Pmfias CA 2022-01-05 Geography

Geography Current Affairs Compilation by Pmfias.
com – January to May 2022
Contents
{Geo – Climatology – 2022/04} Heatwaves ........................................................................................................................3

What is a Heatwave?......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Rossby Waves.................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
{Geo – Climatology – 2022/05} Twin Cyclones and Associated Phenomena .................................................................5

What are Rossby waves?................................................................................................................................................................... 6
What is the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) ................................................................................................................................... 6
How MJO helps the formation of Twin Cyclones .............................................................................................................................. 7
{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} Designed Linked Incentive Scheme ...........................................................................8

Key Features of the Scheme.............................................................................................................................................................. 8
Components of Scheme .................................................................................................................................................................... 9
{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} SAAR Program ..............................................................................................................9

Smart cities and Academia Towards Action & Research Programme ............................................................................................. 10
Smart Cities Mission ........................................................................................................................................................................ 10
{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} Technical Textiles Mission ....................................................................................... 10

Key Features .................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
{Geo – EG – Energy – 2022/01} Jaitapur Nuclear Reactor .............................................................................................. 11

Atomic Power Plants in India .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
{Geo – EG – Infra – 2022/01} One Nation-One Grid-One Frequency: National Grid .................................................. 12
What is Grid Management? ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
What is One Frequency & its Importance? ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Power Grid Corporation of India Limited ........................................................................................................................................ 15
{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} Bharatmala Project .................................................................................................................... 15

Bharatmala Pariyojana .................................................................................................................................................................... 15
{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} Parvatmala Scheme ................................................................................................................... 16

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National Ropeways Development Programme – “Parvatmala”...................................................................................................... 16

PMF IAS – Learn Smart
{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} PM DevINE ................................................................................................................................. 17

Key Features .................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} PM Gram Sadak Yojna .............................................................................................................. 18

{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} Special Economic Zones (SEZ) ................................................................................................. 19
What is a Special Economic Zone? .................................................................................................................................................. 19
{Geo – LBT – India – 2022/03} In News Topics for Prelims ............................................................................................ 22
Pandu Port & National Waterway ................................................................................................................................................... 22
Koyna Dam ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
{Geo – LBT – India – 2022/04} Places in News for Prelims............................................................................................. 24

Osman Sagar & Himayat Sagar........................................................................................................................................................ 24
Mullaperiyar Dam ........................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Cardamon Hills ................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
{Geo – LBT – World – 2022/03} In News Topics for Prelims .......................................................................................... 27

Mes Aynak ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
{Geo – LBT – World – 2022/03} Russia – Ukraine Crisis.................................................................................................. 27

Euromaidan Movement .................................................................................................................................................................. 27
What is the Current Issue? .............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Causes Behind the Deepening Crisis ............................................................................................................................................... 28
Russia’s Demands ............................................................................................................................................................................ 29
Response from the West ................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Way Forward: Minsk Agreements................................................................................................................................................... 29
Strategic Regions ............................................................................................................................................................................. 29
Effect of Russia – Ukraine Crisis on Global Supply Chain ................................................................................................................ 32
Important Geographical Locations / Places / Features in News ..................................................................................................... 33
Some International Organisations in News ..................................................................................................................................... 38
{Geo – LBT – World – 2022/04} Places in News for Prelims .......................................................................................... 44

Mariupol .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Solomon Islands .............................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Bulgaria & Poland ............................................................................................................................................................................ 45
Al Aqsa Site...................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Whakaari/White Island ................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Nordic Region .................................................................................................................................................................................. 48
Bhashan Char Island ........................................................................................................................................................................ 48
Sea of Galilee................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
{Geo – Monsoon – 2022/04} Long Period Average - IMD Benchmark ......................................................................... 50

What is LPA – IMD Benchmark? ...................................................................................................................................................... 50
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{Geo LBT – India – 2022/01} Pangong Tso ...................................................................................................................... 51

About Pangong Tso ......................................................................................................................................................................... 51
{Geo LBT – World – 2022/01} Places in News for Prelims ............................................................................................. 52

Unrest in Kazakhstan....................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Houthi’s UAE Attacks....................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Gateway of Hell – Turkmenistan ..................................................................................................................................................... 54
Indonesia Relocating Capital ........................................................................................................................................................... 55
Volcanic Eruption in Tonga ............................................................................................................................................................. 56
{Geo LBT – World – 2022/02} Places in News for Prelims ............................................................................................. 56

Greater Maldives Ridge (GMR) ....................................................................................................................................................... 56
Razzaza Lake .................................................................................................................................................................................... 58
{Geo – Climatology – 2022/04} Heatwaves

TH | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Important Geophysical Phenomenon etc.
• Context: India is gripped in the throes of a long spell of heatwaves and there is compelling evidence that a significant
portion of it is due to human-induced climate change.
What is a Heatwave?
• A heat wave is a period of excessively hot weather.
• Heat waves are caused due to shifting of Jet Streams (Rossby Waves in the temperate region cause Heat Domes),
hot local winds like loo (affects Gangetic Plains Region), and anthropogenic causes like global warming.
Global Warming and Heat Waves

• The global average temperature increases since 1900 is around 1.3 °C, in India it has crossed 2 °C.
• As emissions continue to rise, India will suffer from heat waves more than the rest of the planet.
• IMD and the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (Pune) have established that the frequency and severity of
heatwaves have risen significantly in India over the last three decades.
• The impact of heatwaves is not limited to cities, but cities aggravate this phenomenon in the form of Urban Heat Is-
lands.
• In India Heat waves typically occur from March to June, and in some rare cases, even extend till July.
• On an average, five-six heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country.
What are favourable conditions for Heat wave?

• Transportation / Prevalence of hot dry air over a region (There should be a region of warm dry air and appropriate
flow pattern for transporting hot air over the region).
• Absence of moisture in the upper atmosphere (As the presence of moisture restricts the temperature rise).
• The sky should be practically cloudless (To allow maximum insulation over the region).
• Large amplitude anti-cyclonic flow over the area.
• Heat waves generally develop over Northwest India and spread gradually eastwards & southwards but not west-
wards (since the prevailing winds during the season are westerly to north-westerly).
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• But on some occasions, heat wave may also develop over any region in situ under the favourable conditions.
What is criterion for declaring heat wave in India by IMD?

• Heat Wave need not be considered till maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C for Plains and at least
30°C for Hilly regions.
a) Based on Departure from Normal
i. Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5oC to 6.4 0 C
ii. Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4 o C
b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature

iii. Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45 0C
iv. Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥470C
• If above criteria met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological sub-division for at least two consecutive days and it
declared on the second day.
What is the criterion for describing Heat Wave for coastal stations?
• When maximum temperature departure is 4.50C or more from normal, Heat Wave may be described provided actual
maximum temperature is 370C or more.
How India Meteorological Department (IMD) monitors the Heat wave?
• IMD has a big network of surface observatories covering entire country to measure various metrological parameters
like Temperature, Relative humidity, pressure, wind speed & direction etc.
• Based on daily maximum temperature station data, climatology of maximum temperature is prepared for the period
1981-2010 to find out normal maximum temperature of the day for particular station.
• Thereafter, IMD declared heat wave over the region as per its definition.
Rossby Waves
• The meandering jet streams are called Rossby Waves.
• These waves occur naturally in the atmosphere & oceans due to rotation of earth (Coriolis Force).
• In Rossby waves polar air moves toward the equator while tropical air moves poleward.
• A meander is called peak or ridge if it is towards poles & trough if it is towards equator.
• The existence of these waves explains the low-pressure cells (cyclones) & high-pressure cells (anticyclones).
Meandering Jet Streams or Rossby Waves

Note: To analyse this article one must know the basics of Climatology. You can refer to the below articles
• Geostrophic Wind, Jet Streams & Rossby Waves | PMF IAS
• Factors Affecting Wind movement | Coriolis Force | PMF IAS
• El Nino | ENSO | La Nina | El Nino Modoki | Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) | PMF IAS
Additional Reading: Urban Heat Island & Heat Domes (Refer to Environment 2021-22)
{Geo – Climatology – 2022/05} Twin Cyclones and Associated Phenomena

TH | DTE | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Important Geophysical Phenomena
• Context: Twin cyclones – Asani and Karim – churn in opposite directions in the Indian Ocean on May 8, 2022.
• Tropical cyclones Asani (northern hemisphere — counter-clockwise) & Karim (southern hemisphere — clockwise)
have formed at nearly the same time on opposite sides of the Equator.
• The name Karim was given by Seychelles, whereas the name Asani was suggested by Sri Lanka. (Know more about
naming tropical cyclones on PMF IAS)
• They are ‘twin’ cyclones not only because they formed at the same time in the same general area but also because
they were formed primarily from the same parent circulation: the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO).
• MJO coupled with Rossby waves helped fuel the twin storms by promoting convection.
What are Rossby waves?

• Rossby waves naturally occur in rotating fluids.
• Oceanic and atmospheric Rossby waves naturally occur largely due to the Earth's rotation.
Oceanic Rossby Waves

• Oceanic Rossby waves are huge, undulating movements of the ocean that stretch horizontally across the planet in a
westward direction. They have wavelengths of around 4,000–5,000 kilometres.
• Oceanic Rossby waves move along the thermocline (the boundary between the warm upper layer and the cold deep-
er part of the ocean).
Atmospheric Rossby Waves

• These are large horizontal atmospheric undulations that are associated with the polar front jet stream and separate
cold polar air from warm tropical air.
• These waves help transfer heat from the tropics toward the poles and cold air toward the tropics and return the at-
mosphere to balance.
• The existence of these waves explains the low-pressure cells (cyclones) and high-pressure cells (anticyclones).
How Do Rossby Waves Form a Cyclone?
(Know more about Rossby Waves on PMF IAS)
What is the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)

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The MJO is an intra-seasonal oscillation.

