquid with a polymer that improves safety.
• This new class of electrolytes, when incorporated in a polymer matrix, reduces water activity and elevates the
battery’s energy capabilities & life cycle while ridding it of the flammable, toxic, and highly reactive solvents.
{S&T – EV – 19/12/05} The Fall in battery prices
DTE | 05-12-2019 | GS3 > Sci & Tech – developments and their applications and effects in everyday life
42
Suggested Reading: {S&T – 19/08/10} Lithium ion battery, Lithium, Cobalt, EVs vs. ICEVs
• Studies show a decline in Li-ion battery prices from $1100 per kilowatt/hour (kWh) to $156 kWh in 2019.
• By 2030 the price of Li-ion battery is expected to fall to $61/kWh.
• The cost and energy density of the Li-ion battery is a major determinant in adoptaton of renwable energy
and electric mobilty.
• In 2019, the reason for cost reductions include increasing order size & sale of electric vehicles (EVs).
{S&T – ICT – 19/06/22} 5G
D2E | 22-06-2019 | Science and Technology > New Tech and their applications
• 5G wireless internet network is 50 times faster than 4G.

• It enables superfast data transfer with minimal delay (a latency as low as 1 millisecond).
• The US and South Korea have already rolled out the network on a trial basis.
• In May 2018, five Nordic countries—Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland and Iceland—announced their plan
to create the world’s first interconnected 5G region.
• In March 19, Germany began auctions of 5G bandwidth spectrum in Bonn.
• India plans to begin trials by 2020. India has not yet allocated spectrum for 5G.
5G will enable
• Development of new services for smart mobility and automated transport, accelerating automation of
the whole transport sector from maritime to road to air.
• Deeper penetration of artificial intelligence (AI)-based technologies (E.g. Amazon’s Alexa, Google’s
Google Home, Apples’ Siri, etc.).
• Internet of Things (which includes smart wearables and virtual reality headsets).
• Commercial application of driverless autonomous vehicles (they can become usable only if they communi-
cate with other vehicles and traffic signals).
• Low-latency applications, including industrial robots to remote surgery.
• Inter-working of different technologies and networks and machine to machine communications.
• Integration of satellites in 5G networks for new applications in domains such as agriculture, emergency re-
sponse for communities living in rural areas, etc.
Health concerns associated with 5G networks
• All artificial electromagnetic radiations are bad because our biological systems are not adapted to it.
43
• 5G will promote cell phone use, and therefore human exposures from phones and base stations.
• 5G requires Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields (RF-EMF) radiation between 600 MHz and 86 GHz.
• Typically, RF radiations are nonionizing and cause only dielectric heating effects (unlike ionising radiations
like X-rays and gamma rays).
• The higher frequencies will concentrate the radiation in a smaller portion of the human body, and children
are particularly vulnerable to its effects.
• Higher frequencies of 5G will also penetrate much deeper into the human body because of a phenomenon
called beam-forming unique to the technology.
• Beam forming brings together electromagnetic signals from multiple antennas to create signals with greater
intensity and better reach.
• In 2011, WHO’s studies detailed the effects of RF-EMF radiations (from 30 kilohertz to 300 gigahertz) on
humans as well as rats and concluded that the radiations are “possibly carcinogenic to humans”.
• In 2018, a report published in US found RF-EMF of 900 megahertz, used by 3G and 4G networks, led to
incidences of malignant heart schwannomas (cancer that attacks nerve tissues) in male and female rats.
• Scientists have so far linked 5G to at least 20 ailments, including heart diseases, type-2 diabetes and mental
disturbances such as depression, anxiety and suicidal tendencies.
Challenges in commercialization of 5G
• Businesses and services exploiting its potential are not fully evolved.
• Greater power in the hands of corporations and governments for surveillance.
• Internet governance is not evolving to safeguard security and privacy of data.
• RF-EMF generated as a consequence of 5G will have a wide range of health impacts.
• Loss of employment opportunities in the manufacturing sector due to automation.
• More satellites are required, which means rapidly accumulating space junk/debris.
• Some scientists suggest designing networks based on fibre optic cables (2 crore times faster than 5G).
44
Source and Credits: D2E
{S&T – ICT – 19/07/09} 5G Spectrum Pricing is Against National Interest
Livemint | THBL | 09-07-2019 | GS3 > S&T – developments and their applications in everyday life
• Government is talking about “inclusive" 5G services that everyone could afford.

• The goal of National Digital Communication Policy 2018 includes achieving digital empowerment, and
one of the objectives of NDCP is to provide broadband for all.
Proposed 5G spectrum pricing
• TRAI had set a base price of ₹492 crore per MHz for the 3,300-3,600 MHz band, earmarked for 5G services.
• Since every operator requires at least 100 MHz of spectrum to offer 5G, an operator will have to cough up
₹49,200 crore for spectrum alone.
• Without affordable spectrum available for 5G services, healthy competition may look distant (deep pockets
will dominate the auctions and acquire bulk of the spectrum thereby depriving the others of spectrum).
Current Issues faced by telecom operators
• Operators are already reeling under a debt of over ₹4 lakh crore.
45
• The revenue is low due to ultra-low telecom charges in a hyper-competitive market.

• Buying 5G spectrum along with upgrading to 5G will further stress the sector.
• Government has still not finalized guidelines for 5G trials.
• Just one operator, Reliance’s Jio, has a 4G-only network that can effortlessly be upgraded to 5G.
• Rest of the service providers will have a hard time upgrading their 2G and 3G networks to 5G.
How will the proposed spectrum pricing impact 5G rollout?
• 5G rollout will be further delayed and India will fall behind in reaping the benefits of the digital revolution
(virtual reality, artificial intelligence, internet of things, etc.)
Importance of 5G
• 5G will enable a huge gamut of applications that require seamless low latency network (less than 1 ms).
• 5G is expected to raise efficiency in agriculture, manufacturing, healthcare, education and other sectors.
• The biggest benefit for millions of mobile users is that 5G promises to make wireless networks close to what
wireline broadband networks offers — uninterrupted service and unlimited bandwidth.
Position of Department of Telecom (DoT)
• The DoT had acknowledged the financial constraints and asked TRAI to review the reserve price.
• The demand for spectrum is likely to be subdued due to consolidation in the market.
• The objective should be to sell the entire spectrum which is put for auction rather than having a situation
where a large quantum of spectrum remains unsold.
• DoT does not want a repeat of the previous auction when it did not get a single bid for the 700 MHz band
due to the high reserve price.
• However, TRAI has declined to reduce the reserve price.
{S&T – ICT – 19/12/11} Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi)
Inc 42 | 11-12-2019 | GS3 > Sci and Tech – developments and their applications.
• Bharti Airtel has introduced Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi) which is a first for India.
• VoWiFi calling makes use of high speed Internet to make and receive HD voice calls to any mobile or landline
number across operators.
• Wi-Fi calling can be configured on compatible smartphones that supports Wi-Fi calling.
How does Voice over Wi-Fi benefit the mobile network operator (MNO)?
46
• Employing VoWiFi enables MNOs to quickly and easily extend their coverage or service range without having
to setup extra radio access network (RAN) infrastructure.
• There is no need for new licensed spectrum or engaging in complex roaming agreements.
How does VoWifi benefit the end user?
• The end user will be able to make uninterrupted calls independent of the network’s cellular coverage.
• Where possible, VoLTE calls can be seamlessly handed over between LTE and Wi-Fi and vice versa.
• VoWif will improve voice calling in areas with weak cellular signals but stable WiFi connection.
• It will particulary benefit rural areas, areas with tall structures where cellular network is poor, mountainous
areas and indoors.
How is VoWifi different from OTT calling?
• VoWifi is not much different from a voice call using WhatsApp or any other over-the-top (OTT) messaging
platform, but the call is from one number to another, and not using an app.
How is VoWifi different from VoLTE?
• In Voice over LTE (VoLTE), a MNO’s licensed spectrum (i.e. 4G LTE) is used to carry packetized voice.
• In VoWifi, packetized voice is carried over high speed internet.
• That is, in VoWifi calling cellular packets from the smartphone are transferred to the carrier over the internet
and then injected back into the cellular network.
Why are MNOs adopting VoWifi technology now?
• VoWifi technology has been in place since a long time.

• However, MNOs were hesitant to use VoWifi technology as that would hurt their voice-related revenue in-
cluding revenue from roaming charges.
• However, with the advent of VoLTE, MNO’s revenue base started shifting from voice & roaming charges to
data charges.
• Moreover, OTT applications like Whatsapp are eating out into MNO’s market share.
• Hence, MNOs are taping into the VoWifi technology to regain the lost ground and stay relevant.
{S&T – ICT – 19/12/18} Internet-free messaging
The Hindu | 18-12-2019 | GS3 > Sci and Tech – developments and their applications | GS3 > Challenges to internal
security through communication networks.
47
• An app called Bridgefy has gone viral in India and Hong Kong during the anti-government protests.
• The app leverages a mobilephone’s Bluetooth capabilities to offer Internet-free messaging.
• It can be used to send texts, locations, natural disaster alerts, payments, educational content, etc.
• There are three modes in which Bridgefy works.
1. The first is ‘one to one’ whereby two users turn their Bluetooth on and, within about 100 metres of each
other, can privately message.
2. The second is the ‘one-to-one long-distance’ system where one can communicate with people more than
330 feet away by connecting through other Bridgefy users found in the middle as carriers.
3. The third is the ‘broadcast’ system, which has also been useful in the Citizenship Amendment Bill (CAB)
protests wherein a user can send a mass-message to other Bridgefy users in their vicinity even if the other
users are not in their contacts list.
Messages moving through the mesh of devices connected via Bluetooth
• Though apps like Bridgefy are quite useful during internet shutdowns, they also pose a security challenge as
the law enforcement authorities have no control over them & they can be misused to spread misinformation.
{S&T – In News – 19/12/11} Unique Barcoding Software – Trakea
IE | 13-12-2019 | In News Topics for Prelims
• Haryana Police have adopted a unique barcoding software – Trakea — a forensic evidence management
system to ensure forensic reports are not tampered with.
• Trakea helps in automation of the entire procedure, from sample collection to conducting sample analysis.
• Even selection of forensic teams is done randomly through this software.
• There will be no case details mentioned on the crime exhibits/samples but only the unique barcode which
can be read through the biometric system.
• Due to the unique barcoding, only the authorised investigating officers and forensic science experts can track
crime reports, reducing the chances of tampering.
{S&T – In News – 19/12/13} IBM GRAFT for better weather forecasting
48
ET | 13-12-2019 | In News Topics for Prelims
• GRAF: Global High-Resolution Atmospheric Forecasting system.

• IBM is planning to develop a high-resolution weather forecast model that will rely on user-generated data
to improve the accuracy of forecasts available in India.
• IBM GRAF, as the forecast system is called, can generate forecasts at a resolution of 3 kilometres.
What sets GRAF apart?
• Improved global mapping of the atmosphere.

• Better data & observations: GRAF incorporates previously untapped data sources from airplane sensors &
pressure sensor readings from smartphones to help overcome the lack of specialized weather equipment.
• With an IBM POWER9-based supercomputer, it brings the same technology behind some of the world’s most
powerful supercomputers to weather forecasting.
{S&T – In News – 19/12/22} ‘Core catcher’ installed at Kudankulam nuclear plant
IE | 22-12-2019 GS3 > Sci & Tech – developments and their applications and effects in everyday life
• Moscow-based Rosatom installed a core melt localisation device (CMLD) or “core catcher” at Unit 3 of
Tamil Nadu’s Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KKNPP).
• The core catcher is a cone shaped metal structure that weighs about 800 tonnes.
• It is installed at the bottom of the nuclear station’s protective shell.
• It is designed to save the latter as well as exude radioactive emission in case of a serious accident.
• The device is designed to localise and cool the molten core material in case of a meltdown accident.
• Molten core material, or corium, is lava-like material that gets formed in the core of a nuclear reactor in the
event of a meltdown accident.
• Such an accident occurs when the nuclear fission reaction taking place inside a reactor is not sufficiently
cooled, and the buildup of heat causes fuel rods to melt down.
• The corium so formed can remain radioactive for several decades, even centuries.
• If a hot corium ever comes in contact with water, it can cause a huge thermal explosion.
• In the past, core meltdowns have occurred at Chernobyl in Russia (1986) and at Fukushima in Japan (2011).
Suggested Reading: https://www.pmfias.com/nuclear-fission-nuclear-reactor-types/
{S&T – Indigenization – 19/07/19} Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile
49
The Hindu | 19-06-2019 | GS3 > indigenization of technology
Ballistic Missiles
• Follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver one or more warheads on a predetermined target.

• A ballistic trajectory is the path of an object that is launched but has no active propulsion during its actual
flight (these weapons are only guided during relatively brief periods of flight).
• Consequently, the trajectory is fully determined by a given initial velocity, effects of gravity, air resistance,
and motion of the earth (Coriolis Force).
Image Credits: Wikipedia
• Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earth's atmosphere.

• Longer-ranged intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), are launched on a sub-orbital flight trajectory and
spend most of their flight out of the atmosphere.
Types of ballistic missiles based on range
• Short-range (tactical) ballistic missile (SRBM): Range between 300 km and 1,000 km.
• Medium-range (theatre) ballistic missile (MRBM): 1,000 km to 3,500 km.
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• Intermediate-range (Long-Range) ballistic missile (IRBM or LRBM): 3,500 km and 5,500 km.
• Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): 5,500 km +
Cruise missile
• A cruise missile is a guided missile (target has to be pre-set) used against terrestrial targets.
• It remains in the atmosphere throughout its flight.
• It flies the major portion of its flight path at approximately constant speed.
• Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high precision.
• Modern cruise missiles are capable of travelling at supersonic or high subsonic speeds, are self-navigating,
and are able to fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low-altitude trajectory.
Types of cruise missiles based on speed
• Hypersonic (Mach 5): these missiles would travel at least five times the speed of sound (Mach 5). E.g.
BrahMos-II.
• Supersonic (Mach 2-3): these missiles travel faster than the speed of sound. E.g. BrahMos.
• Subsonic (Mach 0.8): these missiles travel slower than the speed of sound. E.g. Nirbhay.
Differences between Ballistic Missile and Cruise Missile
Ballastic Missile Cruise Missile
• It is propelled only for a brief duration after the • Self-propelled till the end of its flight.
launch.
• Similar to rocket engine. • Similar to jet engine.
• Long range missiles leave the earth’s atmosphere • Flight path is within the earth’s atmosphere.
and reenter it.
• Low precision as it is unguided for most of its path • Hits targets with high precision as it is constantly
and its trajectory depends on gravity, air resistance propelled.
and Coriolis Force.
• Can have a very long range (300 km to 12,000 km) • The range is small (below 500 km) as it needs to
as there is no fuel requirement after its initial tra- be constantly propelled to hit the target with high
jectory. precision.
• Heavy payload carrying capacity. • Payload capacity is limited.
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• Can carry multiple payloads (Multiple Inde- • Usually carries a single payload.
pendently targetable Re-entry Vehicle)
• Developed primarily to carry nuclear warheads. • Developed primarily to carry conventional war-
heads.
• E.g. Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II and Dhanush • E.g. BrahMos missiles
missiles.
{S&T – Indigenization – 19/07/19} India’s Missiles
PIB | Source | The Hindu | 19-06-2019 | GS3 > indigenization of technology
Name Type Range
Astra air-to-air 80 km
Trishul surface-to-air 9 km
Akash 30 km
Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) 2000 km
Nag surface-to-surface Anti-tank missile 4 km
Prahaar surface-to-surface SRBM 150 km
BrahMos land, naval, air Supersonic Cruise Missile 300 km
Nirbhay land, naval, air Subsonic Cruise Missile 1000 km
K-15 Sagarika underwater-to-surface SLBM 700 km
Dhanush sea-to-sea/surface SRBM 350 km
Shaurya surface-to-surface SLBM 1900
SLBM: Sub-marine launched ballistic missile
Name Features
Astra • Astra is a beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile (AAM).

