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Importance and Analytical Perspective of Green Synthetic Strategies of Copper,

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Current Analytical Chemistry, 2021, 17, 1-13 1

REVIEW ARTICLE

Importance and Analytical Perspective of Green Synthetic Strategies of

Copper, Zinc, and Titanium Oxide Nanoparticles and their Applications in
Pathogens and Environmental Remediation

Sagar Panhwar1, Jamil A. Buledi1*, Dadu Mal, Amber R. Solangi1, Aamna Balouch1 and Ali Hyder1

1
National Centre of Excellence in Analytical Chemistry, University of Sindh, 76080 Jamshoro, Pakistan

ARTICLE HISTORY
Received: August 17, 2020
Revised: October 05, 2020
Accepted: October 14, 2020
DOI:
10.2174/1573411017999201125124513
Keywords: Green synthesis, CuO, ZnO, TiO2, nanostructure, anti-microbial, anti-cancer, photocatalytic degradation.
Abstract: Background: Nanotechnology is a promising field of science which deals with the pro-
duction and utilization of material under nanoscale dimensions. The nanoscale regime provides
exceptional applications in various fields of science due to its large surface to volume ratio and
many valuable properties. Hence, the production and use of nanomaterials are the prominent areas
of modern research. Amongst the nanomaterials, metal oxide NPs have gained much attention due
to their vast number of applications in different areas, including electrochemical applications, dye
degradation, catalysis, and are known to be the exceptional entities in the battle against different
pathogens. The metal oxides are viably synthesized through chemical methods that require the use
of many noxious chemicals. Henceforth, it is the demand of the modern world to carry out research
on the synthesis of metal oxide nanomaterials through eco-friendly, greener, and non-toxic routes.
Thus, various green methods are employed to engineer the metal oxide NPs by using different
greener, cheaper, and eco-friendly sources, employing the use of plant extracts, bacteria, fungi and
other biological bodies. The present review covered the green synthesis of CuO, ZnO, TiO2 NPs
and their applicability towards different pathogens and environmental remediation reported from
the year 2015 to date.
Objective: The exceptional catalytic properties, environmental, and anti-microbial applications of
metal oxide, especially CuO, ZnO, TiO2, are the main highlights of this review articles. The most
cost-effective and greener routes for the synthesis of CuO, ZnO, TiO2, are discussed in the present
review. To date, various green synthetic methods for the preparation of mentioned nanoparticles
and their applicability towards different pathogens and degradation of different hazardous dyes
with some electrochemical applications has been thoroughly covered in this review.
Conclusion: The biosynthesis of metal oxide NPs using greener and eco-friendly approaches have
been the attentive area in the last decade. Green synthesis requires chemical-free active components
from biological sources, which act as both the reducing and stabilizing agent for the size and shape-
controlled production of NPs. The future vision of bacterial, fungal, and plant-mediated production
of NPs includes the postponement of laboratory-based work to a large industrial scale, exposition
of different phytochemicals involved in the biosynthesis of NPs using bioinformatics techniques
and stemming the real mechanism involved in preventing the growth of pathogenic bacteria, fungi,
and algae. The plant-mediated NPs can have diverse applications in the arena of pharmaceutical,
food, and cosmetic industries, and thus, became a vital area of modern research.

1. INTRODUCTION constructing the materials which have size and dimension in

nanometer range but it gives a thorough, rapid, inexpensive
A modern era of research is the science of small or very
controlled structure of matter with numerous shapes and
smaller entities, which usually commenced under the
morphologies as these are prominent aspects while determin-
nanoscale range and the term used for these kinds of sub-
ing their properties [1]. A key factor while constructing the
stances is generally known as nanotechnology. Nanotechnol-
nanomaterials are metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs), which
ogy is primarily a name of not only the small materials or
manifested an excellent and phenomenal application in di-
verse fields, such as medicine, drug delivery, photocatalysts,
*
Address correspondence to this author at the National Centre of Excellence electronics, agriculture, tumor therapy, superconductors,
in Analytical Chemistry, University of Sindh, 76080 Jamshoro, Pakistan; sensors, electrochemical, optical sensors, catalytic, solar en-
Tel: +923073725332; E-mail: kjamil234@gamil.com