•
• It is a large-scale coupling between atmospheric circulation and tropical deep atmospheric convection. It is also
known as the 30-to-60-day oscillation or wave.
• The MJO acts a little like El Niño or La Niña by concentrating tropical convection or thunderstorm activity but is small-
er in scale and doesn’t remain stationary but propagates eastward.
• The effect of the MJO is witnessed mainly in the tropical region, in the band between 30 degrees North and 30 de-
grees South of the equator.
• MJO is associated with surface westerly wind bursts, deep convection, and heavy precipitation. (Read more about
MJO on PMF IAS)
How MJO helps the formation of Twin Cyclones

• The MJO provides an environment that is conducive to the birth of tropical cyclones.
• The enhanced phase of the MJO provides active thunderstorms which drive cyclonic circulation.
• Although the Source of spin is being provided by the Earth’s rotation, however, circulation pattern associated with the
MJO can further intensify the rotation.
• The other associated phenomenon related to MJO is the westerly wind burst.
• In the Tropics, trade winds blow from the east, but on the backside of the MJO air is drawn inward at low levels.
• This inward air at low levels leads to the development of low-level westerly winds along the Equator.
• When combined with easterly winds farther away on either side of the Equator, it produces a low-level environment
with enhanced rotation and ultimately helps enhanced rotation.
Prelims Practice: Consider the following statements regarding Twin Cyclones.

1) They contain the characteristics of both tropical and extratropical cyclones.
2) They are formed only in the warm tropical Indian ocean.
3) Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is the sole reason behind the origin of Twin Cyclones.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None of the above
Explanation:
• The first statement defines a Hybrid cyclone, which are generally defined by the fact that they contain characteris-
tics of the main types of cyclones: tropical and extratropical. Hence Statement 1 is incorrect.
• Twin Cyclones can originate wherever the conditions are conducive for tropical cyclones. Hence statement 2 is also
incorrect.
• Equatorial Rossby waves, Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) along with westerly wind burst are responsible for the
formation of Twin Cyclones. Hence statement 3 is also incorrect and option (d) is the correct answer.
Answer: (d)
Prelims Practice: Which of the following Geophysical Phenomena is/are responsible for Twin
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Cyclones?
1) Equatorial Rossby waves

2) Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)
3) Westerly Wind Burst
Select the correct answer using the code given below.

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) All of the above
Explanation:
• Equatorial Rossby waves, Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) along with Westerly Wind Burst are
responsible for the formation of Twin Cyclones. Hence option (d) is the correct answer.
Answer: (d)
Prelims Practise: Consider the following statements about the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO):
1) It is a large-scale coupling between atmospheric circulation and tropical deep atmospheric convection.
2) The effect of the MJO is witnessed mainly in the tropical region, in the band between 30° North and South of the
equator.
3) MJO in its active phase brings frequent cyclonic activity and can initiate the onset of the monsoon.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation:
• The MJO is an intra-seasonal oscillation and a large-scale coupling between atmospheric circulation and tropical
deep atmospheric convection.
• The MJO acts a little like El Niño or La Niña by concentrating tropical convection or thunderstorm activity but is
smaller in scale and doesn’t remain stationary but propagates eastward.
• The effect of the MJO is witnessed mainly in the tropical region, in the band between 30 degrees North and 30 de-
grees South of the equator. In the tropics, MJO in its active phase brings frequent cyclonic activity and can initiate the
onset of the monsoon. Hence all the statements are correct, and option (d) is the right answer.
Answer: (d)
{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} Designed Linked Incentive Scheme

• Context: With an overall vision to create a vibrant ecosystem for Semiconductor Chip Design in the country Design
Linked Incentive (DLI) Scheme is launched.
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• C-DAC (Centre for Development of Advanced Computing) under MeitY will serve as the nodal agency for imple-
mentation of the DLI scheme.
Key Features of the Scheme

• The scheme is part ₹76,000 crore ($10 billion) Production Linked Incentive package for semiconductors.
• Under this financial incentives & design infrastructure support will be extended to domestic companies, start-ups
and MSMEs across various stages of development.
• There will be deployment of semiconductor design for Integrated Circuits (ICs), Chipsets, System on Chips (SoCs),
Systems & IP Cores & semiconductor linked design for over a period of 5 years.
Components of Scheme
Chip Design Infrastructure Support
• C-DAC will setup the India Chip Centre to host the state-of-the-art design infrastructure.
Product Design Linked Incentive
• A reimbursement of up to 50% of the eligible expenditure subject to a ceiling of ₹15 Crore per application will be
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provided as fiscal support to the approved applicants who are engaged in semiconductor design.
Deployment Linked Incentive component

• An incentive of 6% to 4% of net sales turnover over 5 years subject to a ceiling of ₹30 Crore per application will be
provided to approved applicants.
Additional Reading: PLI Scheme for Semiconductors (Geo – Dec CA)
{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} SAAR Program

PIB | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Economic Geography > Infrastructure
• Context: Smart Cities Mission has launched “Smart Cities and Academia Towards Action & Research (SAAR)” Pro-
gram.
Smart cities and Academia Towards Action & Research Programme

• It is a joint initiative of Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs and National Institute of Urban Affairs.
• Under the program, 15 premier architecture & planning institutes of the country will be working with Smart Cities to
document landmark projects undertaken by the Smart Cities Mission.
• The documents will capture the learnings from best practices, provide opportunities for engagement on urban devel-
opment projects to students, and enable real-time information flow between urban practitioners and academia.
National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA)

• NIUA is an institute for research, training and information dissemination in urban development and management.
• It is located in New Delhi.
• It was established in 1976.
• The Institute is supported by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs.
Smart Cities Mission

• It is an urban renewal & retrofitting program launched in 2015 with the mission to develop smart cities across the
country, making them citizen friendly and sustainable.
• It is a centrally sponsored scheme.
• The Union Ministry of Urban Development is responsible for implementing the mission in collaboration with the
state governments of the respective cities.
• The mission initially included 100 cities, with the deadline for completion of the projects set between 2019 and 2023.
• Smart Cities Mission is to drive economic growth and improve the quality of life of people by enabling local area de-
velopment and harnessing technology, especially technology that leads to Smart outcomes.
{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} Technical Textiles Mission

PIB | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Economic Geography > Industry
• Context: Ministry of Textiles clears 20 Strategic Projects under the flagship programme National Technical Textiles
Mission (NTTM).
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Key Features
• National Technical Textiles Mission is for a period of 4 years (2020-21 to 2023-24) with an outlay of Rs.1480 crores.
• It aims to position the country as a global leader in technical textiles & increase the use of technical textiles in the
domestic market.
• The distribution of funds is for:
1. For Research Innovation & Development (Rs. 1000 Cr)
2. For Promotion and Market Development (Rs.50 Cr)
3. For Education, Training and Skilling (Rs. 400 Cr)
4. For Export Promotion (Rs.10 Cr)
5. Balance Rs.20 crores for administrative expenses.
What are Technical Textiles?

• Technical textiles are engineered products with a definite functionality.
• Technical means when the product is developed to meet the stringent high-performance requirements specific to a
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particular use.
• They are manufactured using natural as well as man-made fibres that exhibit enhanced functional properties such
as higher tenacity, excellent insulation, improved thermal resistance etc.

• These products find end-use application across multiple non-conventional textile industries such as healthcare, con-
struction, automobile, aerospace, sports, defence, agriculture.
{Geo – EG – Energy – 2022/01} Jaitapur Nuclear Reactor

IE | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Economic Geography
• Context: The centre has given approval for setting up of 6 nuclear power reactors at Jaitapur in Maharashtra.
• The 6 nuclear power reactors will be set up with technical cooperation from France.
• It is a proposed nuclear power plant in India.
• If built, it would be the largest nuclear power generating station in the world by net generation capacity, at 9,900 MW.
Atomic Power Plants in India

• Nuclear power is the 5th largest source of electricity in India after coal, gas, hydroelectricity and wind power.
• Nuclear power produced a total of 43 TWh in 2020-21, contributing 3.11% of total power generation in India.
• India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 7 nuclear power plants, with a total installed capacity of 7,380 MW.
• 10 more reactors are under construction with a combined generation capacity of 8,000 MW.
 Tarapur – Maharastra - It was the 1st commercial nuclear power station built in India with help of USA.
 Kalpakkam – Tamil Nadu – Only atomic power plant located in coal rich region.
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 Narora – Uttar Pradesh – Only atomic power plant used for agricultural purpose.
 Kakrapar – Gujarat – Plant built with Russian collaboration.
 Kundakulam – Tamil Nadu – Largest nuclear power generation facility & fuel is supplied by Russia.
Suggested Reading: 3 Stage Nuclear Programme
{Geo – EG – Infra – 2022/01} One Nation-One Grid-One Frequency: National Grid

PIB | PIB
• Context: POWERGRIID is commemorating landmark achievement of completion of One Nation-One Grid-One Fre-
quency.
What is Grid Management?