• In terms of size and weight, the Astra is the smallest missile developed by the DRDO.
• It was envisaged to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft at supersonic speeds.
Trishul • Used as anti-sea skimmer (to fly low to avoid radar) from ships against low-flying attacks.
Akash • It has the capability to "neutralize aerial targets like fighter jets, cruise missiles and air-to-
surface missiles" as well as ballistic missiles.
PAD • Anti-ballistic missile developed to intercept incoming ballistic missiles outside the atmos-
phere (exo-atmospheric).
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Nag • 3rd generation anti-tank ‘fire and forget’ guided missile (lock-on before launch system)
where the target is identified and designated before the weapon is launched.
Prahaar • High maneuverability.

• Primarily a battlefield support system for the Army.
BrahMos • It is a supersonic cruise missile developed as a joint venture between Indian and Russia.
• It is the fastest supersonic cruise missile in the world.
• It is the world's fastest anti-ship cruise missile in operation.
Nirbhay • Subsonic missile which is ancillary (providing necessary support) to the BrahMos range.
K-15 Sagarika • It forms the crucial third leg of India’s nuclear deterrent vis-à-vis its submarine-launched
ballistic missile (SLBM) capability.
• It was subsequently integrated with India’s nuclear-powered Arihant class submarine.
Dhanush • It is capable of carrying nuclear warheads.

• It carries forward the legacy of the K-15 Sagarika.
Shaurya • Surface-to-surface ballistic missile (SSM) variant of the K-15 Sagarika.

• The nuclear capability of the missile enhances India’s second strike capability.
• It reduces the dependence on the K-15 which was built with Russian assistance.
Prithvi Missiles
All the Prithvi variants are surface-to-surface SRBMs.
Name Version Range Payload in kg
Prithvi I Army version 150 km 1000
Prithvi II Air force version 350 km 500
Prithvi III Naval version 600 km 1000
Agni Missiles
Name Type Range Payload in kg
Agni-I MRBM 700 – 900 km 1,000
Agni-II MRBM 2,000 – 3,000 km 750 – 1,000
Agni-III IRBM 3,500 – 5,000 km 2,000 – 2,500
Agni-IV IRBM 3,000 – 4,000 km 800 – 1,000
Agni-V ICBM 5,000 – 8,000 km (Testing) 1,500 (3 – 10 MIRV)
Agni-VI ICBM 8,000 – 10,000 km (Under development) 1,000 (10 MIRV)
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Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT)
• In March 2019, India successfully tested its ASAT missile.

• The ASAT missile destroyed a live satellite in Low Earth orbit (283-kilometre).
• As per DRDO, missile was capable of shooting down targets moving at a speed of 10 km per second at an
altitude as high as 1200 km.
{S&T – Indigenization – 19/07/19} Integrated Guided Missile Development Pro-

gramme (IGMDP)
PIB | Source | The Hindu | 19-06-2019 | GS3 > indigenization of technology
• Context: Trials of Nag Missile successfully Conducted by Indian Army.

• IGMDP was conceived by Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam to enable India attain self-sufficiency in missile technology.
• IGMDP was conceived in response to Missile Technology Control Regime that decided to restrict access to
any technology that would help India in its missile development program.
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• To counter the MTCR, the IGMDP team formed a consortium of DRDO laboratories, industries and academic
institutions to build these sub-systems, components and materials.
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)
• MTCR an informal grouping established in 1987 by Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United King-
dom and the United States to limit the proliferation of missiles and missile technology.
• The MTCR seeks to limit the risks of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD).
• MTCR places particular focus on rockets and unmanned aerial vehicles capable of delivering a payload of
at least 500 kg to a range of at least 300 km.
• The MTCR is not a treaty and does not impose any legally binding obligations.
• IGMDP was started in 1983 and completed in March 2012.

• Keeping in mind the requirements of various types of missiles by the defence forces, development of five
missile systems was taken up.
1. Prithvi: Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile (Prithivi means Earth ➔ Surface to Surface)
2. Agni: Intermediate-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile
3. Trishul: Short-range low-level surface-to-air missile
4. Akash: Medium-range surface-to-air missile (Akash means Sky ➔ Surface to Air)
5. Nag: Third generation anti-tank missile (Nag means Snake ➔ Nag slithers like a Snake to hit a tank!)
• After its success, Agni missile program was separated from the IGMDP upon realizing its strategic importance.
{S&T – Indigenization – 19/12/27} BrahMos missile’s latest upgrade
IE | 27-12-2019 | GS3 > indigenization of technology | Basics: Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile
• DRDO carried out successful tests of the latest land and air variants of the BrahMos missile.
• BrahMos is being produced by BrahMos Aerospace (name derived from rivers Brahmaputra and Moskva), a
joint venture company set up by DRDO and Russia in 1998.
• The first version of the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile was inducted into the Indian Navy in 2005.
• Its land-to-land, submarine-fired and now air-fired variants have been developed stage by stage.
• BrahMos is a cruise missile (it can be guided towards a pre-determined land- or sea-based target).
• BrahMos (Mach 2.8) is classified as supersonic cruise missile.
• A newer version under development is aimed at flying at speeds greater than Mach 5 (hypersonic missile).
• Besides decreasing the reaction time of the enemy, higher speeds also substantially reduce the chances of
the missile getting intercepted.
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{S&T – ISRO – 19/05/22} RISAT-2B radar imaging satellite launched
The Hindu | NASA | Livemint | 22-05-2019 | GS3 > Science and Technology
• 2009: Israeli-built RISAT-2 was launched

• 2012: ISRO-built RISAT-1 was launched
• 2019: ISRO-built RISAT-2B was launched
• RISAT-2B: Radar Imaging Satellite 2B
• The older two have reached the end of their lives.
• Launch vehicle: PSLV-C46 (core-alone version without strap-on motors).
• Orbit: 37 degrees inclined Lower Earth Orbit (556 km above earth)
• ISRO Telemetry Tracking and Command Network at Bengaluru controls the satellite.
• RISAT-2B is a microwave Earth observation satellite.
• The RISAT series are the first all-weather earth observation satellites from ISRO.
• They enhance India's all-weather capabilities in agriculture (crop monitoring during the monsoon season),
forestry, disaster management and military surveillance.
• Previous Indian observation satellites relied primarily on optical and spectral sensors which were hampered
by cloud cover and during night-time.
Synthetic-aperture radar
• The RISAT, or radar imaging satellite, is equipped with ‘synthetic aperture radar’, that takes ‘radar images’.
• Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) creates two-dimensional images of objects, such as landscapes.
• The synthetic aperture radar sends out radio signals (microwave radiation) towards the earth and capture
the reflected signals to create a radio image, which can then be used by computers to build a real image.
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Microwaves are at the higher frequency end of the radio wave band (Electromagnetic Spectrum – Wikipedia)
• The very large wavelength radio waves are not obstructed by clouds and dust in the atmosphere (not
susceptible to atmospheric scattering) and produce reliable images during day and night and all seasons.
• While optical remote sensing that relies on visible light for imaging gets obstructed by clouds, RISAT-2B
will not.
• Since it has high resolution, the satellite will be able to detect objects with dimensions of as little as a metre.
{S&T – ISRO – 19/07/14} Chandrayaan-2: India’s second lunar mission
The Hindu | PIB | The Hindu | The Hindu | 01-05-2019 | GS3: Science and Tech, Space
Basics: https://www.pmfias.com/keplers-laws-satellite-orbits-pslv-gslv/
• Chandrayaan-2 has three modules namely Orbiter, Lander (Vikram) & Rover (Pragyan).
• Chandrayaan 2 will be launched using GSLV Mark III rocket.
• GSLV MK-III is a three-stage launch vehicle designed to carry four-tonne class satellites into Geosynchro-
nous Transfer Orbit (GTO). (The Chandrayaan-1 was launched on board a PSLV).
• The GSLV Mark III rocket will first launch the spacecraft into an Earth Parking Orbit (170 km X 40,400 km).
• Then the orbit will be enhanced until the spacecraft can reach out to the Lunar Transfer Trajectory.
• On entering the moon’s sphere of influence, it will be eased into a circular orbit (100 km X 100 km).
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• Subsequently, Lander will separate from the Orbiter (100 km orbit) and soft land close to lunar South Pole.
• The Rover will be carrying out scientific experiments on the lunar surface.
• The instruments will collect scientific information on lunar topography, mineralogy, elemental abundance,
lunar exosphere and signatures of hydroxyl and water-ice.
• The 3.84 lakh km journey will take five days, but the spacecraft must orbit the moon for about 28 days before
the lander separates itself from the orbiter.
• The mission life of the Orbiter is one year, and the rover has an expected life of 14 Earth days (one lunar
day = 14 earth days; after 14 days it will be lunar night and hence the rover will be deprived of solar power).
• If the landing is successful, it will make India only the fourth country to soft-land on the lunar surface.
• The erstwhile Soviet Union, the U.S and China are the only countries to have achieved lunar landings.
Source and Credits: The Hindu
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Why the lunar south pole?
• The moon’s south polar region has never been explored by any country before.
• If successful, Chandrayaan 2 will be the first mission to reach and study the south pole of the moon.
• The lunar south pole craters are unique in that sunlight does not reach the bottom.
• Such craters are cold traps that contain a record of water composition of the early Solar System.
• Permanently shadowed craters may harbour reservoirs of ices and other volatile compounds that could serve
as a valuable resource for future explorers.
• A few mountain peaks near the pole are illuminated for extended periods of time, which could provide near-
constant solar power for a permanent lunar outpost sometime in the far future.
{S&T – ISRO – 19/08/14} Why it took Chandrayaan-2 29 days to reach moon’s or-
bit?
IE | 14-08-2019 | GS3: Science and Tech, Space
• Chandrayaan-2’s primary goal is to reach the moon at a least possible expense (Rs 978 crore).
• Moreover, Chandrayaan-2 is not a manned mission and hence duration was not such a critical factor.
• And also, India doesn’t have a rocket powerful enough to place Chandrayaan-2 in a straight path to the
moon to shorten the journey.
• ISRO used GSLV MkIII rocket to put Chandranyan-2 in geosynchronous transfer orbit.
• Chandrayaan-2 payload is 3.8 tonnes and the payload capacity of GSLV MkIII to geosynchronous transfer
orbit is only 4 tonnes.
How did Chandrayaan-2 reach moon’s orbit from geosynchronous transfer orbit?
The below explanation is general in nature and may not be scientifically very accurate.
• Being a small engine, the craft’s engine is not fired continuously but in short bursts.
• Each burst was used to push the rocket to a higher orbit and attain greater velocity.
• The craft needed no additional energy to remain in the orbit as earth’s gravitational pull held it in place.
• Five such orbit-raising manoeuvres were used to attain an apogee that is closer to the moon’s orbit.
• So, instead of going against earth’s gravity (straight to moon), which requires a very powerful rocket and
a lot of fuel, Chandrayaan-2 lunarcraft used earth’s gravity assist to reach the Lunar Transfer Trajectory.
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Image Credits: ISRO
• From Lunar Transfer Trajectory, the lunarcraft is now heading for its next orbit, which will be around the
Moon.
• On approaching the lunar orbit, the liquid engine will be fired again to insert the lunarcraft into a lunar orbit.
• Following this, there will be further four orbit manoeuvres to take the spacecraft into its final orbit, passing
over the lunar poles at a distance of about 100 km from the Moon’s surface.
How did US manage to reach moon in a short duration?
• Nasa’s 1969 Apollo-11 mission carrying humans landed on Moon in just four days.
• In space, covering long distances in short duration requires high speeds and straight trajectories.
Image Credits: History.com
• Rockets moving in strait trajectories act against gravity throughout.