1573-4110/21 $65.00+.00 © 2021 Bentham Science Publishers

2 Current Analytical Chemistry, 2021, Vol. 17, No. 00
ergy transformation, gas sensors, magnetic resistance materi-
als, semiconductor material, solar water splitting and photo-
catalytic degradation of dyes [2]. Amongst the metal oxide
nanoparticles, the chief metal oxide viz CuO, ZnO, and TiO 2
NPs have outstanding properties as anti-bacterial, anti-
cancer, antiviral, and antioxidants [3]. The metal oxides are
feasibly synthesized through various chemical and physical
processes, such as co-precipitation, sol-gel, microwave irra-
diation, solid-state reaction, precipitation pyrolysis, electro-
chemical method, thermal decomposition of precursors, and
sonochemical [4]. However, these methods are reliable and
provide suitable yield but face a number of limitations as
they are not cost-effective, consume more potential and haz-
ardous chemicals, are toxic, and synthesis procedures are not
environment-friendly [5]. To reduce the toxic risk of hazard-
ous chemicals, several experimental studies have been re-
ported to create an innovative and greener root for the syn-
thesis of metal oxide nanostructures by exploiting various
biological and plant-mediated resources to produce well dis-
persed, well homogenized, smaller sized, highly discerning,
and effective metal oxide NPs [6]. The utilization of green
techniques, closed reactors, nonpolar and non-toxic solvents,
hydrothermal, low temperature, and magnetic microwave-
based green synthesis methods for metal oxides are highly
encouraged. Green synthesis of nanomaterials represents an
outstanding and ground-breaking protocol in the latest area
of nanotechnology that is probably crafted by using different
plant extracts [7], biodegradable polymers [8], sugar [9],
microorganisms [10], and vitamins [11], which acted as re-
ducing, capping and stabilizing agents in the formation of
metal oxide NPs with suitable morphologies and structures.
While a research survey proved that plant-mediated con-
struction of nanomaterials stands for better properties and is
also most appropriate for synthesizing the nanomaterials via
greener way at a larger scale as well [12]. Therefore, the fab-
rication of metal oxide NPs through the biosynthesis route is
considered as the building block for upcoming generations
by applying these green synthesized nanomaterials in diverse
fields. The synthesis of metal oxide NPs needed following
secondary metabolites e.g., alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids
and phenolic acids, which are naturally present in an exces-
sive amount in various medicinal plants. These metabolites
are usually intricated in redox reactions to synthesize eco-
friendly nanosized metal oxide NPs [13]. A wide range of
plant species has been utilized for the fabrication of metal
oxide nanoparticles, specially CuO, ZnO and TiO2 NPs.
The aim of the present work is to provide treasured in-
formation about the green synthetic routes of selective metal
oxide, especially CuO, ZnO and TiO2 NPs, and their poten-
tial applications, such as anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, antiviral,
antioxidant, along with some electrochemical applications.
2. GREEN SYNTHESIS OF COPPER OXIDE NPS AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS
The emerging science focuses on producing metal oxide
nanomaterial with several applications through cheaper and
greener routes and to lessen the use of toxic chemical, haz-
ardous nonpolar solvents, reducing, and capping agents [14].
Panhwar et al.
The most prominent metal oxide, which is of interest for
probably every researcher, is copper oxide (CuO). The CuO
is well known for its various potential applications due to its
discerning properties e.g., electron correlation effect, spin
dynamic, thermal superconductivity, antioxidant, and drug
delivery agents in biomedical fields [15]. While looking at
the potential practicalities, several publications have been
reported for the green synthesis of CuO NPs via biogenic or
plant-mediated routes. Herein [16], Saif, S. et al., has devel-
oped a greener route for the synthesis of CuO NPs based on
Pterospermum acerifolium leaves and compared the toxicity
between plant-mediated and engineered CuO. The CuO NPs
fabricated through P. acerifolium were characterized by dif-
ferent conformational tools and the size of P. acerifolium
mediated CuO was proposed to be 0.1–0.25 µm with oval-
shaped morphology. As a result of the comparison, the plant-
mediated synthesis proved to be less toxic than the engi-
neered one, but P. acerifolium based CuO felled to control
the size of the particles. However, plant mediated fabricated
particles were observed to be more reliable, eco-friendly, and
lowered the rate of toxic ion release. To control the size of
CuO NPs in the nanometer range, [17] Prasad, K. S., has
performed an excellent piece of work and established a green
way to synthesize nanosized CuO by the utilization of Saraca
indica (aqueous extract) as capping and reducing agent in the
experiment. The as-synthesized CuO NPs were characterized
with different analytical tools and the average size was ob-
served in the range between 13-15 nm, respectively. The
morphology of prepared NPs was investigated as nano-
spheres, which were then exploited in fluorescence emitting
materials and proved to be the finest potential aspirants. Fur-
thermore, another attempt was made by [17] Prasad, K. S.. to
synthesize CuO NPs through bioinspired pathways, employ-
ing Syzygium alternifolium stem bark as an effective probe
for the productive yield and smaller sized NPs. The fabri-
cated nanosized material was characterized by different con-
formational techniques to investigate the surface morphol-
ogy, size, and crystalline nature. The average size of CuO
NPs was calculated to be 17.2 nm. The overall experimental
study confirmed the great potentials of S. alternifolium for
the synthesis of smaller-sized CuO. The as-prepared NPs
were then successfully subjected as anti-microbial and anti-
cancer agents and it paved a way toward a better understand-
ing of the healing potentials of CuO to design and examine
the pharmaceuticals through in-vitro or in-vivo approaches.
The green routes, either biogenic or plant-mediated evinced
the suitable path towards synthesis procedure for CuO NPs.
Herein, the CuO NPs were successfully synthesized via sida
acuta, used as stabilizing and reducing agent, reported by
Prasad, K. S., [17]. Sida acuta mediated CuO NPs were con-
firmed by characterization tools and the size of fabricated
NPs was explored to be 61.7 nm. The prepared NPs were
proficiently employed on the cotton fabrics to prevent the
growth of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria to a
considerable extent. Moreover, the quality of cotton fabrics
is badly affected by dirt and microbials that is why the in-
stant source to inhibit the growth of bacteria is necessary. As
