CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Ultrafast laser manufacturing: from physics to industrial applications

L. Orazi (2)a,*, L. Romoli (2)b, M. Schmidt (2)c, L. Li (1)d
a
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
b
University of Parma, Italy
c €t Erlangen-Nu
Friedrich-Alexander-Universita € rnberg, Germany
d
The University of Manchester, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Modern ultrafast lasers are enabling better operative performances in micro and nano-fabrications of materi-
Available online 6 August 2021 als, benefited from their ease of use, robustness, and reliability. The purpose of this paper is to bridge the gap
between the knowledge of ultrafast optics and the modern industrial applications. The paper introduces
Keywords: main phenomena in ultrafast laser-matter interactions by reviewing relevant theoretical models and simula-
Laser
tion techniques. The operation of ultrafast lasers is based on nonlinear optics phenomena, fully described
Laser processing
only in the framework of quantum-mechanics. Current trends in the development of modern ultrafast system
Ultrafast optics
are given. It also presents a review of the latest advances in ultrafast laser-based manufacturing processes,
some of the most interesting industrial applications, and a discussion on future trends and challenges.
© 2021 CIRP. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Ultrafast laser technologies opened completely new and exciting

opportunities in several fields of scientific and industrial applications
including high energy physics, material science, medical diagnostics,
surgery, manufacturing and many other fields. These new opportuni-
ties have been recognized also by the 2018 Nobel prize in physics “for
their method of generating high-intensity, ultra-short optical
pulses”[239].
In the years following the development of the first ruby laser
(1960), physicists demonstrated the possibility to generate ultrashort
pulses with organic dye lasers [225]. Despite low efficiency and oper-
ability, these pioneering devices laid the theoretical basis that per-
mitted the development of the first Ti-Sapphire modelocked laser
operating in the femtosecond regimes in 1990 [233], and immedi-
ately after the set-up of the first regenerative chirped-pulse ampli-
Fig. 1. Applicability of the different laser oscillator/amplifier technologies (adapted
fiers [234]. In the early 2000s fiber chirped-pulse amplifiers set new
from [225]).
standards in term of compactness and operability [5]. These new
sources increased the peak power from kW, a level useful for ultrafast
based metrology and telecom applications, to MW and GW and they and with a negligible Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) was the first of sev-
opened new possibilities in laser material processing applications eral industrial applications developed.
(Figure 1). Few years later, the possibility to operate inside the volume of
Manufacturing and production processes have gained from the nonconductive optically transparent materials was demonstrated, by
advances in the ultrafast laser technology and in the new millennium, changing the refractive index to create waveguides in glass [42] and
the number of yearly published papers started to rise more than line- by generating micro voids [67] thanks to the nonlinear phenomena
arly with a trend continuing also in the present days. acting in presence of high photon density.
The pioneering work reported in [235] and [116] demonstrated The unique characteristics of ultrashort laser to operate inside the
the possibilities to use femtosecond lasers for material processing. material volume was further employed in micro-stereolithography,
The ablation of polymeric materials with unprecedented clean edge based on the use of near infrared (IR) sources for two-photon poly-
merization of photo-curable resins [144].
* Corresponding author:
Another phenomenon that attracted the attention of researchers
E-mail address: leonardo.orazi@unimore.it (L. Orazi). was the generation of quasi periodic 3D structures with dimensions

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2021.05.007
0007-8506/© 2021 CIRP. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
544 L. Orazi et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566
(periodicity) shorter than the laser wavelength. Although these struc-
tures called Laser Induced Periodic Structures (LIPSS) [88] were previ-
ously observed on dielectric materials using different laser sources
[46], the use of ultrashort pulses opened a broader range of new pos-
sibilities in term of materials and applications [20].