• Hence, they need to be very powerful to overcome earth’s gravitational pull.
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• Also, the rocket’s engines need to be fired quite often which means they need to carry a lot of fuel.
• For Apollo-11, Nasa had used Saturn V, a super heavy-lift launcher that travelled at more than 39,000 kmph.
• The powerful rocket had a lifting capability of 43 tonnes.
• Nasa had to pump in $185 million ($1.2 billion in 2016 value) for the mission.
• Of the $185 million, NASA spent $110m ($690m in 2016 value) on building Saturn V alone.
• India does not have a rocket powerful enough to hurl Chandrayaan-2 on a straight path to Moon.
• Hence, ISRO had to take advantage of Earth’s gravity (gravity helped slingshot the craft towards the
Moon) instead of using a powerful rocket to reach moon.
• Israel's Beresheet mission launched early this year also used the same cost-effective route to Moon.
Basics: https://www.pmfias.com/keplers-laws-satellite-orbits-pslv-gslv/
Must Read: {S&T – Space – 10/07/14} Chandrayaan-2: India’s second lunar mission
{S&T – ISRO – 19/10/09} GAGAN, GEMINI
PIB | D2E | 09-10-2019 | GS3 > Sci & Tech – developments and their applications, indigenization of technology
• Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS, autonomous body under the Ministry
of Earth Sciences) joined hands with Airports Authority of India (AAI) to develop the GEMINI portable
device that utilizes the GAGAN system to transmit the PFZ, OSF and disaster warnings to fishermen.
GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN)
• GAGAN is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) for the Indian Airspace.
• It provides the additional accuracy and integrity necessary for all phases of flight.
• ISRO and Airports Authority of India (AAI) have implemented the GAGAN project.
• GAGAN is operational through GSAT-8, GSAT-10 satellites & GSAT-15 satellites.
• The system is inter-operable with other international SBAS systems like US-WAAS, European EGNOS, etc.
• GAGAN footprint extends from Africa to Australia.
• GAGAN though primarily meant for aviation, will provide benefits beyond aviation to many other segments
such as intelligent transportation, maritime, railways, etc.
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Source: ISRO
Satellite-based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)
• The performance of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) can be improved by regional Satellite-based
Augmentation Systems (SBAS), such as GAGAN.
• SBAS improves the accuracy and reliability of GNSS information by correcting signal measurement errors.
Examples of Satellite-based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)
• USA: Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)

• EU: European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS)
• India: GPS and GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN)
Examples of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs)
• Global Positioning System (United States)

• GLONASS (Russia)
• Galileo (EU)
• BeiDou (China)
• IRNSS ― NAVIC (India)
GEMINI: Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation & Information
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• For dissemination of information on disaster warnings, Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ) and Ocean States
Forecasts (OSF) to fishermen, GOI launched GEMINI device and mobile application.
The need for GEMINI
• PFZ forecasts, developed by INCOIS, will provide advisories on PFZ to fishermen 3 days in advance.
• Ocean State Forecasts include the forecasts on winds, waves, ocean currents, water temperature, etc.
• However, PFZ & OSF advisories do not reach fishermen when they move 10-12 km away from the coast.
• The communication gap puts the life & property of those involved in deep sea fishing in Indian Ocean at risk.
• To overcome this difficulty, GEMINI portable device was developed.
How GEMINI works?
• GEMINI device utilizes the GAGAN system to transmit the PFZ, OSF and disaster warnings to user’s cell phone.
• The GEMINI app on the cell phone decodes the signals from GEMINI device and alerts the user on imminent
threats like cyclones, high waves, strong winds along with PFZ and search and rescue mission.
{S&T – ISRO – 19/11/26} Cartosat-3
TH | TH | TH | IE | 26-11-2019 | GS3 > Indigenization of technology and developing new technology.
• Cartosat-3 is an advanced earth observation satellite.

• It was placed in lower earth orbit by PSLV-C47 along with few other small satellites.
• At 1,625 kg, Cartosat-3 is more than double the mass of the previous eight in its class.
• It has the sharpest eye of civil remote sensing satellites in the world.
Cartosat-3 image resolution
• One of Cartosat-3’s cameras offers high-resolution `optical imaging' with a ground resolution of 25 cm.
• It means it can pick up an object of a minimum of 25 cm size from a height of around 500 km.
• Previous Cartosat-2 second generation series offered the best resolution of 65 cm.
• Currently, WorldView-3, a satellite owned by a US company, has the best ground resolution of 31 cm.
• Only government authorised agencies are allowed to access ISRO's imageries below a resolution of 1 metre.
Cartosat-3 applications
• Cartosat satellites come back to the same place after every few months. The images from different times help
detect changes in natural geographical or man-made features.
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• Cartosat-3 imagery are used for applications like military surveillance, 3-D mapping, disaster management,
agriculture and water management, recording of changes in land use, and urban planning, etc.
Cartosat series
• The Cartosat series is a part of the Indian Remote Sensing Program (optical earth observation satellites).
• So far, ISRO has orbited eight Cartosats since May 2005. Cartosat-3 is the 9th satellite of the Cartosat series.
• They are used for Earth's resource management defence services and monitoring.
• Data from the last four Carto-2 series ones are exclusively used by the armed forces.
Other earth observation satellites
• ISRO has been launching and using Earth-observation remote sensing satellites since 1988.
• The Earth-observation satellites include the Resourcesat and RISAT series, the Oceansat series and more.
• The Resourcesat and RISAT series provide imageries that are needed for land & water resources applications.
• The Oceansat series and the SARAL satellite produce data on the oceans.
• Satellites like INSAT 3D, INSAT-VRR or Megha Tropiques study the atmosphere.
Suggested Reading: Kepler’s laws, Satellite Orbits, Launch Vehicles PSLV & GSLV
{S&T – ISRO – 19/12/11} RISAT-2BR1
BL | 11-12-2019 | GS3 > Indigenization of technology and developing new technology.
• PSLV-C48 successfully launched RISAT-2BR1 with 9 other commercial satellites from Israel, Italy, Japan & US.
• These satellites were launched under a commercial arrangement with New Space India Limited (NSIL).
• RISAT-2BR1 is a radar imaging earth observation satellite. Its mission life is 5 years.
• The 628 kg satellite is meant for applications in agriculture, forestry and disaster management support.
• It would also serve military purposes.
• It uses synthetic aperture radar (SAR) to provide Indian forces with all-weather surveillance and observation
crucial to notice any potential threats/activity around the country’s borders.
Synthetic-aperture radar
• The RISAT, or radar imaging satellite, is equipped with ‘synthetic aperture radar’, that takes ‘radar images’.
• Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) creates two-dimensional images of objects, such as landscapes.
• The synthetic aperture radar sends out radio signals (microwave radiation) towards the earth and capture
the reflected signals to create a radio image, which can then be used by computers to build a real image.
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Microwaves are at the higher frequency end of the radio wave band (Electromagnetic Spectrum – Wikipedia)
• The very large wavelength radio waves are not obstructed by clouds and dust in the atmosphere (not
susceptible to atmospheric scattering) and produce reliable images during day and night and all seasons.
• While optical remote sensing (like Cartosat series) that relies on visible light for imaging gets obstructed
by clouds, RISAT-2B will not.
• Since it has high resolution, the satellite will be able to detect objects with dimensions of as little as a metre.
Radar Imaging Satellite (RISAT) series
• 2009: Israeli-built RISAT-2 was launched

• 2012: ISRO-built RISAT-1 was launched
• 2019 May: ISRO-built RISAT-2B was launched
• 2019 December: ISRO-built RISAT-2BR1 was launched
Suggested Reading: {S&T – Space – 19/05/22} RISAT-2B radar imaging satellite launched
{S&T – ISRO – 24/09/19} ISRO initiates ‘Project NETRA’
The Hindu | 24-09-2019 | GS3 > indigenization of defence technology
65
• ISRO initiates Network for Space Object Tracking and Analysis (NETRA).
• Project NETRA is an early warning system to safeguard Indian space assets from debris.
• Project NETRA also serves as an unstated warning against missile or space attack for the country.
• Under NETRA, ISRO plans to put up many observational facilities that can spot, track and catalogue objects
as small as 10 cm, up to a range of 3,400 km and equal to a space orbit of around 2,000 km.
• Project NETRA will give India its own capability in space situational awareness (SSA) to ‘predict’ threats.
• SSA will first be for low-earth orbits or LEO which have remote-sensing spacecraft.
• NETRA’s eventual goal is to capture the geostationary orbit (GEO) where communication satellites operate.
• Currently there are 15 functional Indian communication satellites in the geostationary orbit of 36,000 km; 13
remote sensing satellites in LEO of up to 2,000 km; and eight navigation satellites in medium earth orbits.
At present, how does ISRO protect the satellites from space debris at present?
• Space debris could be floating particles from dead satellites or rocket parts that stay in orbit for many years.
• Even a speck of paint or fragment floating can disable on board electronics and cripples the satellite.
• Agencies constantly look for debris at the time of a launch and through the life of a satellite.
• ISRO, at present, does collision avoidance manoeuvres on our satellites.
• For this ISRO depends on data from NORAD and others available in the public domain.
• NORAD, or the North American Aerospace Defense Command, is an initiative of the U.S. and Canada that
shares selective debris data with many countries.
• NORAD provides only selective data and also the information is not very accurate.
{S&T – Technologies – 19/05/25} Superconductor
The Hindu | 25-05-2019 | GS3 > Science and Technology > Applications
IISc team achieved superconductivity at room temperature
• The material that exhibited superconductivity at ambient temperature is made of silver nanoparticles embed-
ded in a gold matrix.
• Silver and gold independently do not exhibit superconductivity.
• Two of the most important properties of superconductivity are dimagnetism and zero resistance.
• These two were seen in the material that IISc studied.
Diamagnetism
• Diamagnetism is one of the important properties of a superconductor.
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• When a magnetic field is applied from outside, then the superconductor expels magnetic field. This is used
for levitation of a superconductor.
Superconductor
• A superconductor is a material that can conduct electricity (transport electrons) with zero resistance.
• This means no heat, sound or any other form of energy would be released from a superconductor.
• Hence, superconductors will help build highly efficient devices leading to huge energy savings.
• Critical temperature (Tc) is the temperature at which the material becomes superconductive.
• Critical temperature (Tc) for the currently developed superconductive materials is much below 0 °C.
• Currently, a lot of energy must be used in the cooling process making superconductors uneconomical.
• Applications: Maglev trains (in use), lossless long distance electrical transmission (futuristic application).
Maglev trains
• Maglev (magnetic levitation) trains use superconducting magnets to achieve levitation.

• Superconducting magnets are electromagnets that are cooled to extreme temperatures during use.
• They dramatically increase the power of the magnetic field.
• In maglev trains, superconducting magnets suspend a train car above a concrete guideway.
• Like ordinary magnets, these magnets repel one another when matching poles face each other.
• The magnets employed (superconducting) and they can generate magnetic fields up to 10 times stronger
than ordinary electromagnets, enough to suspend (levitate) and propel a train.
Maglev Train and Track (Source)
• One great advantage of maglev trains is that they are least noisy as there is no physical contact between the
track and the train. Also, there are no moving parts except for the train.
{S&T – Technologies – 19/09/29} Quantum supremacy
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The Hindu | IE | 29-09-2019 | GS3 > Science and Tech > Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, etc.
• Google has claimed to have achieved ‘quantum supremacy’.

• Quantum supremacy means that researchers had solved a really difficult problem in seconds with the help
of quantum computers which would otherwise take a supercomputer thousands of years to accomplish.
• Google feat shows that quantum computers are capable of a real world tasks.
• It gives confidence to private entrepreneurs to invest time and money in quantum computing.
What are quantum computers?
IBM’s Quantum Computer Prototype
• Quantum computers work differently from the classical computers we work on today.
• Exploiting the principles of quantum mechanics, they can easily tackle computational problems that may be
tough for the classical computer as the size of the numbers and number of inputs involved grows bigger.
• Conventional computers process information in ‘bits’ or 1s and 0s, following classical physics under which
our computers can process a ‘1’ or a ‘0’ at a time.
• The world’s most powerful supercomputer today can juggle 148,000 trillion operations in a second and re-
quires about 9000 IBM CPUs connected in a particular combination to achieve this feat.
• Quantum computers compute in ‘qubits’ (or quantum bits). They exploit the properties of quantum me-
chanics, the science that governs how matter behaves on the atomic scale.
• In this scheme of things, processors can be a 1 and a 0 simultaneously, a state called quantum superpo-
sition.
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• While this accelerates the speed of computation, a machine with less than 100 qubits can solve problems
with a lot of data that are even theoretically beyond the capabilities of the most powerful supercomputers.
• Because of quantum superposition, a quantum computer — if it works to plan — can mimic several classical
computers working in parallel.
• Quantum computers can compute and process much faster than classical supercomputers but that does not
imply that the quantum computer can solve every challenging problem thrown at it.
• Quantum computers have their own unique propensity to errors and are not as amenable to executing real
world problems as super computers.
How will quantum computers help us?
• The speed and capability of classical supercomputers are limited by energy requirements.
• Classical supercomputers also take up a lot more physical space.
• Processing huge amounts of data quickly can be tackled faster by quantum computers.
• For example, if we have a database of a million social media profiles and had to look for a particular individual,
a classical computer would have to scan each one of those profiles which would amount to a million steps.
• Quantum computers would be able to do the same task with one thousand steps instead of a million.
• That translates into reduced processors and reduced energy.
• Several encryption systems used in banking and security applications are premised on computers being un-
able to handle mathematical problems that are computationally demanding beyond a limit.
• Quantum computers, in theory, can surpass those limits.
What quantum computers mean for online banking?
• Supercomputers don’t have enough computational capabilities to break a bank grade encryption (theoreti-
cally they can but practically it takes years to break a bank grade encryption).
• But if quantum computers become a practical reality then bank grade encryptions don’t stand a chance.
• But breaking banking grade encryption using quantum computers is far away from now.
• Moreover, if technological breakthroughs were to pose a real threat to banking, it is likely that banks will
harness quantum computers themselves to create a more secure ecosystem.
Is India working on quantum computing?
• There are no quantum computers in India yet.

• In 2018, the Department of Science & Tech unveiled a programme called Quantum-Enabled Science & Tech-
nology (QuEST) and committed to investing ₹80 crore over the next 3 years (OMG!) to accelerate research.
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• The plan is to have a quantum computer built in India within the next decade.
{Sci – Energy Sources – 19/09/04} Detecting H2 gas leaks with high sensitivity
D2E | The Hindu | 04-09-2019 | General Science > Energy Sources > Unconventional energy sources
• Indian researchers have developed a semiconductor material that can detect H2 gas leaks with high sensitivity.
• The research is mainly on metal semi-conductors such as zinc oxide as they undergo changes in their electrical
resistance in the presence of hydrogen gas.
Why is it important to detect H2 leaks with high sensitivity?
• Storing and transporting of H2 comes with a lot of safety concerns.

• Hydrogen is highly flammable and will burn at concentrations as low as 4%.
• Its ignition energy is also very low (catches fire even at low temperatures).
• Hydrogen is hard to detect if it leaks as it is colourless and odourless.
• Detecting leaks immediately is important to prevent catastrophic explosions.
Hydrogen Fuel
• The importance of hydrogen fuel has grown in recent times because of its promise as a clean energy source.
• Hydrogen is generally used in two forms:
1. In combustion, it is burned as conventional gaseous fuels.
2. A fuel cell uses hydrogen to generate electricity.
• In a hydrogen fuel cell, hydrogen gas is an energy storage medium, not an energy source.
• The energy used to produce it usually comes from a more conventional source.
• Hydrogen can be obtained utilizing methane, coal, LPG, from electrolysis of water, etc.
• Advantages: clean fuel, abundantly available (in the form of H2O), high calorific value.
• Challenges: safety issues, high costs of production, storage (cryogenic storage – stored below -200 °C) and
transportation of H2 makes its utilization as fuel source for conventional usage commercially unviable.
{Sci – In News – 19/05/14} DRDO Successfully Conducts Flight Test of ABHYAS
PIB | 14-05-2019 | Prelims content
• ABHYAS: High-speed Expendable Aerial Target (HEAT).