the CuO NPs are well known for inhibiting the bacteria's
growth, thus, the synthesized NPs showed extraordinary re-
Importance and Analytical Perspective of Green Synthetic Strategies of Copper, Zinc
sults in preventing the mentioned bacteria's growth. Another
plant-mediated synthesis of CuO NPs is carried out by [18]
Jadhav, M. S., based on Malus domestica leaf extract as an
excellent probe to reduce and stabilize CuO NPs. The Malus
domestica leaf extract displayed astonishing results in stabi-
lizing the CuO NPs while keeping their size in between 18-
20 nm range and hold spherical shape with admirable stabil-
ity. The efficacious exploitation of prepared nanomaterials
for Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria showed bril-
liant results at a wide range of concentrations with MIC at 25
µg/mL. A radical growth inhibitory activity was inspected
for both pathogenic bacteria by CuO NPs. CuO displayed
advantageous antioxidant motions with stunning free radical
scavenging activity like standard ascorbic acid (AA). The
vast applications of CuO NPs have been reported in diverse
fields with some ground realities, the major one being the
acute toxicity of nanostructured materials. To reduce the
toxic impact and to provide productive yield of CuO NPs,
various synthesis methods have been employed e.g. chemical
or green. For better investigation [19], Mahjouri, S., fol-
lowed a synthesis method to compare the toxicity of CuO
NPs fabricated through green and chemical protocols. The
chemical synthesis of CuO was carried out by the exploita-
tion of the polymer pyrolysis method, while the green syn-
thesis of CuO was impeccably done by B. thunbergii plant
extract. A little difference was observed in the size of chemi-
cally and biologically synthesized CuO, which was found to
be 30 and 44 nm, respectively. To determine the toxic effect
of chemically and green synthesized CuO NPs, the prepared
NPs were kept in contact with tobacco cell, which signifi-
cantly dropped its viability in a time and dose-dependent
manner. The concluding statement of the author revealed that
chemically synthesized CuO NPs are more toxic than the
green synthesized one because several active components
and phytochemicals remain on the surface of the CuO, which
effectively capped them hence reduced their toxicity for a
long time. Therefore, the green synthesis route for CuO
preparation is safer and more reliable and should be consid-
ered for upcoming studies. Besides, the anti-bacterial activ-
ity, CuO NPs hold discerning capabilities in inhibiting the
growth of different viruses as well. To investigate the inhibi-
tory impact of CuO NPs over NDV virus [3], Yugandhar et
al., has researched the green synthesis of CuO NPs by the
exploitation of Syzygium alternifolium fruit extract. The
S.alterifolium fruit extract-based NPs showed excellent ca-
pabilities, specifically polydispersed nature, spherical shape,
none-agglomerated and smaller size between 2 to 69 nm. In
terms of bioactivity validation assay, it was observed that the
prepared NPs have significantly inhibited the viral activity
against NDV. Along with the anti-bacterial and antiviral
activities, the CuO NPs have been immensely employed in
sensing applications, e.g. from calorimetric, fluorescence to
electrochemical sensors. There is a phenomenal impact of
synthesis protocols on the surface activity of metal oxide
nanomaterials, especially CuO NPs. While checking the
sensing abilities of green synthesized CuO NPs, [20] Sunder
et al., has successfully utilized prepared NPs in electro-
chemical sensing of one of the promising neurotransmitters,
Current Analytical Chemistry, 2021, Vol. 17, No. 00 3
known as dopamine. The CuO nanostructures were simply
synthesized by fruit extract of saponin-rich Sapindus
mukorossi. The physiochemical properties of synthesized
NPs were confirmed by different sophisticated techniques
and it was revealed that the prepared material holds
nanowires like morphology under the length of 800 nm and
the average size was calculated in the range between 50-100
nm, respectively. The green synthesized CuO NPs were effi-
ciently used for the electrochemical detection of dopamine,
which was extremely selective and sensitive towards the
target analyte and exhibited suitable limit detection corre-
spondingly. The sensing efficacy and mechanism of CuO
NPs towards different analytes is shown in Fig. 1.
For the production of more reliable and effectual CuO
NPs that can instantly act as anti-bacterial and anti-cancer
agents, as well as promising material for photocatalytic ac-
tivity towards the degradation of dyes, is required. Further-
more, [6] Nagaraj et al., explored a brilliant green method
for the synthesis of smaller sized CuO NPs using Pterolo-
bium hexapetalum leaf extract. The conformational study
revealed that synthesized nanostructures are of spherical
shape and have a particle size in the range of 10-50 nm. The
synthesized NPs were successfully applied in the degradation
of Reactive Black 5, which is satisfactory to lessen the activ-
ity of hazardous entities in the environment. The synthesized
NPs were also tested for anti-microbial and anti-cancer ac-
tivities, respectively. Moreover, another attempt was made
by [3] Mirza et al., by synthesizing CuO NPs through a
green approach. Two plant species, namely Zanthoxylum
armatum DC. and Berberis lycium ROYLE, were utilized for
the facile synthesis of CuO and were effectively tested for
anti-bacterial activities of G-positive and G-negative bacte-
ria. The Zanthoxylum armatum DC. and Berberis lycium
ROYLE derived CuO NPs were investigated for the physio-
chemical confirmations, which revealed that the average size
of two differently synthesized CuO NPs was investigated to
be 43 and 45 nm, respectively. In addition, [6]
Chandrasekaran et al., defined a procedure for green synthe-
sis of CuO NPs by the utilization of Beta vulgaris aqueous
extract as a reducing and stabilizing agent. To check the con-
trolled size of prepared nanomaterials, various instrumental
practices were applied and the size was observed to be in
suitable range with a contented morphology. The constructed
NPs were then eventually applied for the inspection of anti-
microbial and anti-cancer activities against bacteria and can-
cerous cells. Moreover, the physiochemical and biological
capabilities of CuO NPs were explored by [21] Asemani and
Anarjan, et al. The fabrication of CuO was carried out by
walnut leaf extract. The walnut leaf extract is enriched with
several natural entities which are quite enough to reduce
copper ions into crystalline CuO NPs. Finally, the as-
synthesized CuO exhibited outstanding antioxidant and anti-
microbial activities. These prominent competences make
green prepared CuO NPs more reliable in numerous fields,
such as foods and medicine packaging. Different report
methods for the green synthesis of CuO NPs are explained in
Table 1.
4 Current Analytical Chemistry, 2021, Vol. 17, No. 00 Panhwar et al.