A first review on the possibilities offered by ultrashort laser
machining was presented in Annals of CIRP almost 20 years ago
[147]. Very few applications were available at that time, thus both
short and ultrashort applications were considered. A detailed over-
view of laser nano-manufacturing and applications was then pre-
sented by Li et al in Annals of CIRP [123], including the use of
ultrashort laser sources to reduce feature dimensions in materials
processing, to reduce the energy dissipation in the material bulk
operating in the cold ablation regime and to overcome diffraction
limited dimensions thank to non-linear effects of multi-photon inter-
actions. The use of ultrashort lasers in micro-additive manufacturing
was reviewed in [11]. The use of ultrashort pulses in Laser Induced
Forward Transfer (LIFT) methods reduces the thermal effects on
donor and transferred materials [7, 108], while two-photons poly-
merizations systems being commercially available nowadays [179].
For all this reason, this paper will not cover applications of ultrashort
pulses in additive manufacturing processes.
The aim of this Keynote paper is to provide a detailed description
of the main advances in the ultrafast technologies (Section 3). Read-
ers will be helped in understanding these advances by an introduc-
tion to the physical principles governing pulse generation and laser-
matter interactions in the pico- and femtosecond regimes (Section 2).
This knowledge will then form the basis for exploring the possibilities
offered for manufacturing processes (Sections 4 and 5) with a final
overview on future and emerging trends and challenges (Section 6).
1.1. Definition of “ultrafast”
Both “ultrafast laser” and “ultrashort laser” terms are used to
define lasers operating with pulses of short duration that for indus-
trial application ranges from tens of femtosecond to hundreds of
picosecond. In the common languages, these lasers are frequently
indicated as “femtosecond lasers” or “picosecond lasers”. A biblio-
metric survey on scientific literature suggests that in the last decade
the term “ultrafast laser” becomes predominant while “ultrashort”
more often indicates the pulse duration. In laser and optics engineer-
ing “ultrafast” is universally applied to mode-locked lasers (see Sec-
tion 3). From the point of view of laser manufacturing, a definition of
ultrashort condition should be based on the interaction phenomena
between the electromagnetic fields and the material under process-
ing. These phenomena will be reviewed in depth in Section 2, but the
scheme in Figure 2 briefly summarizes the phenomena and the time-
scales involved. Electromagnetic waves interact with the electronic
system which in turn transfer energy to the material lattice. A proper
definition of ultrashort pulse can be a pulse with a duration shorten
than the coupling time between the electrons (carriers) and the material
lattice. This duration can vary a lot depending on the electronic struc-
ture of the material, but thanks to the strong non-linear phenomena
Fig. 2. Timescales of various electron and lattice processes in laser-excited solids
(adapted from [244]).
that take place at high intensity pulses, in material processesing
applications, it normally ranges between few to tens of picoseconds
as indicated by the red dotted line in Figure 2
2. Laser/matter interaction applying ultrashort pulses
Ultrafast laser processing of materials has some peculiarities com-
pared to processing with longer pulses due to the ultrashort time
scale of excitation. This allows separating the physical processes of
excitation of the electronic system, energy transfer to the lattice
(heating and melting), and material removal with subsequent re-
solidification. Therefore, ultrafast lasers do not only facilitate material
processing but also give insight in the involved physics to enhance
the understanding of light-matter interaction, which is different
depending on the type of material (e.g. metals or dielectrics).
In the following sections, an overview of the involved physical
processes, timescales, and models for simulating the whole material
ablation will be given. For an in-depth review of modelling ultrafast
laser ablation, readers are referred to [196].
A schematic overview of the timescales, the physical processes
and the corresponding sections in this paper is given in Figure 3. The
energy provided by the laser is mainly absorbed by the electrons and
the lattice remains at its initial temperature as the pulse length is
shorter than the coupling time between the electros and the lattice.
Fig. 3. A schematic overview of the typically involved phenomena and timescales in
ultrafast laser ablation (adapted from [224]).
This leads to a non-equilibrium state between these two systems.
Therefore, Anisimov et al. [4] adapted the Two Temperature Model
(TTM) to describe this process which had previously been introduced
for describing the interaction of material with fast particles by Kaga-
nov et al. [97].