• The Abhyas is launched from a mobile launcher.
• Abhyas can be augmented to simulate a variety of aircraft for air-defense weapon practices.
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• It can also function as a jammer platform and decoy.
{Sci – In News – 19/05/15} Fuel Cells: Selenium-graphene catalyst for fuel cells
The Hindu | 15-06-2019 | Prelims Topic
Fuel Cell
• A fuel cell uses electrochemical reactions to generate electrical energy.

• A fuel cell requires a continuous input of fuel and an oxidizing agent in order to sustain the reaction.
• Hydrogen is the most common fuel used.
• They were initially used by NASA to power space capsules and satellites.
Fuel Cell Mechanism
• A fuel cell consists of a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte.

• The electrolyte enables the movement of the ions between the electrodes.
• At the anode, catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation and generates +ve charged ions and electrons.
• The ions move from the anode to the cathode and the same time, the electrons flow from the anode to the
cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity.
• At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water as by-product.
• The reaction rate of this electrochemical reaction is quite low.
• The reaction rate between the fuel and the oxidizing agent is quite low.
• Catalysts such as platinum or palladium or gold are used speed up the reaction.
Advantages of fuel cells
• Fuel cells are more efficient than thermal power plants (thermal energy ➔ mechanical energy ➔ electrical
energy) as there is direct conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy.
• Hydrogen fuel is abundantly available.
• The by-product of fuel cells are water and non-toxic products that pose no risk to our climate.
Disadvantages of fuel cells
• They are very expensive to produce (platinum, palladium catalysts are expensive).
• As of now, there is no simple means of producing hydrogen fuel in a cost effective way.
• Hydrogen itself is very prone to catching on fire, or even exploding.
• In order to actually generate hydrogen fuel, fossil fuels are needed.
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Selenium-graphene catalyst for fuel cells
• Normally, fuel cells use expensive platinum-like elements.

• These expensive technologies perform well for initial few cycles, but then get degraded.
• As a result, there is a need to change the catalyst part of the fuel cell routinely.
• Modern fuel cell energy technology requires good catalysts that are efficient as well as cost-effective.
• Now, a team from India has developed a selenium-graphene–based catalyst which is more efficient, costs
less and also remains stable for longer than the usual platinum based catalysts.
Mechanism
• The oxygen reduction reaction is a key step in the functioning of the fuel cell.
• Graphene by itself is a “poor” catalyst of this reaction.
• It involves reduction of oxygen in two steps, each of which consume two electrons.
• This is not very useful either for fuel cells or metal-air batteries.
• Platinum is often used to catalyse this reaction.
• As a substitute, the group developed the catalyst with selenium and graphene.
• Graphene modified with selenium atoms in very low amounts can perform like platinum in the reaction.
• While neither selenium nor graphene can do the trick by themselves, the combination works efficiently.
Poisoning-resistant
• Methanol fuel cells, a common form of fuel cell used, suffer from a “poisoning” effect.
• This is a part of the process where the methanol reaches the negative electrode and coats it, so that the
electrode becomes ineffective after some cycles.
• The selenium-graphene catalyst has a high tolerance to poisoning while platinum gets easily affected.
Future applications
• Such inexpensive catalyst has enormous applications in metal-air battery (high energy density batteries).
• A metal–air electrochemical cell is an electrochemical cell that uses an anode made from pure metal and an
external cathode of ambient air.
• Metal-air batteries (most suitable for EVs) will be far better than the existing lithium ion-based battery.
{Sci – In News – 19/05/20} SI units defined in terms of natural constants
Indian Express | 20-05-2019 | In news Topic for Prelims
7 Fundamental System of Units (SI Units)

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• The fundamental units are the unrelated units of measurement which are arbitrarily defined.
• They are not dependent upon any other units, and all other units are derived from them.
Physical quantity Unit Abbreviation
1. Mass Kilogram kg
2. Length Meter m
3. Time Second s
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Amount of substance Mole mol
6. Electric current Ampere A
7. Luminous intensity Candela cd
• The kilogram has been defined as the mass of cylinder of platinum-iridium (International Prototype Kilo-
gram – IPK) locked in a jar in International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Paris.
• The IPK was the last physical artifact used to define any of the fundamental units.
• IPK would put on a little extra mass when tiny dust particles settled on it; when cleaned, it would shed some
of its original mass.
• Scientists have long stressed that the fundamental units should be defined in terms of natural constants.
• In 2018, it was agreed that the kilogram should be defined in terms of the Planck constant.
• What was 1 kg earlier is still 1 kg today. All that has changed is the definition, for the sake of accuracy.
• Using the new definition, a mass measured as 1 kg will mean “1 kg, plus or minus 1 or 2 nanograms”.
• Today, the second is defined as the time it takes for a certain amount of energy to be released as radia-
tion from atoms of Caesium-133.
• A metre is the distance travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.
• With the second and the metre already defined, a very precise definition for the kilogram follows.
• Using a machine called a Kibble balance, the value of the Planck constant was measured as 6.626069… ×
10-34 kilograms per second per square metre.
• New definition of kilogram defined in terms of Planck constant is adopted on 20/05/2019.
Advantages of defining SI units in terms of natural constants
• The modern definition of the second has already helped ease communication across the world via technolo-
gies like GPS and the Internet.
• Scientists have often been quoted as saying the change in the kilogram’s definition will be better for tech-
nology, retail and health.
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{Sci – In News – 19/08/22} Oxytocin
IE | 22-08-2019
• Oxytocin, also known as the ‘love hormone’, is a hormone secreted by the pituitary glands of mammals
during sex, childbirth, lactation or social bonding.
• However, it can also be chemically manufactured and is sold by pharma companies for use during childbirth.
• Oxytocin helps contract the uterus (induce delivery), control bleeding, and promote the release of breast milk.
• It is crucial to prevent mothers from excessive bleeding after giving birth (major cause of maternal deaths).
Why in news?
• The health ministry in 2018 notified a ban on private firms from manufacturing and selling oxytocin, stating
that it wanted to restrict the responsibility to a PSU to avoid its misuse in the veterinary field.
• Delhi High Court in December quashed the ban on various grounds, including that it lacked scientific basis.
{Sci – In News – 19/12/22} Rhea, a moon with an oxygen atmosphere
TH | 22-12-2019 | In News for Prelims
• Earth remained the only one with an oxygen atmosphere for long.
• This changed in 2010 when Cassini spacecraft detected a thin O2 atmosphere around Saturn’s moon Reha.
• When compared to Earth, oxygen at Rhea’s surface is estimated to be about 5 trillion times less dense.
• Discovered by Giovanni Cassini in 1672, Rhea is the Saturn’s second largest moon after Titan.
{Sci – In News – 19/12/29} Avangard hypersonic ICBM
IE | 29-12-2019 | In News topics for Prelims | Basics: Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile
• Russia’s military deployed Avangard hypersonic intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) system that can fly
27 times the speed of sound (Mach 27).
Types of cruise missiles based on speed
Subsonic Around Mach 0.8 (Less than Mach 1)
Supersonic Mach 1 to 5
Hypersonic Greater than Mach 5
Mach 1 = Speed of Sound
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• Russia’s Defense Ministry demonstrated the Avangard system to a team of US officials as part of transparency
measures under the New Start nuclear arms treaty with the country.
• Avangard hypersonic missile system is a reentry body carried atop an existing ballistic missile.
• It’s manoeuvring capability gives it the ability to protect itself from the air and ballistic missile defences.
• The Avangard missiles have a range of over 6,000 km and can withstand temperatures of over 2000 °C.
• Putin “explicitly linked” the development of Russia’s strategic weapons to the US withdrawal from the Anti-
Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) in 2002.
• Russia has emphasised that Avangard poses a new challenge to the United States because missile defences
cannot intercept a manoeuvring hypersonic glide vehicle.
{Sci – Space – 10/09/04} Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment (AIDA)
IE | 04-09-2019 | GS3 > Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, etc.
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• Asteroids hitting the earth is one of the likeliest catastrophes that can wipe out most of the life on earth.
• The latest of the five mass extinctions, Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction (66 million years ago, the end of
dinosaurs), is said to have caused by an asteroid or a comet impact.
• The scientists warn that such an event could reoccur in the near future.
• Over the years, scientists have suggested different ways to ward off asteroid impact threats, such as blowing
up the asteroid before it reaches Earth or deflecting it off its Earth-bound course by hitting it with a spacecraft.
• Now, scientists have embarked on a plan to test their expertise with the second of these two methods.
Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment (AIDA)
• The AIDA is a double-spacecraft kinetic impact mission being developed by NASA ad ESA.
• Th aim of the mission is to test if the technique of deflecting asteroids off their earth-bound course is effective
in warding off future asteroid impact threats.
• The AIDA involves Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART).
Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)
• NASA aims to launch DART spacecrafts in 2021.

• DART will be put to test on the Didymos binary near-Earth asteroid system.
• Didymos binary system consists of Didymos A (about 780 metres in size), and Didymos B (about 160 metres).
• The Didymos B will have a distant approach to Earth in 2022, and then again in 2024.
• DART adopts kinetic impactor technique to deflect the orbit of the smaller body through an impact by one
of the spacecrafts with the target at 6.6 km/s.
• The second spacecraft will survey the crash site and gather the data on the effect of this collision.
• ESA’s mission called Hera will perform a close-up survey to model the efficiency of the collision.
• The effect of the collision is also monitored by earth based observatories.
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• Based on the observations, the capabilities of kinetic impact as an asteroid mitigation strategy will be deter-
mined.
Suggested reading: https://www.pmfias.com/solar-system-planets-inner-outer/#Other_Solar_System_Objects
{Sci – Space – 19/05/01} Event Horizon Telescope (EHT)
The Hindu | High-Pain Low-Gain Topic | Basics covered under Pmfias.com > Astronomy
• A black hole and its shadow have been captured in an image for the first time by an international network
of radio telescopes called the Event Horizon Telescope (EHT).
• The discovery helps in testing the predictions of the general theory of relativity.
Event Horizon Telescope (EHT)
• The Event Horizon Telescope project is an international collaboration launched in 2009.

• EHT is a large telescope array consisting of a global network of radio telescopes (optical telescopes see
light; radio telescopes see radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum).
The EHT project combines data from several stations to observe objects the size of a supermassive black hole's
event horizon.
The project's observational targets include the two black holes: the black hole at the centre of the supergiant
elliptical galaxy Messier 87 (M87), and Sagittarius A*, at the centre of the Milky Way.
Black hole
• Black holes are believed to form from massive stars at the end of their lifetimes.
• The gravitational pull in a black hole is so great that nothing can escape from it, not even light.
• The density of matter in a black hole cannot be measured (infinite!).
• Black holes distort the space around them and can suck neighbouring matter into them including stars.
• Gravitational lensing: Light around a massive object, such as a black hole, is bent, causing it to act as a
lens for the things that lie behind it.
What is event horizon of a black hole?
• The event horizon is the region around a black hole where the escape velocity surpasses the speed of light.
• According to Einstein's special relativity, nothing can travel faster through space than the speed of light.
• This means a black hole's event horizon is he point from which nothing can return, not even light.
• Hence, it is the horizon beyond which one cannot see.
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What is the composition of a black hole?
• We do not get any light or other signals from within the black hole.
• Hence it is not possible to determine the composition of a black hole with current physics.
Why black holes are having such a high gravitational field around it?
• Because a black hole contains a huge amount of mass within a relatively small volume.
• Matter going into it increases the mass of the black hole.
Related concept: Doppler-shift or Redshift and Blueshift
• Redshift and Blueshift describe how light changes as objects in space (such as stars or galaxies) move closer
or farther away from us. The concept is key to charting the universe’s expansion.
• Visible light is a spectrum of colours, which is clear to anyone who has looked at a rainbow.
• When an object moves away from us (Doppler-shifted to lower frequencies), the light is shifted to the
red end of the spectrum, as its wavelengths get longer.
• If an object moves closer (Doppler-shifted to higher frequencies), the light moves to the blue end of the
spectrum, as its wavelength gets shorter.
{Sci – Space – 19/05} Terms and Concepts related to Satellite Launches and Satel-
lite Orbits
GS3 > Science and Technology
• The terms like Kepler’s laws, geosynchronous orbit, geostationary orbit, polar orbit, PSLV, GSLV, etc. keep on
appearing in the news columns whenever there is a satellite launch.
• So, I thought it is better to keep all the related concepts at one place.
Titbit: Russia's Sputnik, the world’s first artificial satellite, was launched in 1957.
Kepler's laws of planetary motion (applicable to satellites also)
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• Kepler’s First Law: The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.
• Kepler’s Second Law: A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal
intervals of time.
• In simple words, the speed of the planet increases as it nears the sun and decreases as it recedes from
the sun.
The varying orbital speed of the earth (in the figure, the orbit of the earth is exaggerated)
• Kepler’s Third Law: The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of its orbit.
Hankwang, Wikipedia
Orbital period (T): time taken by a plant to complete one revolution around the sun.
Semi Major Axis (a1 and a2): half of the major axis of the ellipse.
T12/a13 = T22/a23
• In simple terms, the distance of a planet from the sun determines the time it takes for that planet to revolve
around the sun (farther the planet is, greater the orbital period).
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Planet Orbital Period (T) in years Average Distance (R) in AU T2/R3
Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98
Venus .615 0.72 1.01
Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01
Perigee and Apogee
• Most satellites orbit the earth in elliptical patterns.