Fig. (1). Green synthesized CuO NPs for electrochemical applications. (A higher resolution / colour version of this figure is available in the
electronic copy of the article).
Table 1. Methods reported for Green Synthesis of CuO NPs.

S/No Green sources Size (nm) Applicability References

1 Pterospermum Acerifolium 0.1-0.25 Toxicity comparison Saif et al., [16]

2 Saraca Indica 13-15 Fluorescence emitters Prasad et al., [17]

3 Syzygium Alternifolium 17.2 Antimicrobial and anti-cancer Yugandhar et al., [22]

4 Sida Acuta 61.7 Anti-bacterial Sathiyavimal [23]

5 Malus domestica 18-20 Anti-bacterial Jadhav et al., [18]

6 B. Thunbergii 30-44 Toxicity comparison Mahjouri et al., [19]

7 Syzygium Alternifolium 2-69 Antiviral Yugandhar [3]

8 Sapindus Mukorossi 50-100 Electrochemical detection of dopamine Sundar et al., [20]

9 Pterolobium Hexapetalum 10-50 Degradation of Reactive Black 5 Nagaraj et al., [6]

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. and Ber-

10 43- 45 Anti-bacterial Mirza et al., [3]
beris lycium ROYLE)

11 Beta Vulgaris - Anti-microbial & anti-cancer Chandrase [24] karan [6]

12 Juglans regia - Antioxidant Asemani et al., [21]

3. GREEN SYNTHESIS OF ZINC OXIDE NPS
In the past three years, zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs have at-
tracted worldwide attention in many fields, including agri-
culture, medicine, and different industries, due to their non-
toxic character, anti-microbial activity, low cost, and easy
synthesis procedure [25]. ZnO NPs possess incredible cata-
lytical, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, and UV filtering
properties that can be used in many cosmetic products like
sunscreen lotions. Besides this, it also possesses good semi-
Importance and Analytical Perspective of Green Synthetic Strategies of Copper, Zinc
conducting properties owing to its large bandgap (3.37 eV)
and high excitation binding energy (60 meV) [26]. Due to
these interesting properties, ZnO NPs are synthesized by
many green methods using different sources, such as plant
extracts, bacteria, fungi, and algae. Some of the valuable
work on the synthesis of ZnO NPs have been presented in
this review by using biogenic and plant extract mediated
approaches [26]. Elmumalai et al., have reported a greener,
eco-friendly approach for the biosynthesis of ZnO NPs using
Azadirachta Indica (Neem) leaf extract. The synthesized
NPs were in the range of 9.6 to 25.5 nm size and possessed
good anti-bacterial and photo-catalytical applicability against
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria: Staphylococcus
aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, and
methyl blue dye, respectively. Moreover, [27] Diallo, A et
al., have reported for the first time the main physical proper-
ties of purely crystalline quasi-spherical ZnO NPs, entirely
synthesized through greener physical-chemical biosynthesis
using natural extract of Aspalathus linearis as an effective
reducing agent. Furthermore, [28] Lingaraju et al., have ap-
plied a greener method to synthesize ZnO NPs using aqueous
stem root of Ruta graveolens as reducing agent. The synthe-
sized NPs were characterized by different techniques like
SEM and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), which revealed
the spherical shape of a particle with an average size of 28
nm and hexagonal phase with Wurtzite structure. The poten-
tial applicability of prepared ZnO was checked by subjecting
NPs to anti-bacterial activity against the Gram-positive
Staphylococcus aureus, Gram-negative bacterial strains
Klebsiella aerogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia
coli, following agar well diffusion method and antioxidant
activity against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl free radicals,
which showed good inhibition. Similarly, [29] Yedurkar et
al., reported highly stable zinc oxide ZnO NPs synthesized
by using zinc acetate as precursor salt and leaf extract of
Ixora coccinea plant as a green synthetic technique. Various
characterization techniques were employed to confirm the
ZnO NPs such as EDX and FTIR confirmed the successful
synthesis of prepared NPs and DSL analysis suggested the
average particle size of 145.1 nm. ZnO prepared by Ixora
coccinea leaves were expected to have dynamic application
in the cosmetic industry, medicine, drug delivery, and cataly-
sis, etc. Another experimental study by Siripireddy et al.,
reported the facile green synthesis of ZnO NPs by utilizing
Eucalyptus globulus green leaves extracts to acquire spheri-
cal shaped fine NPs with an average size of 11.6 nm. The
XRD analysis revealed the sharp narrow bandwidth diffrac-
tion patterns indicating the pure formation of crystals with
the most stable hexagonal geometry. The green synthesized
NPs showed efficient photocatalytic activity when employed
for the degradation of toxic methylene blue and methylene
orange dyes with percent degradation of 98.3% on 30 mg
catalyst dose of ZnO. In a similar way, Vijaykumar et al.,
[30] carried out an experiment for the green synthesis of
ZnO NPs, prepared via aqueous leaf extract of Laurus nobi-
lis (Ln-ZnO) by co-precipitation method. The Ln-ZnO syn-
thesized particles were characterized by different analytical
techniques, which showed flower-like hexagonal wurtzite
phase with an average particle of 47.27 nm. The anti-
Current Analytical Chemistry, 2021, Vol. 17, No. 00 5
bacterial activity of Ln-ZnO NPs was compared with gram
positive-bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and gram-negative
bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which showed better re-
sults for gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus. On the other
hand, Ln-ZnO were also applied as effective agents for in-
hibiting the capability of human A549 lung-cancer cells at a
higher potential concentration of 80 mg mL-1. The morpho-
logical changes in Ln-ZnO NPs were evaluated when treated
against A549 lung cancer cells by phase-contrast micro-
scope. [31] Matinise Fuku et al., reported the biosynthesis of
ZnO NPs by using the bioactive component of Moringa
Oleifera plant extract as an active chelating agent. The dif-
ferent physiochemical properties viz morphology, electro-
chemical activity, crystalline structure, and optical properties
of prepared nanomaterial were evaluated by various charac-
terization techniques. The average particle size was calcu-
lated to be 12.27 nm, synthesized through the green method
utilizing Moringa Oleifera extract. The XRD and EDX stud-
ies showed that after annealing at around 500⁰C under the
air, the ZnO NPs exhibited pure wurtzite crystalline phase. In
addition to voltammetric analysis, CV response of prepared
particles was noted, which showed that ZnO NPs manifested
very good electrochemical activity and are recommended as
promising electrochemical catalysts. Another study by Far-
dood et al., reported [32] an eco-friendly alternative method
was utilized for the green synthesis of ZnO nanomaterial by
using Arabic Gum as a bio-template source through the sol-
gel method. This method exhibited many advantages, includ-
ing economic viability, less time consumption, and an envi-
ronmentally friendly route for the synthesis of ZnO NPs
without the consumption of harmful organic solvents. The
synthesized nanomaterial was characterized by various char-
acterization techniques. The XRD analysis revealed the
wurtzite crystalline phase with a mean size of 10 nm. The
UV-visible spectrophotometric method was employed to
check catalytical applicability of green synthesized ZnO NPs
for degradation of direct blue (DB129) dye, which showed
95% degradation efficiency. Furthermore, Zare et al., [33]
prepared ZnO NPs by using cumin as a novel natural source
as extract, without utilizing the chemicals as stabilizing
agents. The synthesized NPs were examined to be spherical
and oval-shaped with an average particle size of 7 nm. The