• An electric power system essentially consists of generating stations, transmission, distribution network & end
consumers.
• Generators: These are producers of electric power.
• Transmission network: They primarily evacuates the bulk power generated at generating stations, which finally
reaches the end consumer through the distribution lines.
• This meshed network connecting generating stations, substations and the consumer utilities forms the grid.
Evolution of Grid Management in India

• Grid management in the country, on a regional basis started in the 1960’s.
• At the beginning, state grids were interconnected to form a regional grid and India was demarcated into 5 regions
namely:
1. Northern
2. Eastern
3. Western
4. North Eastern
5. Southern regions
• With time each grid was connected to the other, to allow greater availability & transfer of power.
 In 1991: North Eastern and Eastern grids were connected.
 In 2003: Western & Eastern & North-Eastern were interconnected.
 In 2006: North & East grids were interconnected thereby 4 regional grids Northern, Eastern, Western and
North Eastern grids are synchronously connected forming central grid operating at one frequency.
 In 2013: Southern Region was connected to Central Grid (commissioning of 765 kV Raichur-Solapur Trans-
mission Line).
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What is One Frequency & its Importance?
• Frequency is the rate at which current changes direction per second.
• It is measured in hertz (Hz), an international unit of measure where 1 hertz is equal to 1 cycle per second.
• The more cycles that occur per second, the higher the frequency.
• Example: If an alternating current is said to have a frequency of 3 Hz (see diagram below), that indicates its waveform
repeats 3 times in 1 second.
• In India grid frequency always remains within the 49.90-50.05 Hz (hertz) band.
Note: Basic rule is to have a fine balance between electricity energy & demand of electricity.
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Too much electricity, low demand
• If too much electricity is fed into the grid in relation to the quantity consumed, the electrical frequency increases.
• Since power plants are designed to operate within a certain frequency range, there is a risk that they will disconnect
from the grid after a period of time.
High power demand, low electricity energy availability
• If there is less electric energy than the demand the frequency drops.
• If the frequency falls too much, the power plants switch off one after another, until there is a complete collapse of the
grid, i.e., a power blackout.
Power Grid Corporation of India Limited

• Power Grid is an Indian statutory corporation under Ministry of Power.
• It is headquartered in Gurugram.
• The organisation engages mainly in transmission of bulk power across India.
• Power Grid transmits around 50% of the total power generated in India.
{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} Bharatmala Project

PIB | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Economic Geography
Bharatmala Pariyojana
• Bharatmala Pariyojana is a new umbrella program for the highways sector.
• It focuses on optimizing efficiency of freight & passenger movement across the country.
• It will bridge critical infrastructure gaps through effective interventions like development of Economic Corridors,
Inter Corridors & Feeder Routes, Border & International connectivity roads, Coastal & Port connectivity roads &
Green-field expressways.
• The implementation of a pan-nation scheme to improve the road network.
• All key aspects of the scheme will be managed by the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MoRTH).
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Highlights of Bharatmala Pariyojana

• Improvement in efficiency of existing corridors through development of Multimodal Logistics Parks & elimination
of choke point.
• Enhance focus on improving connectivity in North East & leveraging synergies with Inland Waterways.
• Emphasis on use of technology & scientific planning for Project Preparation & Asset Monitoring
• Delegation of powers to expedite project delivery - Phase I to complete by 2022.
• Improving connectivity in the North East.
Bharatmala project Category

• Economic Corridor
• Feeder Route or Inter Corridor
• National Corridor Efficiency Improvement
• Border Road & International Connectivity
• Port Connectivity & Coastal Road
• Green Field Expressway
• Balance NHDP Works
{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} Parvatmala Scheme

• Context: A new scheme was launched in Union Budget 2022-23 named as Parvatmala Scheme.
National Ropeways Development Programme – “Parvatmala”

• Developing an efficient transport network is a big challenge in hilly areas.
• The rail and air transport networks are limited in these areas, while the development of road network has technical
challenges.
• In this backdrop, Ropeways have emerged as a convenient and safe alternate transport mode.
• The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH) is the nodal ministry.
• The project will be taken up on PPP mode, which will be a preferred ecologically sustainable alternative in place of
conventional roads in difficult hilly areas.
• The scheme is being presently started in regions like Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Jammu & Kashmir
and the other North Eastern states.
Major Factors Driving Ropeway Infrastructure

• Economical mode of transportation: Given that ropeway projects are built in a straight line over a hilly terrain, it also
results in lower land acquisition costs. Hence, despite having a higher cost of construction per km than roadways,
ropeway projects’ construction cost may happen to be economical than roadways.
• Faster mode of transportation: Owing to the aerial mode of transportation, ropeways have an advantage over road-
way projects where ropeways can be built in a straight line, over a hilly terrain.
• Environmentally friendly: Low dust emissions. Material containers can be designed so as to rule out any soiling of
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the environment.
• Last mile connectivity: Ropeway projects adopting 3S (a kind of cable car system) or equivalent technologies can
transport 6000-8000 passengers per hour.
Benefits Of Ropeways
• Ideal for difficult / challenging / sensitive terrain
• Long rope spans: The system crosses obstacles like rivers, buildings, ravines, or roads without a problem.
• Ropes guided over towers: Low space requirements on the ground, and no barrier for humans or animals.
• This mode of transportation will enable mobility to people living in difficult areas and help them become part of the
mainstream. Villagers / farmers living in such areas will be able to sell their produces in other areas, which in turn will
help them grow their income.
• Economy: Ropeway having multiple cars propelled by a single power-plant and drive mechanism. This reduces both
construction and maintenance costs. The use of a single operator for an entire ropeway is a further saving, in labour
cost. On level ground, the cost of ropeways is competitive with narrow-gauge railroads; in the mountains the ropeway
is far superior.
• Flexible: Transport of different materials - A ropeway allows for the simultaneous transport of different types of mate-
rial.
• Ability to handle large slopes: Ropeways and cableways (cable cranes) can handle large slopes and large differences
in elevation. Where a road or railroad needs switchbacks or tunnels, a ropeway travels straight up and down the fall
line. The old cliff railways in England and ski resort ropeways in the mountains take advantage of this feature.
• Low footprint: The fact that only narrow-based vertical supports are needed at intervals, leaving the rest of the
ground free, makes it possible for ropeways to be constructed in built-up areas and in places where there is intense
competition for land use.
Additional Reading: https://www.pmfias.com/sagarmala-project/
{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} PM DevINE

PIB | PIB | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Economic Geography
• Context: Prime Minister’s Development Initiative for North-East (PM-DevINE) scheme was announced in Union
Budget 2022-23.
• It aims to fund infrastructure, in the spirit of PM GatiShakti, and social development projects based on felt needs of
the North-East.
Key Features
• PM-DevINE will be implemented through the North-Eastern Council.
• An initial allocation of Rs. 1,500 crores will be made for the new scheme.
• The scheme aims to fund infrastructure and need-based social development, including one-of-a-kind ‘Bamboo Link
Roads’ in Mizoram.
Bamboo Link Roads

• Bamboo Link Roads will be constructed in Mizoram, under the PM-DevINE scheme.
• These roads will help in transporting bamboo from forests.
• It will also help in management of pediatric and adult hematolymphoid (head and neck) cancers in north-east region.
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How Mizoram will gain?

• Mizoram will gain the maximum with the launch of projects:

a) Pilot project for construction of bamboo link road.
b) Roads will be constructed at different locations in several districts of the state at a tentative cost of Rs 100
crore.
c) Construction of Aizawl By-pass for Rs 500 crore, on western side.
North-Eastern Council
• It is a statutory advisory body constituted under the North Eastern Council Act 1971.
• It functions under the Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (DONER).
• The 8 States of Northeast India:
1) Arunachal Pradesh
2) Assam
3) Manipur
4) Meghalaya
5) Mizoram
6) Nagaland
7) Tripura
8) Sikkim
• The states are members of the council, with their respective Chief Ministers and Governors representing them.
• Headquarters: Shillong
• They can discuss any matter in which the North Eastern States have a common interest and decide the action to be
taken on any such matter.
Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region

• The Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region was established in 2001.
• It functions as the nodal department of the Central Government to deal with matters related to the socio-economic
development of the eight States of Northeast India.
• It acts as a facilitator between the Central Ministries/ Departments and the State Governments of the North Eastern
Region.
• It allocates funds from the NLCPR to various Northeast states for infrastructure projects.
• Non-Lapsable Central Pool of Resources (NLCPR): is to ensure speedy development of infrastructure in the North
Eastern Region and Sikkim by increasing the flow of budgetary financing for specific viable infrastructure pro-
jects/schemes in the region.
Additional Reading: GATI Shakti (Refer to Oct Geo CA 2021)
North Eastern Special Infrastructure Development Scheme

• It is a Central Sector Scheme launched in 2017.
• Under the Scheme funding is provided to the State Governments of North Eastern Region for the projects of physical
infrastructure relating to water supply, power and connectivity enhancing tourism and Social infrastructure relating
to primary and secondary sectors of education and health.
18
{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} PM Gram Sadak Yojna

• It was launched in 2000 to provide all-weather access to unconnected habitations.