• When a satellite is at its farthest point from the earth, it is at the apogee of the orbit.
• When a satellite is at its closest point to the earth, it is at the perigee of the orbit.
• In accordance with Kepler’s second law, the satellites are fastest at the perigee and slowest at the apogee.
Why satellites revolve rather than staying still in space?
• There are two important forces acting on the satellite:

1) the gravitational force which will pull the satellite towards earth and
2) the centrifugal force (due to revolution) which counters the gravitational pull.
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Source
• Revolution causes centrifugal force (the object tends to move away from the centre).
• Higher the speed of the revolving satellite (orbital velocity), higher the centrifugal force.
• Thus, by varying the speed (orbital velocity) of the satellite, we can make the satellite
1) fall back to earth by decreasing the orbital velocity (centrifugal force < gravitational force)
2) stay in its orbit by adjusting the speed so that the centrifugal force balances the gravitational pull
(centrifugal force = gravitational force). (Lower the orbit, higher should be the orbital velocity).
3) escape earth’s influence by keeping the orbital velocity above the required speed (centrifugal force >
gravitational force).
Low Earth Orbit (LEO: 200-2000 km)
• International Space Station (400 km), the Hubble Space Telescope (560 km) and some observation sat-
ellites are all rotating the earth in Low Earth Orbit.
• LEO is high enough to significantly reduce the atmospheric drag yet close enough to observe the earth (re-
mote sensing).
• In LEO, the satellite’s orbital period is much smaller than the earth’s rotational period (24 hours).
• That is, the satellites in LEO complete multiple revolutions in 24 hours (Lower the orbit, higher should be
the speed).
Source
What is the speed required to keep a satellite in LEO?
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• The speed is dependent on the distance from the centre of the Earth.
• At an altitude of 200 km, the required orbital velocity is a little more than 27,400 kmph.
• In the case of the space shuttle, it orbits the Earth once every 90 minutes at an altitude of 466 km.
Advantages of LEO
• Low Earth Orbit is used for things that we want to visit often, like the International Space Station, the Hubble
Space Telescope and some satellites (usually spy satellites and other observation satellites).
• This is convenient for installing new instruments, experiments, and return to earth in a relatively short time.
Disadvantages of LEO
• Atmospheric drag will lead to more fuel consumption and constant speed adjustments.
• A satellite traveling in LEO do not spend very long over any one part of the Earth at a given time.
• Hence, satellites in LEO are not suitable for communication and weather observation and forecasting.
Solution
• One solution is to put a satellite in a highly elliptical orbit (eccentric orbit ― non-geosynchronous).
• The other is to place the satellite in a geosynchronous orbit.
Highly Elliptical Orbits
• Kepler's second law: an object in orbit about Earth moves much faster when it is close to Earth than when it
is farther away.
• Perigee is the closest point and apogee is the farthest.
• If the orbit is very elliptical, the satellite will spend most of its time near apogee (the furthest point in its orbit)
where it moves very slowly.
• Thus, it can be above a specific location most of the time.
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Disadvantages of Highly Elliptical Orbits
• In a highly elliptical orbit, the satellite has long dwell time over one area, but at certain times when the satellite
is on the high speed portion of the orbit, there is no coverage over the desired area.
Solution
• We could have two satellites on similar orbits but timed to be on opposite sides at any given time.
• In this way, there will always be one satellite over the desired coverage area at all times.
• If we want continuous coverage over the entire planet at all times, such as the Global Positioning System
(GPS satellites are in Medium Earth Orbit though), then we must have a constellation of satellites with orbits
that are both different in location and time.
• In this way, there is a satellite over every part of the Earth at any given time.
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Satellite constellation (Source)
Geosynchronous Orbits (GSO)
• Another solution to the dwell time problem is to have a satellite whose orbital period is equal to the
period of rotation of the earth (24 hrs) (satellite’s revolution is in sync with the earth’s rotation).
• In this case, the satellite cannot be too close to the Earth because it would not be going fast enough to
counteract the pull of gravity.
• Using Kepler's third law it is determined that the satellite has to be placed approximately 36,000 km away
from the surface of the Earth (~42,000 km from the centre of the Earth) in order to remain in a GSO orbit.
• By positioning a satellite so that it has infinite dwell time over one spot on the Earth, we can constantly
monitor the weather in one location, provide reliable telecommunications service, etc.
• The downside of a GSO is that it is more expensive to put and maintain something that high up.
Geostationary Orbit or Geosynchronous Equatorial Orbit (GEO)
• A geostationary orbit or geosynchronous equatorial orbit is a circular geosynchronous orbit above

Earth's equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation.
• Because the satellite stays right over the same spot all the time, this kind of orbit is called "geostationary."
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Geostationary vs Geosynchronous
Geostationary Orbit or Geosynchronous Equa- Geosynchronous Orbit

torial Orbit (GEO)
• They are both geosynchronous orbits (orbital period = 24 hours).

• Line of sight transmission
• Orbital path is circular. • Orbit is an inclined circle or an inclined ellipse.
• Orbital tilt is zero. • The orbital tilt is non-zero (inclined orbit)
• An observer on the ground would not perceive • A person on a point on Earth, will see a satellite in this
the satellite as moving and would see it as a orbit in the same place in the sky at the same time of
fixed point in the sky the day, every day.
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• Since the orbit has some inclination and/or eccen-

tricity, the satellite would appear to describe a more
or less distorted figure-eight in the sky and would rest
above the same spots of the Earth's surface once per
day.
• There are a limited number of positions avail- • There are more orbital planes and positions available
able (traffic jam, interference of signals due to to satellites using this technique
more satellites in the same orbit and risk of
damage due to space debris) in this orbit due
to safety and manoeuvring limits.
• Can receive signals with a simple antenna as • Requires a parabolic antenna as the satellite’s position
the satellite is in relatively same position (DTH, slightly changes longitudinally.
VSAT services).
• (Parabolic antenna is used to nullify the effect
of atmospheric distortions)
• Steering the antenna is not required. • It may sometimes require steering the antenna to
achieve line of sight
Medium Earth Orbits (MEO: 2000-36,000 km)
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• Medium Earth Orbits (MEO) range in altitude from 2,000 kms up to the geosynchronous orbit at 36,000 km
which includes part of the lower and all of the upper Van Allen radiation belts.
• The Van Allen Radiation Belt is a region of high energy charged particles moving at speeds close to that of
light encircling the Earth which can damage solar cells, circuits, and shorten the life of a satellite or spacecraft.
• Practical orbits therefore avoid these regions.
Polar Orbits (PO)
• Satellites in these orbits fly over the Earth from pole to pole in an orbit perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
• This orbit is used in surface mapping and observation satellites since it allows the orbiting satellite to take
advantage of the earth's rotation below to observe the entire surface of the Earth as it passes below.
• Pictures of the Earth's surface in applications such as Google Earth come from satellites in polar orbits.
Sun-synchronous orbits (SSO)
• Polar orbit and sun-synchronous orbits are low earth orbits.

• Sun-synchronous orbit is a near polar orbit in which the satellite passes over any given point of the planet's
surface at the same local mean solar time.
• When a satellite has a sun-synchronous orbit, it means that the satellite has a constant sun illumination.
• Because of the consistent lighting, the satellites in sun-synchronous orbit are used for remote sensing
applications (image the Earth's surface in visible or infrared wavelengths) like imaging, spying, etc.
87
Parking Orbit
• It is not always possible to launch a space vehicle directly into its desired orbit.
• The launch site may be in an inconvenient location or the launch window may be very short.
• In such cases the vehicle may be launched into a temporary orbit called a parking orbit.
• The parking obit provides more options for realising the ultimate orbit.
• For manned space missions the parking orbit provides an opportunity to recheck the systems.
Hofmann transfer orbit
• The transfer orbit is the orbit used to break out of the parking orbit and break into the geosynchronous or
geostationary orbit.
Geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO)
• A geosynchronous transfer orbit is a Hohmann transfer orbit — an elliptical orbit used to transfer between
two orbits in the same plane — used to reach geosynchronous or geostationary orbit.
88
Escape velocity
• Escape velocity is the minimum launch velocity (assuming the object is launched straight up) required for
an object to escape earth’s gravitational pull (it doesn’t fall back to earth).
• One condition is that once launched the object is not supplied with any additional energy nor hindered by
external force (like atmospheric drag) other than earth’s gravity.
• The escape velocity required for an object to escape earth’s gravitational pull is ~11.2 m/s (40,000+ kmph).
• It is neither feasible (atmospheric friction will turn it into ash) nor desirable (cannot place satellites in desired
orbit) to launch rockets at escape velocity.
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
• PSLV is an indigenously-developed expendable launch system.
Expendable launch system ➔ used only once to carry a payload into space. E.g. PSLV, GSLV, etc.
Reusable launch system ➔ system intended to allow for recovery of the system for later reuse. E.g. NASA's space
shuttles, SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket (reusable first stage and expendable second stage), etc.
• PSLV was developed in 1990s by ISRO to place satellites (mostly remote sensing satellites) in polar and near
polar (e.g. sun-synchronous orbit) Lower Earth Orbits.
• However, over the last decade, several PSLV missions were successful in sending satellites towards geosyn-
chronous transfer orbit.
• E.g. Chandrayaan-1 – 2008 and Mars Orbiter Mission or Mangalyaan – 2014 were launched using PSLV.
• PSLV can fly in different configurations depending on the mass of its payload and the target orbit.
• These configurations vary the number and type of solid rocket boosters attached to the rocket’s first stage,
while the four core stages remain the same across all configurations.
• PSLV’s first stage and third stage are solid-fuelled stages.
89
• PSLV’s second stage and forth stage are liquid-fuelled stages.

• The second stage engine, Vikas, is a derivative of France’s Viking engine.
• The PSLV-C (PSLV Core Alone) version of the rocket does not use additional boosters, while the PSLV-DL,
PSLV-QL and PSLV-XL use two, four and six boosters respectively.
The Workhorse of India’s space program
• PSLV earned its title 'the Workhorse of ISRO' through consistently delivering various satellites to Low Earth
Orbits, particularly the IRS (Indian Remote Sensing) series of satellites.
• PSLV Payload Capacity to SSO: 1,750 kg
• PSLV Payload Capacity to Sub-GTO: 1,425 kg
• In forty-seven launches to date, PSLV has achieved success forty-four times.
• Despite the failure of its maiden flight, PSLV went on to record thirty-six consecutive successful launches from
1999 to 2017.
• PSLVs were used to place the IRNSS satellite constellation (3 in GEO and 4 in GSO) in orbit.
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
• GSLV is also an expendable launch system.

• The GSLV project was initiated to launch geosynchronous satellites (most of them are heavy for PSLV).
• GSLV uses solid rocket booster and the liquid-fuelled Vikas engine, similar to those in PSLV.
• GSLV has solid-fuelled first stage, liquid-fuelled second stage and a cryogenic third stage.
• A Cryogenic rocket stage is more efficient and provides more thrust.
• However, cryogenic stage is technically a very complex system due to its use of propellants (liquid oxygen
― minus183 °C and liquid hydrogen ― minus 253 °C) at extremely low temperatures.
• India had to develop cryogenic technology indigenously as the US objected to Russia’s involvement citing
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) May 1992.
• A new agreement was signed with Russia for cryogenic stages with no technology transfer.
• GSLV rockets using the Russian Cryogenic Stage (CS) are designated as the GSLV Mk I.
• GSLV rockets using the indigenous Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) are designated the GSLV Mk II.
• GSLV Payload Capacity to LEO: 5,000 kg
• GSLV Payload Capacity to GTO: 2,500 kg
• GSLV's primary payloads are heavy communication satellites of INSAT class (about 2,500 kg) that operate
from Geostationary orbits (36000 km) and hence are placed in Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits by GSLV.
• The satellite in GTO is further raised to its final destination by firing its in-built on-board engines.
90
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-III)
• GSLV-III is designed to launch satellites into geostationary orbit and is intended as a launch vehicle for crewed
missions under the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme.
• The GSLV-III has a higher payload capacity than GSLV.
• GSLV-III Payload Capacity to LEO: 8,000 kg
• GSLV-III Payload Capacity to GTO: 4000 kg
ISRO Launchers (Source)
{Sci – Space – 19/10/09} 2019 Physics Nobel for helping us understand our place
in the universe
IE | The Hindu | The Hindu | 09-10-2019 | GS3 > Awareness in the fields of Space
Suggested Reading (Basics): The Universe, Big Bang Theory, Dark Energy, Gravitational waves
You can download PDFs of Astronomy from here: https://store.pmfias.com/free-downloads
• This year’s Nobel Prize recognises research that helps us understand our place in the universe.
91
• Canadian-American cosmologist James Peebles, 84, won one-half of the Prize for his theoretical work help-
ing us understand how the universe evolved after the Big Bang.
• The other half went to Swiss astronomers Michel Mayor, 77, and Didier Queloz, 53, for their discovery of an
exoplanet that challenged preconceived ideas about planets.
Graphic from the The Hindu
How the universe evolved?
• Modern cosmology assumes that the universe formed as a result of the Big Bang.
• Peebles work is focused largely on Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation, which is electromagnetic
radiation left over from the early universe once it had cooled sufficiently following the Big Bang.
• Peebles correlated the temperature of this radiation with the amount of matter created in the Big Bang,
which was a key step towards understanding how matter would later form the galaxies and galaxy clusters.
• From their work derives our knowledge of how mysterious the universe is — just 5% known matter and the
rest unknown, as dark matter (26%) and dark energy (69%).
Exoplanets
• The word planet is a general term that describes any celestial body that moves around a star.
92
• An exoplanet is a planet outside our solar system. It is an extrasolar planet.

• Today, more than 4,000 exoplanets are discovered — which is remarkable progress from three decades ago,
when not even one exoplanet was known.
• The first confirmed discoveries came in 1992, but these were orbiting not a star but the remains of one.
• The planet discovered by Mayor and Queloz in 1995 is 50 light years away, orbiting the star 51 Pegasus that
is similar to our Sun.
• Called 51 Pegasus b, the exoplanet is not habitable either, but it challenged our understanding of planets
and laid the foundation for future discoveries.
• Mayor and collaborators predicted the planet by observing the “Doppler effect” — when the star wobbles
as an effect of a planet’s gravity on its observed light.
{Sci – Space – 19/11/02} Solar System: New candidate for ‘dwarf planet’ title
IE | 02-11-2019 | General Science > Astronomy
• There are officially five dwarf planets in our Solar System:

✓ Pluto, Eris, Makemake, Haumea (all 4 are part of Kuiper Belt) and
✓ Ceres (largest asteroid in the asteroid belt).
93
• Now, there is a claimant for a sixth dwarf planet.