effect of anti-microbial activity of green synthesized ZnO
NPs was calculated by the disk diffusion method and broth
MIC and MBC in separate strains of bacteria. The result
showed that both the gram-positive and gram-negative bacte-
ria colonies were sensitive towards ZnO, but the effect was
more dominant on gram-negative bacteria. Similarly,
Aminuzzam et al., [34] proposed a green facile, ecofriendly
approach for the preparation of ZnO NPs by using fruit peri-
carp as a reducing agent from aqueous extract of Garcinia
mangostana. The biosynthesized ZnO NPs were examined
by various characterization techniques, spherical shaped
morphology was revealed by SEM and XRD peaks sug-
gested wurtzite phase and mean size of about 21 nm. Biosyn-
thesized ZnO NPs were successfully applied for photo-
catalytical degradation of malachite green dye under solar
irradiation using the spectrophotometric method at character-
istic, λmax value 610 nm, and the degraded dye components
6 Current Analytical Chemistry, 2021, Vol. 17, No. 00
were also evaluated using LC-MS instrument. [35] Ishwariya
et al., suggested a new green, effortless route for the synthe-
sis of ZnO NPs. In this process, a very cheap seaweed extract
of Ulva lactuca was used as a reducing and stabilizing agent
for the fabrication of (Ul-ZnO). The prepared material was
characterized, and the average particle size was inspected to
be 10-50 nm. The prepared ZnO showed excellent anti-
microbial activity against Gram-positive (Bacillus licheni-
formis and Bacillus pumilis) and Gram-negative (Es-
cherichia coliand Proteus vulgaris) bacteria. Moreover, Raja
et al., [36] performed an experiment for the green synthesis
of ZnO NPs, which were also synthesized by using aqueous
Tabernaemontana divaricata green leaves extract. TEM re-
vealed Spherical shape particles with an average size of 20-
50 nm. The synthesized ZnO NPs were successfully used for
almost complete degradation of methylene blue MB dye in
about 90 min and besides this, anti-microbial activity of ZnO
was also performed for three bacterial strains that showed
good sensitivity for growth inhibition. Likewise, [37]
Chaudhary et al., have prepared ZnO NPs by using Aloe
Vera aqueous peel extract to check the efficiency of ZnO as
anti-bacterial and antifungal agents. The prepared NPs were
applied to inhibit the growth of the pathogenic bacteria S.
epidermidis (MTCC-3382), Staphylococcus epidermidis
(MTCC-3382), Klebsiella pneumoniae (MTCC-3384), Es-
cherichia coli (MTCC-41), and fungal colonies of Aspergil-
lus niger (MTCC-404) and Aspergillus oryzae (MTCC-
3107). The results showed a better performance of ZnO
against the E coli (MTCC-41) and A. niger (MTCC-404).
Furthermore, it was used to resolve the environmental pollu-
tion caused by various toxic dyes [38] L. Chen et al., have
fabricated ZnO NPs by using root extract of Scutellaria bai-
calensis (S. baicalensis), particularly for the degradation of
methylene blue, which poses a serious threat to an aqueous
environment and aquatic life. The 98.6% MB dye was suc-
cessfully degraded with ZnO NPs prepared through this
route. [6b], [39] Z. U. H. khan et al., reported the synthesis
of ZnO NPs using Trianthema portulacastrum’s extract con-
taining the surplus amount of reducing agents for the first
time. The prepared material was characterized by different
techniques that revealed crystalline nature and particle size
in the range of 25-90 nm. The biocompatibility of synthe-
sized NPs was checked using mouse pre-osteoblast cell line
MC3T3-E1 sub-clone 14 cells, and the anti-bacterial and
antioxidant study was also evaluated against Staphylococcus
aureus, Escherichia coli, and DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl) substrate, respectively, which showed good
results and great potential of ZnO NPs. In addition, [40] M.
M. Khan et al., have reported a narrow bandgap (~2.68–2.77
eV) of ZnO NPs synthesized through the green route using
boiled and non-boiled leaves extract of Costus woodsonii.
The prepared NPs were characterized by different analytical
techniques that showed a small particle size of around 20-25
nm with spherical and rectangular morphology and hexago-
nal wurtzite crystalline nature. [41] Kumar et al., have used
plant-mediated ZnO NPs synthesized by plant extract of
Ocimum americanum. The biosynthesized NPs showed a
strong absorption band at 316 nm, which is the characteristic
peak of ZnO. The average particle size was calculated to be
Panhwar et al.
21 nm and these were spherical in shape. The fabricated NPs
were applied for potential application against four gram-
positive, gram-negative bacterias and two pathogenic fungi.
The results confirmed that plant-mediated ZnO NPs show
potential anti-microbial and antioxidant therapeutics. [42]
Ogunyemi et al., have reported another study about ZnO NPs
synthesized by different plant extract of (Olea europaea), red
tomato fruit (Lycopersicon esculentum M.) and chamomile
flower (Matricaria chamomilla L.), which revealed that ZnO
nanoparticles prepared through plant extract possess good
anti-bacterial activity. On characterization with different
techniques, it was revealed that ZnO prepared via olive
leaves (Olea europaea) at 16.0 mg mL-1 showed the highest
anti-bacterial activity against Xoo strain GZ 0003 in bacte-
rial colony inhibition zone; also it was concluded that bacte-
rial growth and biofilm formation is attributed to small size
48.2 nm as compared to others. Moreover, [43] Singh et al.,
have followed the green synthesis route for the synthesis of
NPs that offers many advantages over the chemical synthesis
method; hence efforts have been made to synthesize ZnO
NPs using Punica granatum leaf extract. Various properties
of prepared ZnO nanoparticles were evaluated using differ-
ent sophisticated techniques and revealed 10-30 nm size with
spherical morphology and was successfully applied for the
degradation of one of the noxious Coomassie brilliant blue
R-250 dye under direct solar irradiation with degradation
efficacy of 93%. The effectiveness of ZnO NPs against dif-
ferent pathogens and noxious dye is shown in Fig. 2.
Due to non-toxicity and biocompatibility, ZnO is widely
used in many biomedical applications like targeted drug de-
livery, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal,
and agricultural purposes [44]. Although it is used for tar-
geted drug delivery, it poses some limitations due to cytotox-
icity, which is still to be resolved [45]. Furthermore, ZnO has
also been utilized in rubber manufacturing, paint production,
arsenic and sulfur removal from water, protein adsorption, in
dental applications and it also exhibits piezoelectric and py-
roelectric properties [46]. Green preparation methods of ZnO
NPs are displayed in Table 2.
4. GREEN PREPARATION OF TITANIUM OXIDE
NPS FOR PATHOGENS AND DYE DEGRADATION
Titanium Oxide is a transition metal oxide that has out-
standing thermal, electrical, optical, and semiconductive
properties and is found naturally in oxide form, which makes
them suitable aspirant for a number of applications. TiO2 is a
white, crystalline powder and usually insoluble in water un-
der normal conditions. It is a highly stable material and is
mostly used as an opacifier [47]. TiO2 has three major crys-
talline forms, i.e., anatase, rutile and, brookite. Anatase and
rutile forms of titania possess almost similar properties
which include, luster, hardness, density, and interestingly,
they have identical structural symmetry (tetragonal). Titania
has a huge number of potential applications in various fields,
including food, paint, cosmetic, paper, and pharmaceutical
industries. Being a semiconductor material, it is widely used
in technological fields to make capacitors, electrochemical
electrodes, solar cells and shows excellent photocatalytic
Importance and Analytical Perspective of Green Synthetic Strategies of Copper, Zinc Current Analytical Chemistry, 2021, Vol. 17, No. 00 7

