Topic 5 / 15 Final Revision

Energetics
- always negative (exothermic reaction)
- Definition: 1 mole of a substance is completely burnt in oxygen
(O2) under standard conditions (100kPa, 298K)
-
c - specific heat capacity
- Energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of substance by
1K or 10C.
- For temperature change calculations 1K = 10C
- Value of c = 4.18 J.g-1.K-1 or 4.18 kJ.kg-1.K-1
q = mc∆T : How much energy must be supplied to raise the temperature
of m (mass of substance) by ∆𝑻℃.

q = m . c . ∆T

Calorimetry: Method used to determine the enthalpy change of a

substance. Heat is given out to heat a substance of known
specific heat capacity. (For ‘m’ we use the mass of substance
that is heated.)
Calorimeter: Device/ equipment used to determine the enthalpy change.

Why is calorimeter enthalpy change values not accurate?

- Due to systematic errors in the experimental set-up.
- Heat is lost to the environment/ surroundings.
 - This can be reduced by insulating the can used.
- 2nd is incomplete combustion of ethanol.

Enthalpy changes in solution:

- Enthalpy change of neutralization
- Always exothermic.
- Enthalpy change when 1 mol of water molecules is formed
when acid (H+) reacts with alkali (OH-) under standard
conditions.
- H+(aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

- enthalpy change of solution

- Enthalpy change when 1 mole of solute is dissolved in excess

solvent to form a solution under standard conditions.

- Can be exothermic or endothermic.

Hess’ Law:
- Enthalpy change is independent of the pathway between initial
and final states.
- ∆𝐻𝑟 = ∆𝐻1 + ∆𝐻2

- Use manipulating reactions method.

 - Enthalpy change of formation.
- Enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is formed from its
elements in their standard states under standard conditions.

Standard conditions: 100 kPa and 298K

Enthalpy of formation of any element in its standard state is always 0.

I2 (s) → I2 (s)

Bond enthalpies
- Only for reactions in the gaseous phase
- The enthalpy change when 1 mole covalent compounds, in
gaseous molecule, is broken under standard conditions.
H2 (g) → 2 H(g)
1 mole of H2 broken to give 2 moles of H gaseous atoms.

When Br2 (l) → 2 Br (g)

- The London forces need to be overcome an also the Br – Br bonds
need to be broken.
- This change is called atomization.
Bond breaking: Require energy – endothermic
Bond making: Release energy – exothermic

Average bond enthalpy:

- Average amount of energy required to break 1 mole of covalent
bonds
- In gaseous molecules under standard conditions.
- Average refers to the fact that bond enthalpies differ in different
molecules/compounds.
- Therefore the values from the table is the average value of energy
to break a particular bond in a range of molecules.

When you answer these questions, it normally counts 3 marks.

- Show the calculation for bond broken total. (1 mark)
- Show the calculation for bonds formed total. (1 mark)
- Show the final calculation to show difference between bonds broken
and bonds formed. (1 mark)

Lower energy = more stable

Exothermic = products more stable Endothermic = Products less stable

 HL – Topic 15 Notes
- Standard enthalpy change of atomization.
- Enthalpy change when 1 mol of gaseous atoms are formed from
elements in its standard state under standard conditions.
- Always endothermic
½ H2 (g) → H (g)
½ Cl2 (g) → Cl (g)
Na (s) → Na (g)

First Ionization Energy = Remove electron

- Endothermic reaction
- M(g) → M+(g) + e-
- Enthalpy change when 1 electron is removed from each atom in 1 mol
of gaseous atoms under standard conditions.
Second Ionization Energy:
M+ (g) → M2+ + e-

First electron affinity = Exothermic

- Enthalpy change when 1 electron is added to each atom in 1 mol of
gaseous atoms in standard state under standard conditions.
X (g) + e-→ X- (g)
Second electron affinity = Endothermic
Why endothermic?
It is unfavorable to add and electron to an already negatively charged ion,
because of the repelling forces between the negative charges.
X- (g) + e- → X 2- (g)
 - Lattice enthalpy
- Enthalpy change when 1 mole of ionic compound is broken apart into
its constituent gaseous ions under standard conditions.
- Can be exothermic or endothermic. Look at the direction of the
arrow. If its ionic compound(s) → ion(g) , its it endothermic because
it require energy to break apart the ionic compound.
NaCl(s) → Na+ (g) + Cl- (g) [endothermic]

Born – Haber Cycles:

If arrow is pointing upward – endothermic reaction

If arrow is pointing downward – exothermic reaction

The direct and indirect route start at the same point and end at the
same point on the cycle.
Entropy:
How available energy is distributed between particles.
Level of disorder = the more ways the energy can be distributed, the more
disorder there will be. Therefore the entropy will be higher.

Solid = particles are ordered. Entropy is low.

Gas = particles are moving around freely. Entropy is high.
Determine the sign of entropy change:
Look at the number of moles of gas(g) particles left and right side.
Compare what happens from left to right in reaction with the number of
moles of gas (g) particles.
If number of (g) moles is the same on each side = entropy near zero.
If number of gas moles increase = increase in entropy (more +)
If number of gas moles decrease = decrease in entropy (more -)

When doing the calculation – remember to multiply with coefficients.

Gibbs Free energy:

For spontaneous reaction =