• Called Hygiea, it has so far been taken to be an asteroid.
• It lies in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
• New observations from the European Southern Observatory’s (ESO) Very Large Telescope (VLT) – using the
SPHERE instrument – suggest that Hygiea should be classified as a dwarf planet.
International Astronomical Union’s definition of a Planet
• A Planet is an object that

1. orbits the sun;
2. has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium ― a nearly round shape;
3. is not a satellite (moon) of another object, and
4. has removed debris and small objects from the area around its orbit.
• It is because of this definition that Pluto had to be downgraded to a dwarf plant in 2006.
• Pluto is a part of the Kuiper belt that contains millions of rocky and icy objects.
• Also, there are numerous other objects in the Kuiper belt which are of similar size to Pluto. E.g. Eris.
94
• So, if Pluto is considered a plant, then many other objects like Eris will also have to be considered as planets.
• Hence, Pluto (diameter: 2,377 km) (Kuiper belt) was voted by IAU as a dwarf planet just like Ceres (diam-
eter: 946 km) (asteroid belt) and Eris (diameter: 2,326 km) (Kuiper belt).
IAU’s definition of Dwarf planet
• Dwarf planet is an object that meets planetary criteria except that it has not cleared debris from its orbital
neighbourhood.
• A dwarf planet is an object that
1. it orbits around the Sun,
2. it is not a moon, and
3. it has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit, and
4. it has enough mass that its own gravity pulls it into a roughly spherical shape.
• Hygiea already satisfies all the four conditions. Hence, it can be called a dwarf planet.
• However, there is no official confirmation yet from the International Astronomical Union.
{Sci – Space – 19/11/16} In News: Voyager 2 & Arrokoth
IE | NASA | TH | 16-11-2019 | In News topic for prelims | GS3 > Awareness in the fields of Space
• NASA’s Voyager 2 spacecraft has crossed the elusive boundary that marks the edge of the solar system.
• Voyager 2 has entered the interstellar medium (ISM), the region of space outside the bubble-shaped
boundary produced by wind streaming outward from the Sun.
• This makes Voyager 2 the second human-made object to journey out of the Sun’s influence, following
the US space agency’s Voyager 1’s solar exit in 2012.
• The marked increase in plasma density is evidence of Voyager 2 journeying from the hot, lower-density
plasma characteristic of the solar wind to the cool, higher-density plasma of interstellar space.
• It is also similar to the plasma density jump experienced by Voyager 1 when it crossed into interstellar space.
• Voyager 2’s entry into the ISM occurred at 119.7 astronomical units (AU from the Sun.
• Voyager 1 passed into the ISM at 122.6 AU.
• That gives valuable clues to the structure of the heliosphere.
• It implies that the heliosphere is symmetric, at least at the two points where the Voyager spacecraft crossed.
• Data from the Voyager 2 also gives clues to the thickness of the heliosheath, the outer region of the helio-
sphere and the point where the solar wind piles up against the approaching wind in interstellar space.
95
Paths of Voyagers (Source)
Distant artificial objects exploring the Solar System
• Here are the five artificial objects that have achieved the escape velocity that will allow them to leave the
Solar System.
Space probe Launch year Significant event Objective Current status Distance from
the Sun in AU
Pioneer 10 1972 Flew past Saturn in 1979 Study the asteroid belt, Contact lost ~ 120 AU
the environment around in 2003
Pioneer 11 1973 Flew past Saturn in 1979 Jupiter and Saturn, solar Contact lost ~ 90 AU
wind and cosmic rays. in 1995
Voyager 2 Aug 1977 Passed the heliopause in Explore all four Jovian Active ~ 119 AU
December 2018 to enter planets. (as of Jan
interstellar space (second 2019)

artificial object to leave
the solar system).
Voyager 1 Sep 1977 Passed the heliopause in Explore Jupiter, Saturn, Active ~ 144 AU (as
2012 to enter interstellar and Saturn's largest of Jan 2019)
space (first artificial moon, Titan.
96
object to leave the solar Extended mission of
system). both the Voyagers is to
At a distance of about 143 study the outer reaches
AU Voyager 1 is the most of the Solar System.

distant man-made object
from Earth.
New Horizons 2006 Flew past Pluto in 2015. It To perform Active ~ 43.4 AU (as
is currently travelling a flyby study of of Jan 2019)
through Kuiper belt. the Pluto system in
2015, and a secondary
mission to fly by and
study one or more
other Kuiper belt ob-
jects (KBOs) in the dec-
ade to follow
• Voyagers continue to communicate with the Deep Space Network to receive routine commands.
• The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) is a worldwide network of U.S. spacecraft communication facilities,
located in California, Madrid, and Canberra, that supports NASA's interplanetary spacecraft missions.
97
Distant artificial objects (NASA, via Wikimedia Commons)
New Horizons spacecraft
• New Horizons is the first mission to the Pluto System and the Kuiper Belt – a relic of solar system formation.
• New Horizons was launched in 2006. It swung past Jupiter in 2007 and conducted a six-month-long recon-
naissance flyby study of Pluto and its moons in 2015.
• New Horizons seeks to understand where Pluto and its moons “fit in” with the other objects in the solar
system, such as the inner rocky planets (Earth, Mars, Venus & Mercury) and the outer gas giants (Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus & Neptune).
• Pluto and its largest moon, Charon, belong to a third category known as "ice dwarfs."
• They have solid surfaces but, unlike the terrestrial planets, a significant portion of their mass is icy material.
Arrokoth
• In the Kuiper Belt, a rock moves in slow orbit around the Sun, once every 297 years.
• Its odd shape consists of two lobes, respectively measuring 21 km and 15 km across.
• Provisionally named 2014 MU69 based on the year of its discovery, it was given the nickname ‘Ultima Thule’.
98
• Now, it has got an official name — Arrokoth.
• NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft sped past the object in January this year.
• It is the most primitive and distant object to have been encountered by a spacecraft.
Kuiper belt
• The Kuiper belt is a ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt but consisting mainly of objects composed
primarily of ice.
• It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun.
• Pluto (39 AU) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt.
99
Heliopause
• What defines the boundary of the solar system? Sun's light? Gravity? Or Sun's magnetic field and solar wind?
• There is no definite boundary where the light or gravity stops or where they suddenly get weaker.
• The solar wind is different from light or gravity.
• As it streams away from the Sun it races out against the interstellar medium ― space between the stars
permeated by hydrogen and helium gas).
• Even though the interstellar medium has a low density, it still has a pressure (similar to air pressure).
• The solar wind also has a pressure.
• The solar wind blows against the interstellar medium and creates a bubble-like region.
• This bubble that surrounds the solar system is called the heliosphere (not a sphere in the true sense).
• Since the Sun is moving relative to the interstellar medium around it, the heliosphere forms a wave or shock
in the interstellar medium like a boat in the ocean. This is called the bow shock or wave.
• The region where the solar wind begins to interact with the interstellar medium and begins to slow down
is called the heliosheath.
• The heliosheath has a few parts: the termination shock (the innermost part of the boundary), the helio-
pause (the outermost part of the boundary) and the part in between the inner and outer boundary.
• The termination shock is the boundary where the solar wind particles slow down so that the particles are
travelling slower than the speed of sound.
• Voyager 1 crossed the termination shock at 94 astronomical units (AU) and Voyager 2 crossed at 84 AU.
100
• At the heliopause ― the boundary of the heliosphere, the pressure from the interstellar medium is strong
enough to slow down and eventually stop the flow of solar wind.
Source
Heliosphere (NASA/Walt Feimer, via Wikimedia Commons)
101
Distance from Sun (NASA / JPL-Caltech, via Wikimedia Commons)
{Sci – Space – 19/12/03} Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment (AIDA)
IE | 03-12-2019 | GS3 > S&T
• There are around 25,000 near-Earth objects (NEOs – asteroids, comets, space debris) that orbit the Sun on a
trajectory that brings them close to our planet’s orbit.
• NASA tracks such near-Earth objects to ensure they do not become threats.
• However, certain near-Earth objects have been classified as “potentially hazardous” which are 140 metres or
more in size and come within 0.05 AU (1 AU is 150 million kilometres) to Earth.
• According to NASA, as of now, there are about 900 near-Earth objects measuring more than 1 km.
• An impact from one of these NEOs can bring devastating effects to Earth.
• The latest of the five mass extinctions, Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction (66 million years ago, the end of
dinosaurs), is said to have caused by an asteroid or a comet impact.
• Over the years, scientists have suggested different ways to ward off asteroid impact threats, such as blowing
up the asteroid before it reaches Earth or deflecting it off its Earth-bound course by hitting it with a spacecraft.
• Now, scientists have embarked on a plan to test their expertise with the second of these two methods.
Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment (AIDA)
102
• The AIDA is a double-spacecraft kinetic impact mission being developed by NASA ad ESA.
• The project aims to study the effectiveness of an impact to ward off an impending asteroid threat.
• Th aim of the mission is to test if the technique of deflecting asteroids off their earth-bound course is effective
in warding off future asteroid impact threats.
• AIDA includes NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) and the ESA’s Hera.
Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)
• NASA aims to launch DART spacecrafts in 2021.

• DART will be put to test on the Didymos binary near-Earth asteroid system.
• Didymos binary system consists of Didymos A (about 780 metres in size), and Didymos B (about 160 metres).
• The Didymos B will have a distant approach to Earth in 2022, and then again in 2024.
• DART adopts kinetic impactor technique to deflect the orbit of the smaller body through an impact by one
of the spacecrafts with the target at 6.6 km/s.
• Mission Hera will launch in 2024 and will arrive at the Didymos system in 2027 to measure the impact crater
produced by the DART collision and study the change in the asteroid’s orbital trajectory.
• The effect of the collision is also monitored by earth based observatories.
• Based on the observations, the capabilities of kinetic impact as an asteroid mitigation strategy will be deter-
mined.
Suggested reading: https://www.pmfias.com/solar-system-planets-inner-outer/#Other_Solar_System_Objects
{Sci – Space – 19/12/07} Nasa’s Parker Solar Probe
TH | 07-12-2019 | GS3 > S&T > Awareness in the field of Space
• Nasa’s Parker Solar Probe is a robotic spacecraft, which was launched in August 2018.
• The probe will travel within 6 million km from the sun's surface,7 times closer than any previous spacecraft.
103
• It will fly into the sun’s corona and study the outermost part which gives rise to the solar wind.
• Sun's corona gives rise to solar wind which are hot, energised and charged particles that stream outward
from the Sun and fill the solar system.
• These charged particles beaming outwards were thought to dissipate gradually but the probe has discovered
abrupt spikes in the speed of solar wind which are so violent that the magnetic field flips itself around – the
phenomenon is called “switchbacks”.
• The findings of the spacecraft offer details on how the sun affects space weather and how violent solar wind
can hamper satellites and electronics on Earth.
Suggested Reading: Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere, Solar Wind
104
General Science & Sci and Tech Current Affairs by Pmfias.com – January 2020
Contents
{Bio – Diseases – 20/01/13} Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) .................................................................................................. 1

{Bio – Diseases – 20/01/18} TB diagnostic test Truenat MTB ........................................................................................ 4
{Bio – In News – 20/01/25} Archaea ......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
{S&T – Biotech – 19/11/03} IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project .................................................................. 7
{S&T – Biotech – 20/01/12} Genome Sequencing Applications .................................................................................................................. 10

{S&T – Biotech – 20/01/21} Xenobot ..................................................................................................................................................................... 11
{S&T – Biotech – 20/01/31} Stem cell banking and its benefits .................................................................................. 12
{S&T – ISRO – 20/01/13} GSAT-30 ................................................................................................................................. 12

{Sci – Space – 20/01/08} LIGO team detects second merger of two neutron stars ............................................................................ 18
{Sci – Space – 20/01/10} Goldilocks zone (planet in habitable zone) ....................................................................................................... 20
{Bio – Diseases – 20/01/13} Coronavirus (2019-nCoV)
IE | TH | IE | TH | TH | TH | TH | IE | 13-01-2020
• Novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak in Wuhan (capital of Hubei province) has killed close to 500 people.
• WHO declared 2019-nCoV outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC).
Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC)
• The responsibility of declaring an event as an emergency lies with the Director-General of the WHO.
• International Health Regulations (IHR) of WHO defines a PHEIC as an “extraordinary event” that constitutes a
risk to other countries and requires a coordinated international response.
• A declaration of a PHEIC typically brings greater money and resources but may also prompt foreign govern-
ments to restrict travel and trade to affected countries.
• In 2014, WHO delayed declaring the Ebola epidemic in West Africa to be a global emergency (PHEIC) because
it feared the announcement would anger the countries in the region.
• Till date, WHO has declared a global health emergency six times.
1. April 2009 for the spreading of H1N1 pandemic.
2. May 2014 for the spreading of polio.
3. August 2014 for Ebola outbreaks in western Africa.
4. February 2016 for Zika outbreaks in the Americas.
1
5. July 2019 Ebola outbreak in Congo.