The model was later modified to also include lattice heat conduc-
tion resulting in two coupled differential equations for the tempera-
ture of the electronic system and the lattice [30]:
@Te
ce ðTe Þ ¼ r ðKe r Te Þ
G ¢ ðTe
Tl Þ þ S; ð1Þ
@t
@Tl
cl ðTl Þ ¼ r ðKl r Tl Þ þ G ¢ ðTe
Tl Þ; ð2Þ
@t
where c denotes the heat capacity, T the temperature, K the thermal
conductivity, G the electron-lattice coupling factor, and S the energy
input into the electronic system by the laser. Subscripts e and l stand
for electron and lattice, respectively. Note that K and G also depend
on the temperatures and therefore the assumed model will have a
strong influence on the interaction and subsequent ablation. Ivanov
et al. discussed resulting differences in evolution for gold and alumin-
ium and could thereby also explain differences found experimentally
for other metals [84].
The TTM can be seen as the standard implementation for simulat-
ing ultrafast laser-matter interaction, but one main assumption in
this model is that a temperature can be assigned to the electronic sys-
tem, which is only possible in an equilibrium state. This assumption is
 L. Orazi et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566
questionable on the fs-timescale, but for high energy excitation, like
in material processing, fast thermalization will occur in less than
100 fs [221]. Additionally, Rethfeld et al. used a kinetic approach for
the modelling of beam/material interactions and showed that for
strong excitation, a non-equilibrium distribution may behave like a
Fermi one and therefore the TTM description holds [194]. While
kinetic approaches are more rigorous from a physical point of view,
their applicability is often limited due to computational complexity.
As such, the TTM is often preferred.
2.1. Absorption
The involved physical processes depend on materials classes,
especially for the absorption of the laser energy by the electrons.
For metals, intraband absorption by the degenerate of free elec-
tron gas can be assumed and modelled with Drude’s approach. There-
fore, Lambert-Beer’s law describes the evolution of the intensity
along the optical axis which in turn acts as the source term in
equation (1). Experimental investigations have shown that the effec-
tive energy deposition depth is significantly larger than the optical
penetration depth [79] which is attributed to ballistically moving
electrons. The authors proposed to use an effective penetration depth
(Leff = Lp+ Lb) when modelling the source term which leads to a practi-
cally working TTM although ballistic electrons are not directly com-
patible with this model.
For semiconductors and dielectrics, where the band gap is larger
than the energy supplied by one photon, the situation is different as
no free electrons can directly absorb the incident laser. In a first step,
the conduction band has to be filled with electrons by multiphoton
or tunnelling absorption/ionization (see section 2.2 for more details).
These conduction band electrons can then linearly absorb light and
gain kinetic energy. If this kinetic energy is high enough, i.e. larger
than the band gap, impact ionization (sometimes also referred to as
avalanche ionization) will occur where the energy is transferred to
another electron which is thereby promoted to the conduction band.
In model descriptions, the first equation of the TTM is often
replaced by an equation depending on the density of conduction
band electrons leading to the so-called density dependent two tem-
perature model (nTTM) [47]. Rethfeld later proposed to use the mul-
tiple rate equation (MRE) for calculating the electron density instead
of a full kinetic approach [195].
2.2. Strong field ionization and optical breakdown
As linear absorption processes are not possible for materials with
a band gap larger than the energy of a single photon, i. e. transparent
dielectrics, the question stands on how lasers can modify such mate-
rials. In 1964 Keldysh proposed a theory which describes the genera-
tion of free electrons in dielectrics in strong electromagnetic fields
[99]. This led to the now famous Keldysh parameter g:
v qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
g¼ mr Eg ;
eE
where Eg is the band gap energy, mr the effective mass of the elec-
tron-hole pair, e the charge of an electron, v the angular frequency of
the wave and E the electric field strength. This parameter indicates
two distinct absorption regimes: for g  1, i.e. low frequency or high
field strength, the Keldysh theory converges towards the formula for
tunnel ionization. For g  1, i.e. high frequency, it becomes the for-
mulation of multi-photon absorption.