• The Ministry of Rural Development along with state governments is responsible for the implementation of PMGSY.
PMGSY - Phase I
• It aims to provide single all-weather road connectivity to eligible unconnected habitation for overall socio-
economic development of the areas.
PMGSY - Phase II
• The Phase II of PMGSY was approved during May, 2013.
• Under PMGSY phase II, the roads already built for village connectivity was to be upgraded to enhance rural infra-
structure. .
Road Connectivity Project for Left Wing Extremism Area (RCPLWEA)

• Government launched Road Connectivity Project for Left Wing Extremism affected Areas in the year 2016.
PMGSY - Phase III

• The Phase III was approved in 2019.
• It involves consolidation of Through Routes and Major Rural Links connecting habitations to Gramin Agricultural
Markets (GrAMs),
• Under the PMGSY-III Scheme, it is proposed to consolidate 1,25,000 Km Road length in the States.
• The duration of the scheme is 2019-20 to 2024-25.
{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} Special Economic Zones (SEZ)

PIB | DTE | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Economic Geography
• Context: The Special Economic Zones Act will be replaced with a new legislation that will enable the states to become
partners in Development of Enterprise and Service Hubs.
What is a Special Economic Zone?

• A special economic zone (SEZ) is an area in which the business and trade laws are different from the rest of the
country.
• SEZs are located within a country's national borders.
Background
• Special Economic Zone came in to existence because the economic reforms incorporated in the early 1990s did
not resulted in the overall growth of the Indian economy.
• The Indian manufacturing sector witnessed a sudden dip in the overall growth of the industry, during the second-half
of 1990s.
• Red tape, lengthy administrative procedures, rigid labour laws and poor physical infrastructural facilities were
the main cause of deterioration of Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) inflow in to India.
• Further, the Indian markets were not mature enough to facilitate easy entry of Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) in to
19
the Indian economic system.

Furthermore, the legal framework of Indian economy was not strong enough to prevent misuse of Indian markets by
•
the foreign investors.
• Thus, the lack of investor friendly environment in India prevented growth of Indian industry, in spite of implementa-
tion of liberal economic policy (LPG Policy).
• Therefore, SEZ Act, 2005 and SEZ Rules came into existence from 2006.
Need for SEZ
• To enhance foreign investment and provide an internationally competitive and hassle-free environment for ex-
ports.
• To promote exports from the country and realizing the need that level playing field must be made available to the
domestic enterprises and manufacturers to be competitive globally.
• SEZ are set up in order to attract foreign investors to invest in India, SEZ are brought with world class facilities, water,
electricity, roads, transport, storage etc. this foreign investment will help in economic development of our country.
• To Increase trade balance, employment, increased investment, job creation and effective administration.
• To encourage businesses to set up in the zone, financial policies are introduced.
Advanatges of SEZ
• 15-year corporate tax holiday on export profit – 100% for initial 5 years, 50% for the next 5 years and up to 50% for
the balance 5 years equivalent to profits ploughed back for investment.
• No license required for import made under SEZ units.
• Exemption from customs duty on import of capital goods, raw materials, consumables, spares, etc.
• Exemption from payment of Central Sales Tax on the sale or purchase of goods, provided that, the goods are meant
for undertaking authorized operations.
• Since SEZ units are considered as ‘public utility services’, no strikes would be allowed in such companies without giv-
ing the employer 6 weeks prior notice in addition to the other conditions mentioned in the Industrial Disputes Act,
1947.
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• Abundant supply of technically skilled as well as semi-skilled manpower.

• Well connected with network of public transport, local railways and cabs.
• Simplification of procedures and self-certification in the labour acts.

• Full authority to provide services such as water, electricity, security, restaurants, recreational, facilities within the zone
on purely commercial basis.
• Pollution free environment with proper drainage and sewage system
Disadvantages
• Loss of revenue to government: Generally, government gets huge tax from industries. But, as government is provid-
ing tax holidays for industries, it loses most of the revenue from it.
• Land grabbing: Lands are grabbed from poor and middle-class people on the pretext of development.
• Regional disparity: The places which are near to SEZs get good facilities and good infrastructure is available. This
produces disparity among places. There may be tensions prevail like new states movements.
• Loss of agricultural land: As land grabbing is going on, there are instances that fertile agriculture lands are being
taken in order to provide way for industries. This is not only keeping agriculture at stake but also food crisis may arise
in near future.
• Compensatory problems: Government provides inadequate compensation.
• Deindustrialization in existing places: SEZs attract many industrialists in other places in India and they show interest
as there is tax exemption. This process enables deindustrialization in already existed places and migration starts.
Few SEZ in India

• SEEPZ- Andheri (East), Mumbai
• Khopata- Multi-product, Mumbai
• Navi Mumbai- Multi-product, Mumbai
• Salt Lake Electronic City, West Bengal
• Manikanchan- Jems and jewelery, West Bengal
• M/S. Apiic Ltd., Naidupeta, Nellore
• Sricity Pvt. Ltd., Chittoor
• Rajiv Gandhi Technology Park, Phase-1 Chandigarh
• Surat Special Economic ZoneSachin, Surat
21
Suggested Reading: Industrial Corridor (Refer to Dec Geo CA 2021)
{Geo – LBT – India – 2022/03} In News Topics for Prelims

TH | TH
Pandu Port & National Waterway
• Context: The longest vessel ever to sail on the Brahmaputra anchored at Pandu Port after completing cargo move-
ment from Haldia via Indo-Bangladesh Protocol Route (IBPR).
Pandu Port
• The Pandu Port is the most important and the largest river port in Assam.
• This port has been developed on the bank of the Brahmaputra River.
• It falls under Dhubri-Sadiya National Waterway-2.
Important National Waterways

• National Waterway-1
 Allahabad-Haldia
 Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly River system
 1620 km
 Dhubri-Sadiya
 River Brahmaputra
 891 km
22
 Kottapuram-Kollam
West Coast canal along with Udyogmandal and Champakara Canals.

 205 km
 Kakinada-Puducherry
 Rivers Godavari and Krishna
 1078 km
 East Coast canal integrated with Brahmani and Mahanadi delta rivers.
 588 km
Koyna Dam
• It is one of the largest dams in Maharashtra.
• It is a rubble-concrete dam constructed on Koyna River.
• The main purpose of the dam is hydroelectricity with some irrigation in neighbouring areas.
• The catchment area dams the Koyna River & forms the Shivsagar Lake.
Koyna River
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• It is a tributary of the Krishna River.

• It originates in Mahableshwar (Western Maharashtra).

• Unlike most of the other rivers in Maharashtra which flow East-West direction, the Koyna river flows in the North-
South direction.
Note: Mahabaleshwar is the source of 5 rivers namely Krishna River, Koyna, Venna (Veni), Savitri, and Gayatri.
{Geo – LBT – India – 2022/04} Places in News for Prelims

IE | TH
Osman Sagar & Himayat Sagar

• Context: Environmentalists and activists are criticising the Telangana government for withdrawing an over 25-year-old
government order protecting the historic Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar reservoirs in Hyderabad, which they say
will destroy the fragile surrounding ecosystem.
Himyat Sagar
• Himayat Sagar is an artificial lake about 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Hyderabad in Telangana.
• It lies parallel to a larger artificial lake Osman Sagar.
Osman Sagar
• The Osman Sagar Lake as affectionately called 'Gandipet'.
• The reservoirs were created by building dams on the Musi (also known as Moosa or Muchkunda) river, a major tribu-
tary of the Krishna, to protect Hyderabad from floods.
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Mullaperiyar Dam
• It is a dam built at the confluence of Mullayar & Periyar rivers in Kerala.

• The dam is located in Kerala on the river Periyar, but is operated and maintained by the neighbouring state of
Tamil Nadu.
• It is located 881 m above mean sea level, on the Cardamom Hills of the Western Ghats in Thekkady, Idukki District
of Kerala.
Cardamon Hills
25
• The Cardamom Hills/Yela Mala are mountain range of southern India & part of the southern Western Ghats located
in Idukki district, Kerala.
• The name comes from the cardamom spice grown in much of the hills' cool elevation, which also supports pepper
26
and coffee.
• The boundary of Cardamom Hills extends up to
 Periyar Tiger Reserve towards the south

 Munnar high ranges in the north
 Idukki Reserve forest to west
 Mathikettan Shola National Park to its northeast
• This region is known for evergreen forests with natural undergrowth of wild cardamom.
• Cardamom is not a sun-loving crop, So, in the cardamom cultivations, the forest canopy is maintained for providing
shade while all other undergrowth is removed and replaced by cardamom giving the estates an appearance of ever-
green forest.
{Geo – LBT – World – 2022/03} In News Topics for Prelims

Mes Aynak
• It is a site 40 km southeast of Kabul, Afghanistan.
• Mes Aynak contains Afghanistan's largest copper deposit.
• The site of Mes Aynak possesses a vast complex of Buddhist monasteries, statues, stupas, homes, and market areas.
Additional Reading: Refer to Afghanistan Crisis Topic covered in Geo August 2021 CA.
{Geo – LBT – World – 2022/03} Russia – Ukraine Crisis

DTE | TH | IE | TH | IT | IE | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Economic Geography | GS2 > International Relations
• Ukraine & Russia were a part of the USSR and share hundreds of years of cultural, linguistic & familial links.
• Among the former USSR nations, Ukraine was the 2nd most powerful nation after Russia.
• The relations between the two nations were cordial from the dissolution of the USSR up until recently.
• Tensions between the two nations began in late 2013 over Ukraine’s landmark political & trade deal with the Eu-
ropean Union.
Euromaidan Movement
• Majority of the Ukrainians were angry with the then pro-Russia President Viktor Yanukovych’s decision to join the
Russia-led Eurasian Economic Union instead of the EU. Their protests were known as the Euromaidan movement.
• It saw massive clashes between the protesters and security forces that reached their peak in 2014 and led to the oust-
er of Yanukovych.
• Soon after, amid fears of growing Western influence in Ukraine, Russia decided to act by invading Crimea, which
was a part of Ukraine.
• Thereafter, Russia faced sanctions from the west owing to its action of invading Crimea.
27
What is the Current Issue?