Fig. (2). ZnO NPs for environmental remediation and pathogens. (A higher resolution / colour version of this figure is available in the elec-
tronic copy of the article).

Table 2. Methods reported for Green Synthesis of ZnO NPs.

S.No Green Source Size (nm) Morphology Application References

1 Azadirachta Indica 9.6-25.5 Spherical Antibacterial and Photocatalysis Elumalai et al., [26]

2 Aspalathus linearis 9.6-25.5 Quasi-Spherical Antibacterial and Photocatalysis Diallo et al., [27]

Anti-bacterial Activity and Antioxidant

3 Ruta graveolens 28 Spherical Lingaraju et al.,[28]
Activity

4 Ixora coccinea 145.1 Spherical Cosmetic and Industrial Yedrkar et al.,[29]

5 Eucalyptus globulus 11.6 Spherical Photocatalytic Activity Sirireddy et al., [24]

6 Laurus nobilis 47.27 Flower Like Anti-bacterial Activity and Anticancer Vijaykumar et al., [30]

7 Moringa Oleifera 12.27 Spherical Electrochemical Activity Matinise et al., [31]

8 Arabic Gum 10 Spherical Catalytic Fardood et al., [32]

9 Cumin 7 Spherical and Oval Anti-microbial activity Zare et al., [33]

10 Garcinia mangostana 21 Spherical Photo-catalysis Aminuzzam et al., [34]

11 Ulva lactuca 10-50 Sponge Like Anti-microbial Ishwarya et al., [35]

Tabernaemontana divari-
12 20-50 Spherical Catalysis and Antibacterial Raja et al., [36]
cate