In a multi-photon absorption/ionization process, several photons
with energy below the band gap energy are absorbed within a short
time interval (see Figure 4A). This time interval can be estimated
from the time-energy uncertainty to be on the order of 0.1 fs. If the
combined energy of the absorbed photons exceeds the band gap
energy, the molecule will be ionized. The probability of such a pro-
cess depends on the photon density and therefore will increase nonli-
nearly with increasing intensity. For common glasses, five photons
are needed when using a laser with a wavelength of about 1 µm.
545
Fig. 4. Schematic of the processes for ionization in dielectrics. To excite an electron
from the valence band (EV) to the conduction band (EC) either multi-photon absorption
(A), tunnel ionization (C) or an intermediate process combining both (B) is required
(adapted from [122]).
In tunnel ionization, the strong electromagnetic field of the laser
distorts the potential barrier of a molecule and therefore the proba-
bility of an electron escaping the potential well increases significantly
(see Figure 4C). This phenomenon will take place if the time for
tunnelling is shorter than half the wave period of the field as the dis-
tortion of the potential changes with the laser frequency. Therefore,
the Keldysh parameter can also be formulated as
tT
g¼ ;
t λ=2
where t T is the tunnelling time and tλ/2 is the half wave period.
Several things should be noted concerning the Keldysh
parameter. First, multi-photon ionization and tunnelling ioniza-
tion are not competing mechanisms, but only two extreme cases
of a full strong field ionization theory. Therefore, also intermedi-
ate processes, where the combination of both will lead to ioniza-
tion, are possible (Figure 4B). Secondly, Keldysh used
approximations in his derivation, which might not hold under
very strong fields, e.g. omitting the influence of magnetic field.
Thus, several extensions and alternative approaches have been
proposed which are in better agreement with experimental
observations [53, 183, 192]. Finally, g should not be used to
compare the main ionization mechanism for largely different
wavelengths of excitation or very strong fields as e.g. due to
simplifications in the derivation the speed of an electron that
could exceed the speed of light and therefore the tunnelling
time would be underestimated [193]. In this context, it should
also be noted that experimentally for g > 1 tunnel ionization
and g < 1 multi-photon ionization have been found to be the
main mechanisms of light-matter-interaction [94]. Nonetheless,
Keldysh parameter can be used for comparing the ionization
regimes as long as the used wavelength is similar.
Interestingly, multi-photon ionization was already demonstrated
in 1960s by using nanosecond pulsed lasers [251], but tunnel ioniza-
tion by an oscillating field was found for the first time in the 1980s
[122].
Due to the aforementioned strong field ionization mechanisms, it
is possible to generate free electrons in dielectrics. If enough elec-
trons are in the conduction band, linear absorption and subsequent
impact ionization will lead to a modification or ablation of material.
This process is called optical breakdown. It was observed that the

1=2
breakdown threshold decreases with t p , where t p is the pulse
length, but initial defects in the material plays a major role in the
start of the impact ionization process [15]. This behaviour changes
when the pulse duration gets shorter than 10 ps and the process of
modification gets deterministic. The reason for this change lies in the
fast rise of the intensity in an ultrashort pulse and therefore the ear-
lier onset of strong field ionization. Thus peak intensity of the pulse
determines the amount of electrons in the conduction band and
impurities no longer play a role.
This deterministic onset of modification in combination with
strong field ionization can be used to create modifications in sizes
well below the optical diffraction limit. On the one hand, the interac-
tion in multi-photon ionization scales with the intensity I non-line-
arly, / In , where n is the number of photons needed for ionization.
Therefore, the effective interaction region is smaller than the size of
the (Gaussian) pulse (see Figure 5).