Russia was keeping the tensions high at the Ukraine border in order to get sanctions relief & other concessions
•
from the West.
• Also, it was seeking assurances from the US that Ukraine will not be inducted into NATO.
• However, the failure of such assurance by the west, & the pro-outlook of Ukraine towards the west & NATO, gave
an excuse to Russia to conduct a special military operation on Ukraine on the pretext of "demilitarization and de-
nazification" of Ukraine.
Causes Behind the Deepening Crisis
Expansions Carried out by NATO
• Even as the Soviet Union was dissolved NATO embarked on a path of expansion. It started to pull former Warsaw
Pact states into its membership.
• Both for Russia & for the West, Ukraine acted as a crucial buffer at times of war or uncertainty. With Ukraine seeking
NATO membership, this safe buffer for Russia was fast disappearing.
Balance of Power
• Ever since Ukraine split from the Soviet Union, both Russia and the West have vied for greater influence in the country
in order to keep the balance of power in the region in their favour.
Russia Strategic Disadvantage Due to Geography

• Russia-Ukraine Crisis is also a fight to overcome geographical disadvantages faced by Russia.
• In the event of a war, the Russian navy cannot get out to the Baltic Sea either because NATO controls the Skagerrak
Strait, which connects to the North Strait.
• If Russia gets past the Skagerrak, the GIUK Gap (Greenland, Iceland, UK) in the North Sea will prevent its advance
to the Atlantic.
• Beyond Bosporus, the Aegean Sea, Mediterranean & Gibraltar Straits impede Russia’s movement to the Atlantic
Ocean or its route to the Indian Ocean via the Suez Canal.
• Its naval facility in the Syrian coastal city of Tartus is strategic but limited. 28
Russia’s Demands
• Russia has demanded a ban on further expansion of NATO that includes countries like Ukraine and Georgia that
share Russia’s borders.
• Russia asked NATO to pull back its military deployments to the 1990s level and prohibit the deployment of in-
termediate-range missiles in the bordering areas.
• Further, Russia has demanded NATO to curb its military cooperation with former Soviet republics including
Ukraine.
Response from the West

• The U.S. has ruled out changing NATO’s “open-door policy” which means, NATO would continue to induct more
members.
• The U.S. also says it would continue to offer training and weapons to Ukraine.
• The U.S. & West are imposing new economic sanctions on Russia.
Way Forward: Minsk Agreements

• A practical solution for the Russia-Ukraine situation is to revive the Minsk peace process.
• Minsk agreements were signed to stop the ongoing conflict between pro-Russian separatists & Ukraine admin-
istration in the mineral-rich Donbas region of Ukraine.
Minsk I
• Ukraine and the Russian-backed separatists agreed a 12-point ceasefire deal in the capital of Belarus in 2014.
• Its provisions included:
1. prisoner exchanges,
2. deliveries of humanitarian aid and
3. the withdrawal of heavy weapons
• The agreement quickly broke down, with violations by both sides.
Minsk II
• In 2015, an open conflict was averted after the ‘Minsk II’ peace agreement was signed, under the mediation of France
and Germany.
• Representatives of Russia, Ukraine, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the lead-
ers of two pro-Russian separatist regions signed a 13-point agreement.
• The five most important of the 13 points were, in brief:
1. An immediate and comprehensive ceasefire
2. Withdrawal of all heavy weapons by both sides
29
3. Restore full control of the state border by the government of Ukraine.

4. Withdrawal of all foreign armed formations, military equipment and mercenaries.
5. Constitutional reform in Ukraine including decentralisation, with specific mention of Donetsk and Luhansk
(paving the way for their secession from Ukraine!).
Strategic Regions
Crimea
• In 2014, Russia invaded and subsequently annexed the pro-Russian Crimean Peninsula from Ukraine.
Why is Crimea so important for Russia?
• Vladivostok, the largest Russian port on the Pacific Ocean, is enclosed by the Sea of Japan, which is dominated by
the Japanese.
• This does not just halt the flow of trade into and out of Russia; it prevents the Russian fleet from operating as a global
power, as it does not have year-round access to the world’s most important sea lanes.
• Moreover, most of the Russian ports, even when open for business, do not allow for easy access to the Mediterranean
Sea.
• This has left Russia with a commercial and military incentive to expand in warmer water. Hence, the port in Crimea.
Sevastopol Port
• Warm-water ports are important to Russian security because they enable Russia to control the sea, project power,
maintain good order, and observe a maritime consensus.
• The Port of Sevastopol is considered a key hold for maritime routes between the Black Sea & Sea of Marmara, and,
therefore, the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.
• The port is one of the few warm deep-water ports available to Russia in the Black Sea.
• Also, the Russian Black Sea Fleet is situated in Sevastopol & its presence in the area gives Russia a military ad-
vantage and it can carry out tactical manoeuvres (as it did in the Georgian-Russian conflict).
• Its importance has grown since the Syrian conflict because losing the Tartus fleet in Syria would mean having only one
warm-water port in Sevastopol.
30
Donbass Region
• Russia officially announced independence of the Donetsk and Luhansk republics effectively killing the Minsk agree-
ments. Both Donetsk and Luhansk are collectively called as Donbas Region.
Significance of Region
• It is important to Russia’s current vision for Ukraine, as it contains areas controlled by Russian-backed separatist
groups. Also resource wise, Donbass region is rich in coal.
NORD Stream 1 & NORD STREAM 2

31
• Nord Stream is a set of offshore natural gas pipelines in Europe, running under the Baltic Sea from Russia to Ger-
many.
• It includes 2 projects:
1. Nord Stream 1: Running from Vyborg in north western Russia near Finland
2. Nord Stream 2: Running from Ust-Luga in north western Russia near Estonia.
Who is against Nord Stream 2?

• The US and UK, along with Russia's neighbours Poland and Ukraine, strongly oppose Nord Stream 2.
• They fear that if were to start operating, it would give Russia even more of a stranglehold over gas supplies to Europe.
Effect of Russia – Ukraine Crisis on Global Supply Chain

• Russia-Ukraine crisis will affect the Global Supply Chain in near future. Shortages & price increases of goods & ser-
vices will eventually impact countries & could stoke social unrest.
Disrupted Ukraine Exports

• Ukraine is long known as the breadbasket of Europe. Ukraine has high quality soil on its eastern, south-eastern part,
which made Ukraine the largest crop producing country in Europe.
• It accounts for more than 25% of the world’s trade in wheat and for more than 60% of global sunflower oil & 30%
of global barley exports.
• It sends more than 40% of its wheat & corn exports to the Middle East or Africa.
• Some 45%-54% of the world's semiconductor grade neon, critical for the lasers used to make chips, come from the
Ukrainian firms, which are now shut following the attack by Russia. The stoppage casts a cloud over the worldwide
output of chips already in short supply after the coronavirus pandemic.
Disrupted Russian Exports

• Russia is the world’s largest supplier of wheat.
• Russia is also a major global exporter of fertilizers.
• Europe gets nearly 40% of its natural gas & 25% of its oil from Russia.
• Russia is a significant source of many of the 35 critical minerals deemed vital to the nation’s economic and national
security interests, including 30% of the globe’s supply of platinum-group elements, 13% of titanium & 11% of
nickel.
32
• Russia is also a major source of neon, used for etching circuits on silicon wafers.
• Russia exports rare metals like palladium to make semiconductors.
What is Palladium?
• Palladium is a rare metal that is used as an alternative to gold in making various devices as the metal is highly
malleable & resistant to corrosion.
• Applications: Automobile makers, electronics manufacturers, and biomedical device production.
• Russia and South Africa are the two largest producers of palladium.
Important Geographical Locations / Places / Features in News
Ukraine
• Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe.

• Ukraine share borders with:
 Belarus to the north
 Russia to the east
 Sea of Azov & Black Sea to the south
 Moldova & Romania to the southwest
 Hungary, Slovakia & Poland to the west
• The capital is Kyiv (Kiev), located on the Dnieper River.
• The most notable rivers of Ukraine include the Dnieper, Dniester, Southern Buh & Siversky Donets.
• Most of the rivers of Ukraine drain into the Black Sea & Azov Sea that belong to the bigger Mediterranean basin
(flow in a southerly direction).
• Important Cities: Kyiv, Kharkiv, Odessa, Donbass Region, Mykolaiv, Mariupol, Simferopol, etc.
Carpathian Mountains
These are the range of mountains forming an arc across Central & Eastern Europe.
33
•
• Roughly 1,500 km long, it is the 3rd longest European mountain range after the Urals & Scandinavian Mountains.
• Countries covered by range:

 Czech Republic
 Austria
 Slovakia
 Poland
 Ukraine
 Romania (50%)
 Serbia
• The highest range within the Carpathians is known as the Tatra mountains in Slovakia and Poland.
Sea of Azov
• It is a sea in Eastern Europe connected to the Black Sea by the narrow Strait of Kerch.
• It is sometimes regarded as a northern extension of the Black Sea.
• The sea is bounded by:
 Russia on the southeast
 Ukraine on the northwest
• The main rivers flowing into it are the Don & Kuban.
• The Sea of Azov is an internal sea with passage to the Atlantic Ocean going through the Black, Marmara, Aegean
and Mediterranean seas.
• The narrowness of the Kerch Strait limits the water exchange with the Black Sea. As a result, the salinity of the Sea of
Azov is low.
• Many rivers flowing into the Sea of Azov form bays, lagoons and limans.
• The sand, silt and shells they bring are deposited in the areas of reduced flow, that is the sides of the bays, forming
narrow sandbanks called “spits”.
• Ports located along the Sea of Azov are Berdyansk, Mariupol, Taganrog & Yeysk.
Black Sea
• Black Sea is a marginal Mediterranean Sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia
34
• It lies:
 East of the Balkan Peninsula (Southeast Europe)
 South of the East European Plain in Eastern Europe

 West of the Caucasus
 North of Anatolia in Western Asia.
• It is supplied by major rivers principally the Danube, Dnieper & Don.
• Major mountain ranges: Pontic Mountains (South), Caucasus Mountain (East) & Crimean Mountains (North).
• Important cities along the coast include Istanbul, Odessa, Varna, Samsun, Sochi, Sevastopol, Constanța, Trabzon,
Novorossiysk, Burgas, Batumi, etc.
• Countries bordering Black Sea:
1) Bulgaria
2) Georgia
3) Romania
4) Russia
5) Turkey
6) Ukraine
• It ultimately drains into the Mediterranean Sea, via the Turkish Straits & the Aegean Sea.
• The Bosporus Strait connects it to the small Sea of Marmara which in turn is connected to the Aegean Sea via the
Strait of the Dardanelles.
• To the north, the Black Sea is connected to the Sea of Azov by the Kerch Strait.
• There is a significant absence of oxygen in the water.
Montreaux Convention
• According to the 1936 Montreux Convention, Turkey has control over both the Bosporus & Dardanelles straits
(Turkish Straits).
• In the event of a war, the pact gives Ankara the right to regulate the transit of naval warships and to block the
straits to warships belonging to the countries involved in the conflict.
35
Turkish Straits
• The straits create a series of passages that connect the Aegean and Mediterranean seas to the Black Sea.
Sea of Marmara
• The Sea of Marmara is an inland sea separating Asiatic & European parts of Turkey.
• It serves as a transitional zone between the Black Sea & the Mediterranean Sea.
• It is connected through:
 Bosporus Strait on the northeast with Black Sea
 Dardanelles on the southwest with the Aegean Sea.
• Bosphorus, the Dardanelles Straits and the Sea of Marmara forms a part of the Turkish Straits System.
• North Anatolian Fault which runs beneath the sea has caused several massive earthquakes in the region.
• It serves as an important navigational waterway for the transportation of petroleum & natural gas to Europe from
the western part of Asia & Russia.
• Some of the important coastal towns & cities that are located along the Sea of Marmara include Istanbul, Izmit,
Balikesir, Yalova, Tekirdag, Bursa, & Çanakkale.
• Marmara Island is Turkey’s second-largest island as well as the largest island in the Marmara Sea. It is also a rich
source of marble.
Caspian Sea
• The Caspian Sea is the world's largest inland body of water.
• The Caspian Sea, like the Black Sea, is a remnant of the ancient Paratethys Sea.
• The Caspian Sea is highly-prized for its vast oil & gas reserves
• Countries Bordering: It is bounded by Kazakhstan, Russia, Azerbaijan, Iran & Turkmenistan.
• Its main freshwater inflow comes from the Europe's longest river, the Volga, and the Ural River.
36
Baltic states (Baltics, Baltic nations)
• Baltics is a geopolitical term, typically used to group the 3 countries on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea: Estonia,
Latvia & Lithuania.
• The three countries do not form an official union but cooperate in the matters of security & defence.
• All 3 countries are members of NATO (to counter the bullying by Russia), the eurozone, the OECD, and the Europe-
an Union.
Chernobyl Nuclear Plant

• It is a closed nuclear power plant located near the abandoned city of Pripyat in northern Ukraine.
• The plant experienced a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986.
• The explosion and fire at the Chernobyl No. 4 reactor contaminated the soil, water and atmosphere with radioactive
material equivalent to that of 20 times the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Red Forests in Ukraine
37
• The Red Forest is the 10 sq.km area surrounding the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.
• The name "Red Forest" comes from the ginger-brown colour of the pine trees after they died following the ab-
sorption of high levels of radiation from the Chernobyl accident.
Some International Organisations in News

NATO
• It is an intergovernmental military alliance among 28 European and 2 North American countries.
• It was established in the aftermath of World War II in 1949.
• Headquarters: Brussels, Belgium.
• NATO constitutes a system of collective security, whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence
in response to an attack by any external party.
• Since its founding, the admission of new member states has increased the alliance from the original 12 countries to
30.
• The Partnership for Peace (PfP) is a NATO program aimed at creating trust between NATO and other states in Eu-
rope and the former Soviet Union.
38
Warsaw Pact
• Warsaw Treaty or Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, commonly known as the Warsaw Pact
(WP) was a collective defence treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland.
• It was signed between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Central and Eastern Eu-
rope.
• In was formed in 1956 in response to NATO.
• It lost its existence after USSR disintegration.
European Union (EU)

• The EU was established when the Maastricht (Netherlands) Treaty came into force in 1993.
• The EU traces its origins to the
1. European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), established by the 1951 Treaty of Paris,
2. European Economic Community (EEC), established by the 1957 Treaty of Rome
• The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states.
• Its members have a combined area of 4.2 million km2 and an estimated total population of about 44.7 crores.
• The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states
in those matters where members have agreed to act as one.
EU policies aim to ensure the
39
•
 free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market;
 enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and

 maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development.
• Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area.
Members
• The original members: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany.
• Members that have adopted the Euro: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland,
Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia & Spain.
• Members that have not adopted the Euro: Hungary, Czech Republic, Sweden, Denmark, Croatia, Romania & Bulgar-
ia.
• On 31 January 2020, the United Kingdom became the first member state to leave the EU.
• Earlier, French Algeria (Colonial Algeria), Greenland (Denmark) & Saint Barthélemy (French Overseas Territory in
the Lesser Antilles) — had left the EU.
• The only member state of the EU which is wholly outside of Europe is Cyprus, which is in Asia.
Eurasian Economic Union

• It is an economic union of post-Soviet states located in Eastern Europe, Western Asia and Central Asia.
• Treaty was signed in 2014 by the leaders of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia, and came into force in 2015.
• The EAEU encourages the free movement of goods and services and provides for common policies in the macroeco-
nomic sphere, transport, industry and agriculture, etc.
Organization for Security & Co-Operation in Europe

• It is the world’s largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization with observer status at the United Na-
40
tions.
• It is based in Vienna, Austria.
• It has 57 members spanning Europe, Asia, and North America.

• India is not a member.
• Decisions are made by consensus.
• Its mandate includes issues such as arms control, promotion of human rights, freedom of the press, and fair elec-
tions.
• It has its origins in the mid-1975 Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) held in Helsinki, Fin-
land. In 1994, CSCE was renamed the OSCE.
Normady Format of Dialogue

• Context: Amid mounting tensions with Moscow, senior diplomats from France, Germany, Russia, and Ukraine met in
Berlin in the so-called Normandy format.
• The Normandy format is a diplomatic grouping created in 2014 with the aim of finding a peaceful resolution to the
conflict following Russia’s military aggression.
• The Normandy Format talks involve 4 countries:
 Germany
 Russia
 Ukraine
 France
QUAD
• The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QSD) is a strategic security dialogue between Australia, India, Japan, and
United States that is maintained by talks between member countries.
• The dialogue was initiated in 2007 by Japanese PM.
• The dialogue was paralleled by joint military exercises, titled Exercise Malabar.
• The diplomatic and military arrangement is widely viewed as a response to increased Chinese economic and military
power. Therefore, called by some as "Asian NATO".
• During the 2017 ASEAN Summits in Manila, all four former members agreed to revive the quadrilateral alliance in or-
der to counter China militarily and diplomatically in the "Indo-Pacific" region, particularly in South China Sea.
• Quad Plus Members: New Zealand, South Korea & Vietnam (Meeting on COVID-19 Approach).
Bucharest Nine (B9)

• The Bucharest Nine or Bucharest Format was formed in 2015 in Romania.
• It is a group of 9 NATO countries in Eastern Europe that became part of the US-led military alliance after the end of
the Cold War.
• Members: Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia.
All members of the B9 are part of the European Union (EU) and NATO.
41
•
• It is also regarded as the “voice of the Eastern Flank” in the NATO alliance.
Three Seas Initiative

• The Three Seas Initiative (3SI) is a regular cooperation format that brings together 12 European Union member states
between the Adriatic Sea, the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea.
• Members: Austria, Bulgaria, Estonia, Croatia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Czech
Republic and Hungary.
• The partners of the 3SI are the United States, Germany and the European Commission.
• The initiative is designed to promote cooperation in order to contribute to economic growth and energy security, as
well as to boost cohesion and unity in Europe.
SWIFT
• SWIFT stands for The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication.
• It is a Belgian cooperative society (not intergovernmental organisation) providing services related to the execu-
tion of financial transactions and payments between banks worldwide.
• The SWIFT is a secure financial message carrier that can avoid fraudulent transactions.
• It provides a network where the data can be transferred from one bank’s branch to another. Hence it is a financial
messaging network. In other words, it transports messages from one bank to another bank.
• It provides a secure transmission channel so that the message from Bank A, reaches Bank B only, unaltered.
• However, the organization does not manage accounts on behalf of individuals or financial institutions, and it does
not hold funds from third parties.
• It also does not perform clearing or settlement functions.
• After payment has been initiated, it must be settled through a payment system.
SWIFT CODE
• SWIFT uses SWIFT codes, which help in identifying the financial institution because SWIFT provides a unified and
independent code to each member institution.
• Encryption is added when the message is sent, which secures the message’s transfer, and it is then decrypted when
the message is reached to the receiver.
• Whenever there is a banking transaction, SWIFT assigned a unified and standardized code to the financial institution
entering into the transaction, which is either an 8-digit code or an 11-digit code.
• It is an alphabetical number containing information identifying the banks and the branches based on a standardized
42
format.
How Does this Work?