13 Aloe Vera 11-25 Spherical Anti-bacterial and Antifungal Chaudhary et al., [37]
(Table 2) Contd….
8 Current Analytical Chemistry, 2021, Vol. 17, No. 00
S.No Green Source Size (nm)
14 Scutellaria baicalensis 50
15 Trianthema portulacastrum 25-90
Spherical and Rectangu-
16 Costus woodsonii 20-25
17 Ocimum americanum 21
Olea europaea, Lycopersi-
18 con esculentum and Matri- 48.2
caria chamomilla
19 Punica granatum 10-30
activity towards many reactions. Furthermore, it is used for
dye-sensitized fuel cells, water splitting, and removing vari-
ous organic contamination from aqueous media [48]. While
looking at outstanding properties of TiO2; B.K. Thakur et al.,
have synthesized novel TiO2 NPs through the green route by
using Azadirachta indica leaf extract, which is enriched with
highly bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, terpenoids,
and protein and is responsible for the successful synthesis of
highly stable NPs. This synthetic approach is environmen-
tally friendly, cost-effective, and a major advantage is that it
reduces the usage of toxic chemicals. TiO2 was characterized
by highly sophisticated techniques and confirms that they are
highly crystalline in nature with a size ranging from 15 to 50
nm with a spherical shape. NPs showed good effects on the
pathogens against Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Salmo-
nella typhi, and Klebsiella pneumonia and prevent their
growth. TiO2 NPs showed good results as compared to their
bulk TiO2. This effectiveness was achieved due to their small
size and large surface to volume ratio. The NPs offer the
lowest MIC value achieved as 10.42 µg/mL against Es-
cherichia coli and Salmonella typhi, and the lowest MBC
value was found to be 83.3 µg/mL observed for Klebsiella
pneumonia [49]. Moreover, Swathi et al., reported the anti-
bacterial activity of TiO2 NPs, which was studied against
gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, namely Es-
cherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, by agar well dif-
fusion method and showed a good zone of inhibition. The
homogenous TiO2 NPs were synthesized through herbal ex-
tract of Cassia fistula plant. The XRD data confirms the
crystallinity of material with cubic face-centered and AFM
study revealed the rough surface, which confirms the cap-
ping and reducing agent from the plant extract [3]. However,
the Greener route was applied for the synthesis of TiO2 NPs
for pharmaceutical applications to eliminate the practice of
toxic reagents and solvents, by Jeetu Dubey et al. In this
regard, peel extract of pomegranate was applied, which con-
tains many phytochemicals that perform the function of re-
ductant and stabilizer that results in well distributed ho-
mogenous TiO2 NPs achieved with a particle size in the
range of 75-90 nm [50]. Besides, Mahmoud Abd et al., have
reported excellent work for the synthesis of eco-friendly,
economical, and efficient heterogeneous TiO2 nano-catalyst
via green procedure using Neem leaf extract. From the to-
pographic investigation, it was found that the synthesized
Panhwar et al.
Morphology Application References
Spherical Catalysis L. Chen et al., [38]
- Antibacterial and Antioxidant Z. U. H. Khan et al., [6]
- M. M. Khan et al., [39]
lar
Spherical Anti-bacterial and Antifungal Kumar et al., [41]
Spherical Anti-bacterial Ogunyemi et al., [42]
Spherical Photocatalysis Singh et al., [43]
nanomaterial has an average size of 20 nm and is spherical.
The heterogenous applicability of titania was checked for the
synthesis of 1,2‐dihydroquinoline derivatives, which re-
vealed an excellent yield and better reusability of nanocata-
lyst. [6] El-Remaily et al., published their work for the fabri-
cation of TiO2 NPs employing leaf extract of perennial flow-
ering plant Mentha aquatic. The extract contains flavonoid
and phenolic compounds, which act as reducing and capping
agents to synthesize well-shaped nanomaterial with a mean
size of 69 nm through a very simple and cost-effective prac-
tice for a short period. This work mainly focuses on the
genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of biologically synthesized
titanium oxide nanomaterial and their determination of toxic
effects in rat marrow mesenchymal stem cells. The DNA
cleavage analysis data reveals that TiO2 NPs cause damage
to the plasmid pBR322 DNA. This study concluded that bio-
logically fabricated TiO2 NPs have lower cytotoxic effect as
compared to their bulk TiO2. Moreover, [51] Koca et al., has
manufactured plant-mediated TiO2 using leaf extract of Gly-
cosmis cochinchinensis, which is inexpensive, less hazard-
ous, well-shaped spherical NPs with a size 40 ±5 nm. The
characterized material was highly stable due to the presence
of proteins and flavonoids, which performs dual function
reducing as well as capping agent. The crystalline pattern
confirmed the anatase form of TiO2 NPs. Bio-synthesized
TiO2 NPs were very active towards anti-bacterial activity
against -gram-positive bacteria (S. saprophyticus and B. sub-
tilis), gram-negative bacteria (E. coli and P. aeruginosa),
and demonstrated maximum zone of inhibition, which is 60
mm against T.reesi. Furthermore, [52] H. Rosi et al., per-
formed a greener attempt to synthesize highly stable TiO 2
NPs using a carbohydrate polymer (Gum Kondagogu) as a
stabilizing and reducing agent. The highly crystalline phase
stability confirmed the anatase form of TiO2. The surface
morphology was confirmed through known techniques that
confirm the monodispersity and spherical morphology with a
mean size between 8-13 nm due to a wide bandgap of 3.13
eV, which shows semiconductive nature and is applied as a
strong candidate for photocatalytic activity as photocatalyst
titania was applied to remove toxic organic dye MB in the
aqueous system. A recent study by [53] KS et al., revealed
that biosynthesis of TiO2 NPs has received tremendous atten-
tion due to the inexpensive approach, non-toxicity, easy
availability, and renewable source of biomolecules.
Importance and Analytical Perspective of Green Synthetic Strategies of Copper, Zinc Current Analytical Chemistry, 2021, Vol. 17, No. 00 9

Scheme (1). Green synthesis of TiO2 NPs for dye degradation and anti-bacterial effect. (A higher resolution / colour version of this figure is
available in the electronic copy of the article).