546 L. Orazi et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566
Fig. 5. A smaller effective interaction region axially (A) and laterally (B) in multi-pho-
ton absorption in combination with threshold processes allows modifications below
the diffraction limit (adapted from [242]).
On the other hand, the energy of a pulse can be chosen such that
the ionization threshold intensity is only exceeded in a small area in
which seed electrons will be generated. Subsequent avalanche ioni-
zation in this region will generate a small modification (see Figure 6)
[94]. Due to the deterministic behaviour when using ultra-short
pulses, such small features can be manufactured reproducibly.
Fig. 6. Sub-diffraction limited backside ablation of glass. The red circle indicates the 1/
e2 focal spot diameter (adapted from [94]).
2.3. Electron-lattice energy transfer
The energy that is initially absorbed by the electronic system will
be transferred to the lattice by electron-phonon relaxation which is
comparatively slow. Although the collision time of electrons and pho-
nons is in the range of few femtoseconds and therefore on the same
timescale as electron-electron collisions, only little energy is
transferred due to the large difference in mass of the electrons
compared to ions. Therefore, several collisions have to take place
for a significant energy transfer and the electron-phonon relaxa-
tion time (t e-ph) is long. Still, this electron-phonon scattering also
contributes to the fast momentum relaxation, i.e. thermalization,
of the electronic system.
Figure 7 shows the evolution of the electron and lattice tempera-
ture when the pulse duration is considerably shorter than the elec-
tron-phonon relaxation time. The electron temperature rises quickly
and well above the melting temperature. Then a slow transfer of
energy to the lattice is visible which takes roughly an order of magni-
tude longer than the electron heating. Finally, the material will reach
an equilibrium state with both electron and lattice temperature being
the same. The heat capacity of the lattice mainly determines this
equilibrium temperature.
Fig. 7. Temperature evolution of electrons (Te ) and lattice (Tp ) due to an incident pulse
(Iabs ) [196].
Ivanov et al. showed in simulations that the highest temperature
of the lattice can be expected for pulse durations close to the elec-
tron-phonon relaxation time [85].
2.4. Cold ablation
The process of material removal by ultrashort laser pulses was, in
the beginning, termed as “cold ablation” as compared to longer
pulses. The main ablation mechanisms are not based on evaporation.
This has two advantages: ablation is more efficient considering the
energy input and less heat remains in the material after ablation.
While the TTM can be used to simulate the temperature evolution
in the material, it cannot simulate ablation directly. For dielectrics
the nTTM can be used to simulate the density of conduction band
electrons. Often the onset of ablation is then chosen when this den-
sity reaches the critical density of optical breakdown (see section
2.2), but this criterion does not always agree with experimental
observations [211]. Shcheblanov and Itina therefore proposed
another criterion based on the mean electron energy as they point
out that damage to the material can only occur for a high enough
energy input [221].
Especially for metals, hybrid approaches for simulating the abla-
tion are used. TTM is combined with either a hydrodynamic simula-
tion [35] or a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation [86, 237] to
simulate phase changes and expansion of the lattice. Both methods
were compared by Inogamov et al. and showed similar results [83].
In the following a short overview of the mechanisms responsible
for the removal of materials by ultrafast lasers is given.
2.4.1. Ultrafast phase transitions
On the timescale of the pulse length, ultrafast phase transitions
can occur. One such mechanism is Coulomb Explosion where electro-
static forces lead to ablation. During laser irradiance, some electrons
are removed due to ionization and therefore the irradiated volume
will be positively charged. If this charging is high enough, the attrac-
tive forces of the lattice will be overcome by repulsion and material
will be ablated. This phenomenon is heavily debated for large solids
and assumed to be impossible for metals as fast diffusion of the free
electron gas will compensate any electrostatic potential. Nonetheless,
Bulgakova et al. concluded from simulations that Coulomb explosion
should be possible for dielectrics [24] and experimental observations
of the velocity of differently charged oxygen atoms support this
hypothesis [238]. In any case, only a small portion of the ablated vol-
ume can be attributed to Coulomb explosion with a stronger ablation
following at longer timescales [238].