6. January 2020 2019-nCoV outbreak in China.
International Health Regulations (2005)
• WHO has been working on strengthening health security through the implementation of the International
Health Regulations (2005) adopted by 194 countries.
• The IHR are an international legal instrument that aim to help the international community prevent and re-
spond to acute public health risks that have the potential to cross borders and threaten people worldwide.
• Countries are legally required to share information with WHO under the IHR.
Coronaviruses
• Coronaviruses are a specific family of viruses, with some of them causing less-severe damage, such as the
common cold, and others causing respiratory and intestinal diseases.
• A coronavirus has many regularly arranged protrusions on its surface, because of which the entire virus par-
ticle looks like an emperor’s crown, hence the name “coronavirus”.
Source: CNN & Siencedirect
• Apart from human beings, coronaviruses can affect pigs, cattle, cats, camels, some birds, etc.
2019-nCoV
• China shared the whole genome sequence data with WHO and global researchers.
• However, much still remains to be understood about the present novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV).
• Experts have confirmed animal-to-human and human-to-human transmission of the new strain.
• Symptoms include dry cough, fever, fatigue, muscle aches and acute breathing difficulty.
• The incubation period for the virus can last from 10 to 14 days.
• The infection can cause pneumonia, respiratory distress, kidney failure and in some cases, in which immunity
is weak, even death.
2
• As of now, there is no vaccine against coronavirus infection. There is also no cure for the 2019-nCoV.
• According to a new study, 2019-nCoV likely resided in snakes before being transmitted to humans.
• Comparing the genome of 2019-nCoV with those of different coronaviruses, the study found that the new
virus formed from a combination of CoV found in bats, and another of unknown origin.
• It is critical to determine the animal reservoir of the 2019-nCoV in order to understand the molecular mech-
anism of its cross-species spread.
Previous Coronavirus outbreaks
• So far, there are four known disease-causing coronaviruses, among which the best known are the SARS
corona virus and the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus.
• Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak in China in 2002-03 killed nearly 800 people.
• The SARS coronavirus is thought to be an animal virus from an yet-uncertain animal reservoir, perhaps bats,
that spread to other animals and first infected humans in the Guangdong province of China in 2002.
• The MERS coronavirus was passed on from camels to humans in Saudi Arabia in 2012.
Zoonotic infections
• Zoonotic diseases, or those contracted by humans that originated in other species, account for a large share
of human infectious illnesses.
• The relationship between zoonotic pathogens — those of animal origin — and global pandemics is not new.
• The modern pandemics such as HIV/AIDS, SARS, and H1N1 influenza have one thing in common: the causal
organisms came to humans from animals.
Why China has emerged as the epicentre of global zoonotic disease outbreaks?
• Several deadly new viruses in recent years have emerged in China — Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
(SARS), bird flu, and now the novel coronavirus (nCOV).
• The SARS epidemic began in November 2002 in China and spread across the world.
• The reason could lie in the busy food markets dotting cities across the country — where fruits, vegetables,
hairy crabs and butchered meat are often sold next to bamboo rats, snakes, turtles, and palm civets.
• Closely packed stalls in busy marketplaces, the Chinese taste for exotic meats, and the high population den-
sity of cities create the conditions for the spread of zoonotic infections.
Ban on trade in exotic species is essential
3
• The outbreak of a new virus in China is prompting renewed calls for enforcement of laws against the trade in
and consumption of exotic species.
• Not all of Zoonotic diseases come from wildlife trade — rabies is endemic across many species and one of
the biggest causes of death in the developing world.
• But mixing species of wild animals increases the risk of diseases mutating and growing more virulent as they
spread in unregulated markets, experts say.
Lessons from Kerala (Importance of Decentralization in public health)
Suggested reading: {Bio – Diseases – 19/06/04} Nipah virus
• The Kerala government dealt effectively with the Nipah virus outbreak in May 2018.
• Nipah is also zoonotic and made the jump from fruit bats to humans.
• Though there were 17 deaths in India, effective quarantine measures by local authorities prevented the
spread. It helped that health is a state subject.
• The State health machinery responded with alacrity with many put under observation.
• Kerala was declared Nipah-free after a few months.
• Had the district and State authorities not taken the initiative and only reported matters to Delhi and awaited
instructions while Delhi sent teams to prepare plans, the outbreak would have taken a higher toll.
India needs a better infrastructure and response mechanism
• Infectious diseases including those of the zoonotic variety are on the rise in India.
• In addition, regions in India suffer from seasonal outbreaks of dengue, malaria and influenza strains.
• The nation-wide disease surveillance programme needs to be strengthened.
• There is an acute shortage of epidemiologists, microbiologists and entomologists which translates into
wasteful delays in diagnostics.
• It is time to put in place a robust public-private partnership model that can transform the health sector in the
country, covering disease surveillance, diagnostic kit availability and accelerated vaccine development.
{Bio – Diseases – 20/01/18} TB diagnostic test Truenat MTB
TH | TH | National Health Programme | 18-01-2020 | GS3 > Applications of S&T in everyday life | GS2 > Issues
related to health sector | Basics: {Bio – Diseases – 19/08/16} New Tuberculosis Drug Pretomanid
• Truenat is a molecular diagnostic test (MTB – alalysing individual's genetic code) to diagnose pulmonary
and extrapulmonary TB (TB in organs other than lungs).
4
• It can also be used to diagnose rifampicin-resistant TB.

• WHO had mentioned that the India-made Truenat MTB has high diagnostic accuracy.
• Truenat takes about 25 minutes to extract the DNA and another 35 minutes for TB diagnosis.
• Testing for rifampicin resistance takes an hour and is done only if the sample tests positive for TB.
• The overall sensitivity of the Truenat MTB assay is 83% and specificity is 99%.
• In comparison, Xpert, which is also a molecular diagnostic test, the sensitivity is 85% and specificity is 98%.
• Truenat MTB-RIF test for knowing rifampicin resistance has 93% sensitivity and 95% specificity.
• Truenat MTB will be used as an initial test to diagnose TB thus replacing sputum smear microscopy.
• Sputum smear microscopy (testing mucus for TB bacteria) has only 50% sensitivity and fails to detect TB when
the bacterial load is low.
Advantages of Truenat MTB over other diagnostic tests
• Compared with smear microscopy, Truenat had better ability to diagnose more TB positive cases.
• Instead of smear microscopy, Truenat can be used as an initial and point-of-care tool for diagnosing TB.
• Not much expertise is needed to carry out the test using Truenat.
• While Xpert needs electricity supply and air-conditioning, Truenat is battery operated and portable.
• Tuenat takes an hour to diagnose rifampicin resistance while Xpert takes two hours to complete the TB diag-
nosis and test for rifampicin resistance.
• Truenat is cost effective as it will test for rifampicin resistance only after detecting TB. This is unlike Xpert
where both TB diagnosis and rifampicin resistance test are done at one go.
The goal to end TB by 2025
• Revised National TB Control Programme was renamed as the National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP).
• The change in name is in line with the larger goal of eliminating the disease by 2025, five years ahead of
the Sustainable Development Goals target.
• NTEP got a much needed boost with the WHO stating that TrueNat MTB has high diagnostic accuracy.
• As a first step, TrueNat MTB will be available at community health centres and would slowly be extended to
primary health centres across the country.
• There are 5,500-6,000 community health centres and about 25,000 PHCs.
• The states will be procuring the diagnostic machine directly from the Goa-based manufacturer.
National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP)
• 1962: The National TB Programme (NTP) was launched by GOI with BCG vaccination at the district level.
5
• 1993: WHO declared TB as a global emergency and devised the directly observed treatment (DOTS).
• 1993: GOI revitalized NTP as Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP).
• 1997: DOTS was launched as the RNTCP strategy. By 2006 the entire country was covered under RNTCP.
• In its second phase (2006–11), RNTCP improved the quality and reach of services.
• Despite the measures, undiagnosed and mistreated cases continued to drive the TB epidemic.
• A large number of MDR-TB cases were reported every year.
• To address this, National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Control 2012-2017 was documented with the goal
of ‘universal access to quality TB diagnosis and treatment’.
• Significant interventions were taken during NSP 2012-2017 in terms of mandatory notification of all TB
cases, integration of the programme with the National Health Mission, etc.
• To eliminate TB in India by 2025, National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination 2017-2025 in-
volving all the stakeholders was formulated by RNTCP.
• On 01-01-2020, RNTCP was renamed as National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP).
National strategic plan for tuberculosis elimination (NSP) 2017-2025 (NSP)
• TB elimination has been integrated into the four strategic pillars of “Detect – Treat – Prevent – Build” (DTPB).
Detect
• Early diagnosis and treatment of TB is an important step in TB elimination.

• The objective of NSP was to find all drug sensitive TB cases (DS-TB) and drug resistant TB cases (DRTB).
• To facilitate TB notification, RNTCP has developed a TB surveillance system called “NIKSHAY” (https://nik-
shay.gov.in) for both government and private health care facilities.
• For TB diagnosis more than 14,000 designated microscopy centres spread across the country.
• Cartridge Based Nucleic Acid Amplification Tests (CBNAAT) / Line Probe Assay (LPA) have been estab-
lished at district levels for decentralised molecular testing for drug resistant TB.
• From 2020, GOI will be using Truenat test as a part of early stage diagnosis.
Treat
• Screening of all patients for rifampicin resistance (and for additional drugs wherever indicated) is done.
• For drug sensitive TB, daily fixed dose combinations (FDCs) of first-line anti-tuberculosis drugs are given.
• First line treatment of drug-sensitive TB consists of a
1. two-months intensive phase with four drug FDCs (Isoniazid (INH), Rifampicin, Pyrazinamide and Eth-
ambutol (HRZE)) followed by a
6
2. continuation phase of four months with three drug FDCs (Rifampicin, Isoniazid, and Ethambutol
(HRE)).
• For previously treated cases of TB, the intensive Phase is of three months, where
1. injection streptomycin is given for two months along with four drugs (HRZE) and
2. then four drugs (HRZE) are continued for another month.
3. In continuation phase Rifampicin, INH, and Ethambutol are continued for another five months.
Prevent
• Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT) is given to Children who are close contacts of a TB patient.
• BCG vaccination is provided at birth or as early as possible till one year of age.
• BCG vaccine has a protective effect against meningitis and disseminated TB in children.
Build
• Health system strengthening for TB control under the NSP 2017-2025 is recommended in the form of building
and strengthening enabling policies, empowering institutions and human resources.
Must Read: {Bio – Diseases – 19/08/16} New Tuberculosis Drug Pretomanid
{Bio – In News – 20/01/25} Archaea
IE | 25-01-2020 | In News Topic for Prelims
• Scientists from Pune have reported a new archaeon (a kind of microorganism), which they discovered in
Sambhar Salt Lake in Rajasthan.
• Archaea (singular archaeon) are a primitive group of microorganisms that thrive in extreme habitats such
as hot springs, cold deserts and hypersaline lakes.
• These slow-growing organisms are also present in the human gut and have a potential relationship with
human health.
• They are known for producing antimicrobial molecules, and for anti-oxidant activity with applications in eco-
friendly waste-water treatment.
{S&T – Biotech – 19/11/03} IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project
TH | 03-11-2019 | GS3 > Awareness in the field of Biotechnology | Basics: NCERT: Nucleic acids – DNA & RNA
• The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) concluded the six-month long exercise of conducting
a “whole-genome sequence” of a 1,008 Indians that beloged to diverse ethnicities.
7
• The project is part of a programme called “IndiGen” and is a precursor to a much larger exercise funded by
the Department of Biotechnology to sequence at least 10,000 Indian genomes.
• The project involved the Hyderabad-based Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) and the
CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB).
• Globally, many countries have undertaken genome sequencing of a sample of their citizens to determine
unique genetic traits, susceptibility (and resilience) to disease.
Genome
• A genome is the DNA, or sequence of genes, in a cell.

• Most of the DNA is in the nucleus and intricately coiled into a structure called the chromosome.
• The rest is in the mitochondria, the cell’s powerhouse.
• Every human cell contains a pair of chromosomes, each of which has three billion base pairs or one of four
molecules – adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) – that pair in precise ways.
8
• The order of base pairs & varying lengths of these sequences constitute the “genes”, which are respon-
sible for making amino acids, proteins and, thereby, everything that is necessary for the body to function.
• When these genes are altered (mutated), proteins sometimes do not function as intended, leading to disease.
Genome Sequencing
• Sequencing a genome means deciphering the exact order of base pairs in an individual.
• This “deciphering” or reading of the genome is what sequencing is all about.
• In this particular piece of DNA, an adenine (A) is followed by a guanine (G), which is followed by a thymine
(T), which in turn is followed by a cytosine (C), another cytosine (C), and so on.
Whole genome sequencing
• Exome, the portion of the genes responsible for making proteins occupies just about 1% of the actual gene.
• Rather than sequence the whole gene, many geneticists rely on “exome maps”.
• However, the non-exome portions also affect the functioning of the genes.
• Hence to know which genes of a person’s DNA are “mutated” the whole genome sequencing is required.
• Whole genome sequencing is the process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism's
genome at a single time.
• This entails sequencing all of an organism's chromosomal DNA as well as DNA contained in the mitochon-
dria and, for plants, in the chloroplast.
• In practice, genome sequences that are nearly complete are also called whole genome sequences.
• The whole genome sequencing relies on new technologies that allow rapid sequencing of the entire genome
in a matter of a few days.
9
• While India, led by the CSIR, first sequenced an Indian genome in 2009, it is only now that the organisation’s
laboratories have been able to scale up whole-genome sequencing and offer them to the public.
Benefits of Genome Sequencing
• Genome Sequencing will help us understand genetic variations & uique traits of different ethnic populations.
• It will widen public understanding about the information that genes hide about one’s susceptibility to disease.
• It will help identify gene variants that make a person less responsive to certain classes of drugs. For example,
having a certain gene makes some people less responsive to clopidogrel, a drug that prevents heart attack.
• Whole genome sequencing data of a person can be analyzed to determine if they carry genes for particular
single genetic disorders. This will help usher in a new era of personalized medicine.
• WGS findings are starting to guide treatments for common cancers and are also being used to determine
which medications are safe (and which are not) on a person-by-person basis.
{S&T – Biotech – 20/01/12} Genome Sequencing Applications
TH | 12-01-2020 | Awareness in the field of Biotechnology | Basics: NCERT: Nucleic acids – DNA & RNA
• A consortium of scientists has mapped the genome (genome sequencing) of the Indian cobra.
• The Indian cobra is part of the so called ‘Big 4’: the Indian cobra (common cobra), the common krait,
Russell’s viper, and the saw-scaled viper.
• The quartet has long been considered responsible for most snake bites on the Indian subcontinent.
• The foray into the Indian cobra genome involved making a map of its 38 chromosomes & over 12,000 genes.
• The human genome, in comparison, has 23 chromosomes and the estimated 20,000-25,000 genes.
10
• Knowing the sequence of genes could aid in understanding the chemical constituents of the venom and
contribute to development of new effective antivenom therapies without side effects.
The issues with the present ativenoms
• In the case of the polyvalent antivenom available in India, it is made by injecting it into horses.
• The antibodies that form are then collected from the domestic animal’s blood, purified and isolated.
• Antivenom is currently produced by a very-old process which is considered expensive and time consuming.
• Their efficacy varies, besides producing side effects.
• Venom is a complex mixture of an estimated 140-odd protein or peptides.