• Let’s suppose a person has a bank account in one bank, and he needs to transfer the money to another person having
a bank account in another bank in another country.
• In that case, the first person is required to walk into his bank with the account number of another person & its unique
SWIFT code.
• The bank will send a SWIFT message for a payment transfer via a secured network.
• Once the other bank receives the SWIFT message of incoming payment, it will clear the credit into another person’s
bank account.
Importance
• SWIFT ensures the faster transfer of information from one bank to another bank regardless of whether both the
banks are in the same country or not.
• It provides a secure network & uses encryption & decryption technology.
• It provides the highest level of integrity and confidentiality to the user, which is proved by its world renounce.
43
{Geo – LBT – World – 2022/04} Places in News for Prelims
IE | TG | Source1 | TH | TH | DH | DTE
Mariupol
• Context: Mariupol, which is part of the industrial region in eastern Ukraine known as the Donbas, has been a key
Russian objective since the Feb. 24 invasion began.
Significance of Mariupol
• Capturing the city would allow the establishment of a land corridor from Russia's border to Ukraine's Crimean
Peninsula that Moscow annexed in 2014.
• If Mariupol becomes a part of Russian controlled territory, that means that over 80% of Ukraine’s black sea coastline
will now be controlled by Russia, meaning that Ukraine’s maritime trade will be affected and they will not be able to
contact with the outside world because this area will be under the Russian control.
• Mariupol is a very important port since it is very deep & biggest port in the Azov Sea region and that is why it is a
home of major iron and steel works.
• It is mainly an export hub for steel iron, coal, and even agricultural products such as corn from Ukraine. If this port
is under the control of Russia, that means that the Ukrainian economy will start to cripple very soon.
Solomon Islands
• Context: The US government has warned Solomon Islands it will “respond accordingly” if its security agreement with
China leads to a Chinese military presence in the Pacific Island nation.
Solomon Islands
44
• It is a sovereign country consisting of six major islands and over 900 smaller islands in Oceania, to the east of Papua
New Guinea and northwest of Vanuatu.

• Capital: Honiara (located on the largest island, Guadalcanal).
Bulgaria & Poland
• Context: Russian energy company Gazprom has stopped gas supplies to Bulgaria and Poland citing their failure to
pay in roubles.
Bulgaria
• It is a country in Southeast Europe.
• It occupies the whole eastern part of the Balkans.
• It is bordered by:
 Romania to the north
 Serbia and North Macedonia to the west
 Greece and Turkey to the south
 Black Sea to the east
• Capital: Sofia
• Other major cities are Plovdiv, Varna and Burgas.
• Topographical features: Danubian Plain, the Balkan Mountains, the Thracian Plain, and the Rila-Rhodope mas-
sif.
Poland
45
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 46
• It is a country in Central Europe.
• Capital: Warsaw
• Other major cities include Kraków, Łódź, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk, and Szczecin.
• Poland's territory extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudeten and Carpathian Mountains in the south.
• The country is bordered by:
 Lithuania and Russia to the northeast
 Belarus and Ukraine to the east
 Slovakia and the Czech Republic to the south
 Germany to the west
• Poland also shares maritime boundaries with Denmark and Sweden.
Al Aqsa Site
• Context: Recently, once again tensions flared at Jerusalem’s al-Aqsa Site.
Al Aqsa Site
• It is located in the Old City of Jerusalem, is the third holiest site in Islam.
• The mosque was built on top of the Temple Mount, known as the Al Aqsa Compound or Haram esh-Sharif in Islam,
several decades after Muhammad's death.
Jerusalem
• It is a city in Western Asia.
• It is situated on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean & Dead Sea.
• The city straddles the Green Line between Israel and the West Bank.
• Both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital.
47
Suggested Reading: Israel – Palestine Conflict (Covered in Geo May 2021 CA)
Whakaari/White Island
• It is New Zealand’s most active cone volcanoes.
• About 70% of the volcano lies under the sea while the Island forms the tip of the volcano.
• It is on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand, in the Bay of Plenty.
Nordic Region
• The Nordic countries are a geographical and cultural region in Northern Europe and the North Atlantic.
• It includes the sovereign states of:
a) Denmark
b) Finland
c) Iceland
d) Norway
e) Sweden
f) Faroe Islands and Greenland
g) Åland
• The Nordic countries have much in common in their way of life, history, religion and social structure.
• They have a long history of political unions and other close relations but do not form a singular entity today.
• The climate in the Nordic countries is mainly influenced by their northern location, but remedied by the vicinity to the
ocean and the Gulf Stream which brings warm ocean currents from the tip of Florida.
Bhashan Char Island

48
• Context: The Bhashan Char Island has been in news recently for Rohingya refugees moving to the island in the Bay
of Bengal from Bangladesh refugee camps.
• Bhashan Char is an island of Bangladesh.

• It is located in the Bay of Bengal, 37 miles from the coast.
• The Island was formed with Himalayan silt in 2006.
Sea of Galilee
• It is the lowest freshwater lake (209 m below sea level) on Earth & the second-lowest lake in the world (after
the Dead Sea, a saltwater lake).
• The lake lies in northern Israel, between the occupied Golan Heights & the Galilee region.
• It is fed by underground springs but its major source is the Jordan river.
• The lake, also known as Lake Tiberias or Kinneret.
• It rose to 209.905 metres below sea level recently due to heavy rainfall in the surrounding areas.
• The Jordan flows into the lake & then exits it before ending in the Dead Sea, the saltiest & the lowest point on the
planet.
• It is Israel’s largest freshwater body.
49
{Geo – Monsoon – 2022/04} Long Period Average - IMD Benchmark
IE | Prelims + Mains | GS1 > Climatology
• Context: The IMD's has predicted of a normal monsoon this season as based on the LPA of the 1971-2020 period.
What is LPA – IMD Benchmark?

• IMD brands the monsoon as ‘normal’ or ‘deficient’ based on how it fares against its benchmark Long Period Aver-
age (LPA).
• LPA is the average rainfall received by the country as a whole during the south-west monsoon, for a 50-year period.
• The current LPA is 89 cm, based on the average rainfall over years 1951 and 2000.
• This acts as a benchmark against which the rainfall in any monsoon season is measured.
• The country is said to have received deficient rainfall if the actual rainfall falls below 90% of LPA.
• Similarly, the country is said to have received excess rainfall if the rainfall is greater than 110% of LPA.
• It is deemed ‘normal’ when the actual rainfall received falls between 96 and 104 % of LPA.
50
Why is it important?
• The LPA uses a 50-year average because annual rainfall can be highly variable.
• A 50-year average is expected to smooth out the day-to-day, month-to-month variations, while also accounting for
freak weather events like the El Nino and La Nina.
• Once in every three or four years, Indian monsoons have witnessed aberrations such as severe drought, flooding and
storms owing to El Nino.
• The actual distribution of those 89 cm of rainfall over India’s key growing regions and over the critical sowing months
(called spatial and temporal distribution), plays a key role too.
{Geo LBT – India – 2022/01} Pangong Tso

TH
• Context: China is constructing a bridge in Eastern Ladakh connecting the North and South Banks of Pangong Tso
which would significantly bring down the time for People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to move troops and equipment be-
tween the two sectors.
About Pangong Tso

• In the Ladakhi language, Pangong means extensive concavity, and Tso is lake in Tibetan.
• Pangong Tso is a long narrow, deep, endorheic (landlocked) saline lake situated at a height of more than 14,000 ft
in the Ladakh Himalayas.
• The western end of Tso lies 54 km to the southeast of Leh.
• The 135 km-long lake sprawls over 604 sq km in the shape of a boomerang, and is 6 km wide at its broadest point.
• 1/3rd of water body, its 45 km stretch, is in Indian control while the rest of the 90 km is under Chinese control.
• The brackish water lake freezes over in winter, and becomes ideal for ice skating and polo.
Tactical significance of the Lake

• By itself, the lake does not have major tactical significance.
• But it lies in the path of the Chushul approach, one of the main approaches that China can use for an offensive into
Indian-held territory.
• Indian assessments show that a major Chinese offensive, if it comes, will flow across both the north and south of the
lake.
51
{Geo LBT – World – 2022/01} Places in News for Prelims
IE | TH | IE | TH | IE | TE
Unrest in Kazakhstan
• Context: The 2022 Kazakh unrest was a series of massive protests that began in Kazakhstan after a sudden sharp in-
crease in liquefied gas prices.
• The protests began peacefully in the oil-producing city of nation's largest city Almaty, which saw its demonstrations
turn into violent riots.
Kazakhstan
• It is a country located mainly in Central Asia.
• It borders:
 Russia in the north and west
 China in the east
 Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan & Turkmenistan in the south.
• The capital is Nur-Sultan, formerly known as Astana.
• Almaty is Kazakhstan's largest city.
• Kazakhstan is the world's largest landlocked country.
• It is one of only two landlocked countries in the world that has territory in two continents (the other is Azerbai-
jan).
The highest peak in the country is Khan Tengri.
52
•
• The coastlines of the Caspian Sea are shared by:
Azerbaijan

 Iran
 Kazakhstan
 Russia
 Turkmenistan
Houthi’s UAE Attacks
• Context: Houthi rebels have in recent weeks launched several drone and missile attacks on the United Arab Emirates
(a member of a Saudi-led coalition) fighting the armed group in Yemen.
• In response, the coalition has stepped up attacks in Saada province, northern Yemen and the Houthi-controlled capi-
tal, Sanaa.
Who are Yemen’s Houthi rebels?