Table 3. Methods reported for Green Synthesis of TiO2 NPs.

S/No Green Source Size (nm) Morphology Application References

1 Azadirachta Indica 15-50 Spherical Anti-bacterial activity Thakur et al., [49]

2 Cassia Fistula _ Spherical Anti-bacterial activity Swathi et al., [3c]

3 Punica Granatum 70-90 _ Pharmaceutical Jeetu Dubey et at al., [50]

4 Azadirachta indica 20 Spherical Heterogeneous Catalyst El-Remaily et al., [6]

5 Gum Kondagogu 8-13 Spherical Photocatalyst KS et al., [53]

6 Glycosmis Cochinchinensis 40 ±5 Spherical Anti-bacterial, Photocatalyst Rosi et al., [52]

7 Mentha Aquatic 69 _ Genotoxic and Cytotoxic activity Koca et al., [51]

8 Trigonella Foenum-graecum 20-90 Spherical Anti-bacterial activity Subhapriya et al., [54]

9 Starch 20-70 _ Photocatalyst Muniandy et al., [55]

10 Cynodon Dactylon 16 Non Spherical Antibacterial & Anticancer Hariharan et al., [56]

Trigonella foenum-graecum extract was employed to pro-
duce TiO2 via chemical and biosynthesis means. The suc-
cessfully fabricated material was characterized by different
analytical techniques that confirmed the size in the range of
20-90 nm, pure crystallinity, and surface morphology, which
is spherical. Additionally, the fabricated NPs were applied as
anti-microbial agents toward selected microbial species and
found brilliant results. Another effort was made by Sub-
hapriya et al., [54] to produce an anatase form of TiO2, ex-
ploiting starch as the template molecule through a solvent-
free co-precipitation route and focused on to utilize their
energy to make the environment clean by eradicating the
usage of hazardous substances. The highly stable TiO2 has a
crystalline anatase phase with size in the range from 20–70
nm that showed excellent photocatalytic activities under sun-
light toward organic dye MB, which is a major toxin in an
aqueous system [55]. Likewise, Hariharan et al., reported
Cynodon Dactylon plant-mediated TiO2 NPs that showed
potential application against cancer A549 (lung cancer) and
demonstrated anti-bacterial activity for gram negative bacte-
ria E.Coli. The physico-chemical parameter indicates that the
synthesized material was crystalline in nature with an aver-
age particle size of 16 nm and topographic study manifested
non-spherical shape due to the coating of extract cynodon
10 Current Analytical Chemistry, 2021, Vol. 17, No. 00 Panhwar et al.

dactylon. The synthesis strategy followed the green technol- meV = Milli Electron Volt
ogy that lessons the usage of extra chemicals [56]. Hence in
SEM = Scanning Electron Microscope
modern scientific research, the goal of scientists is to pro-
duce nanomaterials by utilizing renewable sources that give XRD = X-ray Diffraction Technique
birth to a new field known as green technology. Many at- EDX = Energy Dispersive X-ray
tempts were made to manufacture TiO2 NPs in an environ-
mentally friendly way. The study concluded that TiO2 has a FTIR = Fourier Transform Infrared
hundred to thousand applications in pharmaceutical products DLS = Dynamic light scattering
e.g., toothpaste, medicines, sunscreen lotions, ointment, etc.
Due to excessive demand for TiO2 NPs in various fields, one CV = Cyclic Voltammetry
of the satisfactory routes to manufacture small size homoge- DB129 = Direct Blue 129 (Dye)
nous, effective NPs is the biosynthesis route that requires
MIC = Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
less energy, has easy availability of material, low toxicity, is
clean, safer, and environmentally friendly. Scheme 1 shows MBC = Minimum Bacterial Concentration
the potential applications of Ti2O NPs for the degradation of LC-MS = Liquid Chromatography- Mass Spec-
toxic dyes and anti-bacterial activity against gram-positive trometry
and gram-negative bacteria. Various green approaches for
the synthesis of Ti2O NPs are shown in Table 3. TEM = Transmission Electron Microscope
AFM = Atomic Force Microscopy
CONCLUSION
DPPH = 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
The biosynthesis of metal oxide NPs using greener and
eco-friendly approaches has been an attentive area in the last DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid
decade. Green synthesis requires the chemical-free active MB = Methyl Blue
component from biological sources, which act as both the
MG = Methyl Green
reducing and stabilizing agents for the size and shape-
controlled production of NPs. The future vision of bacterial,
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
fungal, and plant-mediated production of NPs includes the
postponement of laboratory-based work to a large industrial Not applicable.
scale, exposition of different phytochemicals involved in the
biosynthesis of NPs using bioinformatics techniques and FUNDING
stemming the real mechanism involved in preventing the
Not applicable.
growth of pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and algae. The plant-
mediated NPs can have diverse applications in the arena of
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries and thus be-
came a vital area of modern research. Authors declare no conflict of interest.

LIST OF ABBREVATIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

NPs = Nanoparticles Declared none.
CuO = Copper Oxide
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