• Only some of these constituents are toxins that cause the physiological symptoms seen after snakebite.
• But antivenom available today does not target these toxins specifically.
• In the Indian cobra, the authors identified 19 toxin genes, the only ones that should matter in treatment.
• Using recombinant technology, the genetic sequence for each toxin can be pasted into a yeast or E. coli to
produce a new antivenom that would target only the specific toxins.
{S&T – Biotech – 20/01/21} Xenobot
IE | 21-01-2020 | GS3 > Awareness in the filed of biotechnology
• Scientists in the US have created the world’s first “living (biological) machines” — tiny robots built from the
cells of the African clawed frog, that can move around on their own.
• They have named the millimetre-wide robots “xenobots”.
11
• The xenobots “can move toward a target, perhaps pick up a payload (like a medicine that needs to be carried
to a specific place inside a patient) — and heal themselves after being cut.
• Xenobots can used for searching out nasty compounds or radioactive contamination, gathering microplastic
in the oceans, travelling in arteries to scrape out plaque, etc.
{S&T – Biotech – 20/01/31} Stem cell banking and its benefits
TH | 31-01-2020
• The blood collected from the umbilical cord of the new-born is a rich source of stem cells.
• The stem cells are unspecialised cells (they don’t have a specific predefined function).
• The stem cells are separated, processed, and preserved in liquid nitrogen in cord blood banks.
• Technically, there is no expiry date and these stem cells can be preserved for a lifetime.
• Scientifically, evidence exists that they can be stored for about 20 years.
• Stem cells taken from umbilical cord blood are like those taken from bone marrow, capable of pro-
ducing all blood cells: red cells, platelets and immune system cells.
• That is, they are capable of renewing themselves through cell division to give rise to new stem cells or
specialized cell types (bone cells, muscle cells, etc.).
• When used, stem cells are first concentrated, then injected into the patient.
• Once transfused, they produce new cells of every kind.
• They can be induced to become tissue- or organ-specific cells with special functions.
• In some organs, such as the bone marrow, stem cells regularly divide to repair and replace damaged tissues.
• The stem cells can treat around 70 blood related disorders and genetic disorders including thalassemia, sickle
cell anaemia, leukaemia, and immune related disorders.
• But given the present state of medicine, they are effective only for around a dozen of them.
• Stem cells offer the possibility of a renewable source of replacement cells and tissues to treat diseases
including macular degeneration, spinal cord injury, stroke, burns, heart disease, diabetes, etc.
{S&T – ISRO – 20/01/13} GSAT-30
TH | 13-01-2020 | GS3 > Sci & Tech – developments and their applications, indigenization of technology.
Basics: Kepler's laws, Satellite Orbits, Launch Vehicles PSLV & GSLV
• Isro's GSAT-30 satellite was placed in geostationary orbit by Ariane-5 launch vehicle.
• Ariane-5 was launched from Ariane Launch Complex at Kourou, French Guiana (overseas territory of France).
• The 3,357-kg GSAT-30 will serve as a replacement to INSAT-4A services.
12
• The satellite provides Indian mainland and islands coverage in Ku-band and extended coverage in C-band
covering Gulf countries, a large number of Asian countries and Australia.
• With a mission life of 15 years, GSAT-30 provides DTH, television uplink, digital satellite news gathering
(DSNG) and VSAT services.
Why didn’t ISRO use GSLV Mk III to place GSAT-30 in orbit?
• GSLV Payload Capacity to LEO: 5,000 kg

• GSLV Payload Capacity to GTO: 2,500 kg
• GSLV-III Payload Capacity to LEO: 8,000 kg
• GSLV-III Payload Capacity to GTO : 4000 kg
ISRO Launchers (Source)
• ISRO’s GSLV Mk III has the capability to place sub 4 ton satellites in GTO.
• Though GSAT-30 is not a heavier satellite (3,500+ kg), ISRO had to use the services of Arianespace.
• This is because of budget and time constraints.
• MK III rockets were already used for Chandrayaan-2 and other missions.
13
• ISRO didn’t have a spare GSLV vehicle for Gsat-30 and there was an urget need to replace the dying Insat-
4A to ensure continuity of several services.
India’s Communication Satellites
• Indian National Satellite System (INSAT)

• GSATs (Geo synchronous Satellites)
Indian National Satellite System (INSAT)
• INSAT, is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO.

• Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, the INSAT system with more than 200 transponders in
the C, Extended C and Ku-bands provides services to telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite
newsgathering, weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search and Rescue operations.
GSATs (Geo synchronous Satellites)
• The new generation INSATs are now named as GSATs (Geo synchronous Satellites).
• The GSAT satellites are used for digital audio, data and video broadcasting.
Transponder
• In a communications satellite, a satellite transponder receives signals over a range of uplink frequencies,
usually from a satellite ground station.
• The transponder amplifies them and re-transmits them on a different set of downlink frequencies to receivers
on Earth, often without changing the content of the received signal or signals.
Satellite frequency bands
14
Source and Credits: ESA
L-band (1–2 GHz)
• Used by Global Positioning System (GPS) carriers and satellite mobile phone communication devices.
S-band (2–4 GHz)
• Used by weather radar, surface ship radar, and some communications satellites.
C band (4–8 GHz)
• Used for satellite communications, for full-time satellite TV networks.

• Ssed in areas that are subject to tropical rainfall (less susceptible to signal degradation than Ku band).
• Because of the low frequencies, C band waves have longer wavelengths.
• Because of bigger wavelengths, a bigger dish is required to receive such frequencies.
X-band (8–12 GHz)
15
• Primarily used by the military.

• Sub-bands are used in civil, military and government institutions for weather monitoring, air traffic control,
maritime vessel traffic control, defence tracking and vehicle speed detection for law enforcement.
Ku-band (12–18 GHz)
• Used for satellite communications, most notably the downlink used by DTH television.
• Because of the higher frequencies, Ku band waves have shorter wavelengths.
• Shorter wavelengths mean that you need a smaller dish to receive these frequencies.
K-band (18–26 GHz)
• Due to the 22 GHz water vapor absorption line this band has high atmospheric attenuation and is only useful
for short range applications.
Ka-band (26–40 GHz)
• Used for communications satellites with high-resolution, close-range targeting radars on military aircraft.
Why are the Geostationary satellites launched from east coast in eastward direction and
from locations that are close to the equator?
• If you observe the location of all the launch centers like Sriharikota, Kennedy Launch Center (USA: Florida),
Guiana Space Centre etc., all are located on the East coast of the continent and are close to the equator.
16
• The location of Kennedy Space Center and Satish Dawan Space Center makes them particularly vulnerable to
tropical cyclones and other weather “events”.
• However, they are good locations for rocket launches as thay are on the east coast and close to the equator.
• Also, the islands are less densely populated, making them safer to carry out launches.
Why in eastward direction?
• As the earth rotates from west to east, a satellite launched in the east direction will get an initial boost equal
to the velocity of Earth surface.
Why at equator?
Reason 1:
• Earth’s rotational velocity is maximum at the equator (on earth, centrifugal force is maximum at the equator).
• Hence for maximum initial boost, the launch site needs to be closer to the equator.
• Anything on the surface of the Earth at the equator is already moving at 1670 kilometers per hour (rotational
velocity of earth).
• But this benefit can be taken only for such satellites which are placed in geo-stationary orbit or which circle
the Earth parallel to the equator.
Reason 2:
• Communication satellites are put into geostationary orbit above the equator with zero inclination to the
equatorial plane.
• The ideal place to launch to geostationary orbit is, obviously, on the equator.
• Equatorial launches only require the vehicle to bring the payload to orbital speed and do not require inclina-
tion changes.
• For launches that are not on the equator, the vehicle must perform a complex adjustment burn in the GTO
(geostationary transfer orbit) phase of the mission to bring the vehicle an inclination of 0º.
17
• The vehicle first reaches low earth orbit (green circle), then makes a burn to geostationary transfer orbit (the
red ellipse), then makes a second burn to circularize the orbit into geostationary orbit (orange circle).
• When a vehicle is launched from the equator, the three orbits shown are planar (they lie in the same plane).
• If the vehicle is launched from a non-equatorial launch site, the green circle and the orange circle are non-
planar, thus requiring the red ellipse to bridge the two orbits (More fuel will be required = high costs).
• This maneuver consumes propellant and thus decreases the payload. That's another reason why equatorial
launches (or as close as possible) are preferred.
What about polar satellites (remote sensing and earth observation satellites)?
• Such satellites are usually communication satellites or satellites used for scientific research such as ISS.
• There are other satellites which are placed in polar orbits moving across the equator in north south direction
and used mainly for mapping or sometimes for spying.
• Such satellites are generally launched in south ward or north ward direction and therefore cannot take ad-
vantage of the Earth’s rotation.
Why are launch sites on the east coast?
• Launching stations are generally located near eastern coastline so that, just in case of failure of the launch,
the satellite does not fall on built-up hinterland.
{Sci – Space – 20/01/08} LIGO team detects second merger of two neutron stars
18
TH | 08-01-2020 | GS3 > Awareness in the field of Space
• Gravitational wave signals detected by the LIGO detector at Livingstone in April 2019, are likely due to the
collision of two neutron stars at a distance of 520 million light years away.
• The signal was detected by only one of three active detectors in the world.
• The LIGO system consists of detectors at Hanford, Washington and Livingstone, Louisiana.
• At the time of detection by LIGO detector at Livingstone, the detector at Hanford was offline.
• The the signal received by European Virgo detector was not above the detection threshold. This is because
the detector has a lower sensitivity than the LIGO detectors.
Gravitational waves
• Gravitational waves are 'ripples' in the fabric of space-time caused by some of the most violent and
energetic processes in the Universe. (Spacetime: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sryrZwYguRQ)
• These ripples travel at the speed of light through the Universe, carrying with them information about their
origins.
• Albert Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in 1916 in his general theory of relativity.
• He observed that massive accelerating objects (such as neutron stars or black holes orbiting each other)
would disrupt space-time in such a way that 'waves' of distorted space would radiate from the source (like
the movement of waves away from a stone thrown into a pond).
• In 2015, LIGO (The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory, USA) physically sensed the distor-
tions in spacetime caused by passing gravitational waves generated by two colliding black holes nearly 1.3
billion light-years away!
Gravitational waves (NASA)
19
• While the processes that generate gravitational waves can be extremely violent and destructive, by the time
the waves reach Earth, they are billions of times smaller.
Einstein’s theory of general relativity
• In 1905, Albert Einstein determined that the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating
observers and that the speed of light in a vacuum was independent of the motion of all observers.
• As a result, he found that space and time were interwoven into a single continuum known as space-
time.
• Events that occur at the same time for one observer could occur at different times for another. This
was the theory of special relativity.
• In 1915, Einstein published his theory of general relativity. In it, he determined that massive objects distort
space-time, which is felt as gravity.
• Gravitational lensing and gravitational waves are strong evidence for Einstein’s theory of general rela-
tivity.
Gravitational lensing
• Light around a massive object, such as a black hole, is bent, causing it to act as a lens for the things
that lie behind it.
Source: space.com
Importance of gravitational waves
• The gravitational waves can work as sirens to measure the expansion rate of the universe and to under-
stand the origin and the future of the universe.
{Sci – Space – 20/01/10} Goldilocks zone (planet in habitable zone)
TH | IE | 10-01-2020 | In news topic for prelims
• NASA researchers have discovered an Earth-sized planet that lies in its star’s habitable zone.
• A habitable zone, also called the “Goldilocks zone”, is the area around a star where it is not too hot and not
too cold for liquid water to exist on the surface of surrounding planets.
• The planet was discovered using NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), the first Earth-sized
planet that has been discovered since the satellite was launched in April 2018.
20

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{Bio – Diseases – 19/06/04} Nipah virus .......................................................................................................................... 3

{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Ebola outbreak in Congo ...................................................................................................................................... 5

{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/20} Antimicrobial resistance (AR) ............................................................................................ 9

{Bio – Diseases – 19/08/01} Trial of new tuberculosis vaccines................................................................................... 11

{Bio – Diseases – 19/08/16} New Tuberculosis Drug Pretomanid ............................................................................... 14

{Bio – In News – 19/10/07} 2019 Physiology Nobel ..................................................................................................... 18

{Bio – In News – 19/10/11} Bombay blood group (BBG) ............................................................................................................................... 20

{Bio – In News – 19/11/04} Milk: A1, A2 ............................................................................................................................................................... 23

{Bio – In News – 19/11/21} Protein Secretagogin (SCGN) ............................................................................................................................. 23

{S&T – Biotech – 19/12/30} 'Gene-editing' scientist sentenced in China ................................................................................................ 27

{S&T – Cyber Security – 19/10/31} Pegasus spyware via WhatsApp .......................................................................... 28

{S&T – Cyber Security – 19/12/17} StrandHogg ........................................................................................................... 29

{S&T – EV – 19/09/01} Economies of EV ............................................................................................................................................................... 39

{S&T – EV – 19/11/01} EV extreme fast charging (XFC) technology .......................................................................................................... 42

{S&T – EV – 19/11/01} Li-ion battery that ‘won’t catch fire’ ......................................................................................................................... 42

{S&T – ICT – 19/06/22} 5G .............................................................................................................................................. 43

{S&T – ICT – 19/12/11} Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi) ....................................................................................................... 46

{S&T – ICT – 19/12/18} Internet-free messaging .............................................................................................................................................. 47

{S&T – Indigenization – 19/12/27} BrahMos missile’s latest upgrade ...................................................................................................... 55

{S&T – ISRO – 19/05/22} RISAT-2B radar imaging satellite launched ........................................................................ 56

{S&T – ISRO – 19/07/14} Chandrayaan-2: India’s second lunar mission .................................................................... 57

{S&T – ISRO – 19/10/09} GAGAN, GEMINI .................................................................................................................... 61

{S&T – ISRO – 19/12/11} RISAT-2BR1 ........................................................................................................................... 64

{S&T – ISRO – 24/09/19} ISRO initiates ‘Project NETRA’ ............................................................................................. 65

{S&T – Technologies – 19/05/25} Superconductor....................................................................................................... 66

{S&T – Technologies – 19/09/29} Quantum supremacy .............................................................................................. 67

{Sci – In News – 19/05/20} SI units defined in terms of natural constants ............................................................................................. 72

{Sci – In News – 19/08/22} Oxytocin ...................................................................................................................................................................... 74

{Sci – In News – 19/12/29} Avangard hypersonic ICBM ............................................................................................... 74

{Sci – Space – 19/05/01} Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) ............................................................................................ 77

{Sci – Space – 19/12/03} Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment (AIDA)................................................................ 102

{Bio – Diseases – 19/06/04} Nipah virus

The Hindu | The Hindu | 04-06-2019 | Biology > Diseases

Nipah virus infection

• The virus belongs to a new genus termed Henipavirus.

• Nipah virus infection is a zoonosis (disease transmitted from animals to humans).

• There are currently no drugs or vaccines specific for the infection.

• Real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from bodily fluids.

• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

{Bio – Diseases – 19/06/22} Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES)

Acute encephalitis syndrome (AES)

The link between hypoglycaemic encephalopathy (HE) and litchi

Are litchis the primary culprit?

Is any virus involved in causing Hypoglycaemic encephalopathy?

Measures to be taken to prevent similar health crisis in future

• Overhauling the healthcare apparatus to deal with a crisis of this magnitude.

• Children shouldn’t be allowed to skip their evening meal.

{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Ebola outbreak in Congo

Source | The Hindu | 19-07-2019 | Biology > Diseases

Ebola Virus Disease (EVD)

{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Rotavirus vaccine in UIP nationwide from September

1. {Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)

{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} UIP: Karnataka to introduce Rotavirus vaccine in UIP

{Bio – Diseases – 19/07/19} Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)

Vaccines provided under UIP

• OPV is given orally in the form of two drops.

Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine (BCG)

Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV)

• OPV stands for Oral Polio Vaccine.

• Hepatitis B vaccine protects from Hepatitis B virus infection.

Rotavirus Vaccine (RV)