Another ultrafast phase transition is non-thermal melting. In this
case the lattice temperature still remains roughly at the initial value,
but the potential energy surface is strongly changed by the excited
electronic systems. As a consequence, strong forces act on the lattice
leading to instabilities and subsequent disordering which can be seen
as melting. To the best of our knowledge there has not been a
 L. Orazi et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566
convincing experimental proof of this non-thermal melting as it is
very difficult to distinguish from homogeneous melting which hap-
pens on the same timescale.
Homogeneous melting is caused by strong overheating where the
timescale depends on the ratio of the temperature to the melting
temperature. In contrast to heterogeneous melting, there is no
defined melt-front propagating from the surface inwards at the speed
of sound. Nucleation happens directly inside the bulk at several posi-
tions and complete melting can take place in less than 1 ps [86].
2.4.2. Ablation regimes
From hybrid simulations, two distinct ablation regimes for a single
pulse can be defined which differ in terms of quality and efficiency.
Starting at low fluences, the first ablation regime is the so-called
photo-mechanical spallation, sometimes also called inertial stress
confinement. Note that there is also a regime termed photo-thermal
spallation, where ablation starts due to a very high local temperature.
This regime is typically only applicable for pulses much longer than
the electron-phonon coupling time (see Figure 8 b and d) and there-
fore does not take place within our definition of ultrafast laser proc-
essing.
Fig. 8. MD simulation of the ablation of aluminium for two different pulse durations.
(a) and (c) show the photo-mechanical spallation with ultrashort pulses. (b) and (d)
show photo-thermal ablation with pulses longer than the electron-phonon coupling
time (adapted from [84]).
The fast deposition of energy within a small volume leads to very
high compressive stresses. If the heating time by the laser is shorter
than the mechanical relaxation time of the material, the regime of
stress confinement [181] is reached. Mathematically this can be
described by the following equation:
  Leff
max t p ; t e
ph t s  ; ð3Þ
cs
where t p is the pulse length, t e-ph the electron-phonon relaxation
time, ts the mechanical relaxation time, Leff the effective penetration
depth, and cs the speed of sound in the material. If the pulse energy is
above a certain threshold value, i.e. the ablation threshold, the com-
pressive stress will generate tensile waves leading to the formation
of subsurface voids which in turn will lead to the ejection of a thin
layer of the material (compare Figure 8 a and c). This layer will later
decompose into droplets but that does not happen within the typical
time- and length-scales of hybrid simulations. As also most of the
residual heat in the material is removed with this layer, the term
“cold ablation” is justified for this ablation regime. Therefore, this
547
regime offers the best quality in terms of smoothness of the surface
and smallest HAZ.
If the laser fluence is increased, the decomposition of the spalled
layer will lead to the ejection of many thin layers. Finally, a transition
to the so-called “phase explosion” regime will take place where the
irradiated surface is overheated above the stability limit of the liquid
phase. As a result, a mixture of vapour and liquid droplets will be
ejected from the ablation zone. In this regime the resulting surface
will not be as smooth as in the gentle ablation region and more heat
will remain in the bulk material.
As the simulation of the laser material interaction over a whole
laser spot is challenging, Wu and Zhigilei combined several simula-
tions of small areas with different fluences to a mosaic image of the
ablation process [267]. The resulting image is depicted in Figure 9.
While at the center the fluence is high enough to enter the phase
explosion regime, in the surrounding, only the stress confinement
regime is reached and therefore a layer is ejected (indicated by the
light grey overlay). This is in good agreement with performed pump-
probe experiments, where interference fringes at the outer region of
the ablation indicate at least two reflecting surfaces while noise sig-
nal at the center shows that there is a highly scattering material
[231].
Fig. 9. Mosaic image obtained by MD simulation of the ablation during ultrafast mate-
rial processing [267].