• The Houthis are armed group known as Ansar Allah & are supported by Iran.
• It was founded in the 1990s.
• Slogan of Houthi’s is “God is great, death to America, death to Israel, curse on the Jews, victory to Islam.
• It came to prominence after seizing control of Saada province in early 2014.
• They later moved southwards to seize Sanaa, forcing Yemen’s President to flee into exile.
• In 2015, a Saudi-led coalition supported by United States intervened militarily (For helping Yemen president) in a
bid to fight the Houthis & reverse Iranian influence in the region.
• The fighting has since killed hundreds of thousands of Yemenis & triggered what the United Nations says is the
world’s worst humanitarian crisis.
53
• The Houthis have over the years launched multiple missile and drone attacks on neighbouring Saudi Arabia.
What role has the UAE played in Yemen’s war?
• UAE is a part of Saudi Led Coalition & were fighting Houthis for control of the Red Sea port city of Hodeidah.
• After that UAE gradually reduced its military presence in Yemen since 2019 until now when it re-started fighting.
• UAE backed Giants Brigades (a pro-government militia largely comprised of southern Yemenis) forced the Houthis
out of Shabwah governorate.
• Analysts say the Giants Brigades & UAE military support has caused the Houthis to strike against the UAE.
Gateway of Hell – Turkmenistan
• Context: Turkmenistan President has ordered experts to find a way to extinguish a fire in a huge natural gas crater
known as the ‘Gateway to Hell’.
• It is also known as Darvaza gas crater.
• It is in the middle of the Karakum Desert, about 260 kilometres north of Ashgabat (capital of Turkmenistan).
54
Indonesia Relocating Capital
• Context: Indonesia will relocate its capital from Jakarta to Nusantara.
• Indonesia will move its capital to mineral-rich East Kalimantan, an Indonesian province on the island of Borneo.
Why was the Shift Necessary?

• The shift in the capital is being made due to the massive environmental challenges faced by Jakarta city that suffers
from frequent flooding.
• The northern part of the city has been sinking at an estimated 25 cm a year.
• The concerns, however, are more than environmental.
• Redistribution of wealth is also an important objective of this shift.
• Java, the island consisting of Jakarta, houses 60% of the whole country's population.
• More than 50% of the country's economic activity takes place in Java, while Kalimantan is almost four times the size of
the former.
• A shift in the capital, therefore, aims to ease the burden of human activity on Jakarta and Java.
55
Volcanic Eruption in Tonga
• Context: Hunga-Tonga-Hunga-Ha'apai volcano has erupted regularly over the past few decades.
• It is an undersea volcanic eruption consisting of 2 small uninhabited islands called Hunga-Ha’apai & Hunga-
Tonga.
• The Tonga Islands occur along the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Additional Reading: Volcanoes | Earthquakes
{Geo LBT – World – 2022/02} Places in News for Prelims

PIB | IE
Greater Maldives Ridge (GMR)

• Context: In a recent study, an Indian researcher traced the tectonic evolution & the nature of the Greater Maldive
Ridge (GMR).
Greater Maldives Ridge

• The Maldive Ridge is an aseismic ridge (not associated with earthquake activities).
• It is located in the western Indian Ocean, southwest of India, is not well investigated.
• The peaks of the Maldive Ridge rise above the water, forming coral islands (atolls) - the Laccadive Islands, Maldive
Islands, and Chagos Archipelago.
• It is of paramount importance to gain knowledge on the structure and geodynamics of aseismic ridges (as it pro-
vides valuable inputs towards understanding the evolution of ocean basins).
Relevance of the Study

• The study can help reconstruct the original Gondwanaland break up and dispersal that led to present-day configu-
56
ration of continents, continental fragments, and formation of ocean basins in the Indian Ocean.
• The ridge largely remains uninvestigated and is of paramount importance to gain knowledge on the structure and
geodynamics of these structures.
What did the team find?

• The team found that, Maldive Ridge might have formed in close vicinity of Mid-Oceanic Ridge, where new ocean
floor is created due to divergent motion of spreading centre or lithospheric plates.
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges
• A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depression. [Divergent Bounda-
ry]
• The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s surface.
• Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these ridges form the largest mountain systems on earth.
• These ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gently sloping or in the form of steep-sided narrow mountains.
• These oceanic ridge systems are of tectonic origin and provide evidence in support of the theory of Plate Tectonics.
• Iceland, a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
57
Additional Reading: https://www.pmfias.com/indian-islands-andaman-and-nicobar-islands-lakshadweep-
islands-new-moore-island/
Razzaza Lake
• Context: Due to the salts and the changing water levels, this largest freshwater lake in Iraq has lost its important stock
of fish species and only a few recreational areas exist around the lake.
Lake Milh/Razzaza Lake

• It is located west of Iraq.
• It is a depression into which excess water from Lake Habbaniyah, which comes from the Euphrates River, is diverted
58
through a controlled escape channel or canal.

Iraq
• It is a country in Western Asia.
• It is bordered by:
 Turkey to the north
 Iran to the east
 Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast
 Saudi Arabia to the south
 Jordan to the southwest
 Syria to the west.
• The capital and largest city is Baghdad.
• During ancient times, lands that now constitute Iraq were known as Mesopotamia (“Land Between the Rivers”).
• It encompasses the:
 Mesopotamian Alluvial Plain
 Northwestern end of the Zagros Mountain range
 Eastern part of the Syrian Desert.
• Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf.
59

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Geography Current Affairs Compilation by Pmfias.

com – January to May 2022

{Geo – Climatology – 2022/04} Heatwaves ........................................................................................................................3

{Geo – Climatology – 2022/05} Twin Cyclones and Associated Phenomena .................................................................5

{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} Designed Linked Incentive Scheme ...........................................................................8

{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} SAAR Program ..............................................................................................................9

{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} Technical Textiles Mission ....................................................................................... 10

{Geo – EG – Energy – 2022/01} Jaitapur Nuclear Reactor .............................................................................................. 11

{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} Bharatmala Project .................................................................................................................... 15

{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} Parvatmala Scheme ................................................................................................................... 16

National Ropeways Development Programme – “Parvatmala”...................................................................................................... 16

{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} PM DevINE ................................................................................................................................. 17

{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} PM Gram Sadak Yojna .............................................................................................................. 18

{Geo – LBT – India – 2022/04} Places in News for Prelims............................................................................................. 24

{Geo – LBT – World – 2022/03} In News Topics for Prelims .......................................................................................... 27

{Geo – LBT – World – 2022/03} Russia – Ukraine Crisis.................................................................................................. 27

{Geo – LBT – World – 2022/04} Places in News for Prelims .......................................................................................... 44

{Geo – Monsoon – 2022/04} Long Period Average - IMD Benchmark ......................................................................... 50

{Geo LBT – India – 2022/01} Pangong Tso ...................................................................................................................... 51

About Pangong Tso ......................................................................................................................................................................... 51

{Geo LBT – World – 2022/01} Places in News for Prelims ............................................................................................. 52

{Geo LBT – World – 2022/02} Places in News for Prelims ............................................................................................. 56

{Geo – Climatology – 2022/04} Heatwaves

Global Warming and Heat Waves

What are favourable conditions for Heat wave?

What is criterion for declaring heat wave in India by IMD?

b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature

How India Meteorological Department (IMD) monitors the Heat wave?

Meandering Jet Streams or Rossby Waves

{Geo – Climatology – 2022/05} Twin Cyclones and Associated Phenomena

What are Rossby waves?

Oceanic Rossby Waves

Atmospheric Rossby Waves

How Do Rossby Waves Form a Cyclone?

(Know more about Rossby Waves on PMF IAS)

What is the Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO)

The MJO is an intra-seasonal oscillation.

How MJO helps the formation of Twin Cyclones

Prelims Practice: Consider the following statements regarding Twin Cyclones.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1) Equatorial Rossby waves

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} Designed Linked Incentive Scheme

mentation of the DLI scheme.

Key Features of the Scheme

Product Design Linked Incentive

Deployment Linked Incentive component

{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} SAAR Program

Smart cities and Academia Towards Action & Research Programme

National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA)

Smart Cities Mission

{Geo – EG – Schemes – 2022/01} Technical Textiles Mission

What are Technical Textiles?

as higher tenacity, excellent insulation, improved thermal resistance etc.

{Geo – EG – Energy – 2022/01} Jaitapur Nuclear Reactor

Atomic Power Plants in India

{Geo – EG – Infra – 2022/01} One Nation-One Grid-One Frequency: National Grid

What is Grid Management?

Evolution of Grid Management in India

Too much electricity, low demand

Power Grid Corporation of India Limited

{Geo – Infra – 2022/02} Bharatmala Project