From an experimental point-of-view, the resulting ablation depth
zabl is often simply modelled with a logarithmic dependence on the
applied fluence [31]:
 
F
zabl ¼ Leff ¢ ln ; F > F th : ð4Þ
F th
The threshold fluence Fth and the penetration depth Leff are deter-
mined experimentally from measured ablation depths for different
fluences. Here, previously discussed ablation regimes are described
by different threshold fluences and penetration/ablation depths
(compare Figure 10).
The regime of photo-mechanical spallation has the lowest thresh-
old fluence and the smallest penetration depth, but also yields the
best quality. Phase explosion on the other hand has a higher thresh-
old fluence and also an increased penetration depth with the draw-
back of a reduced quality of the final surface.
From this simple estimation of the ablation depth, it is also possi-
ble to determine the ablated volume per deposited energy.
By performing corresponding calculations for a Gaussian beam it
can be shown that the most efficient fluence for material ablation in
terms of volume per used energy is Fopt = e ¢ Fth [166]. Therefore, also
the efficiency is limited to 1/e  37% with more than 63% of the inci-
dent energy being lost in the process of ablation.
548 L. Orazi et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566
Fig. 10. Experimentally measured ablation depth in dependence on the fluence reveals
the different ablation regimes [112].
2.5. Incubation, shielding and heat accumulation
While the ablation mechanism for a single pulse gives insight into
the involved physical processes, quality, and efficiency, several pulses
are used for material processing in general. Therefore, changed initial
conditions due to previous pulses have to be taken into account.
Experimental investigations show that the threshold fluence for
ablation decreases with the number of applied pulses, i.e. ablation
will take place at a lower fluence. Ashkenasi et al. proposed a model
for the evolution of the threshold fluence which takes into account
the threshold for one pulse and after an infinite number of pulses [6]:
F th ðN Þ ¼ F th ð 1 Þ þ ½F th ð1Þ
F th ð 1 Þe
k ðN
1Þ ;
where k is the incubation coefficient determined by a least square fit
and N the number of pulses. In contrast to another model earlier pro-
posed by Jee et al. [91] the threshold will not decrease to zero for an
infinite number of pulses but will asymptotically reach a final value.
Ashkenasi’s model is slightly more complicated but seems to be more
reasonable.
Possible reasons for this reduction of the threshold fluence are
proposed by Ashkenasi and can also be deduced from the re-solidifi-
cation after ablation. In metals, the re-solidification is very fast and
“freezes” structures on and below the surface before the material is
relaxed to its initial defect-free state. Wu et al. investigated this effect
in a large-scale atomistic simulation [266]. They found that subsur-
face voids with corresponding stresses are created by the first pulse
below the ablation threshold and that the second pulse therefore is
able to ablate material, i.e. that the required fluence is reduced. Also
an increased absorption due to a rougher surface plays a role for the
incubation effect [107]. In dielectrics, defects in the lattice like vacan-
cies and interstitials can be generated due to the interaction with
ultrafast lasers which in turn increase absorption and reduce the
melting temperature as well as the ionization threshold [139].
For high laser repetition frequencies and in the case of burst mode
(see section 3.5), the electronic system might not be relaxed in terms
of temperature and spatial distribution. This will influence and, in
most cases, increase the absorption of laser light which in turn can be
interpreted as a decreased ablation threshold as from an experimen-
tal point of view, where the incident but not the absorbed fluence is
considered.
In addition, the lattice temperature might not decrease to ambient
temperature before a consecutive pulse arrives. This phenomenon is
called heat accumulation and is exemplarily shown in Figure 11. The
temperature of the material directly before the arrival of a new pulse
increases continuously and at some point can even cross the melting
Fig. 11. Heat accumulation for ps laser micro-machining of CrNi-steel [261].
temperature Tm. Weber et al. derived an approximate formula for the
temperature increase by modelling the laser energy input as an
instantaneous heat source and solving the subsequent heat diffusion
in the time until the next pulse arrives [260, 261]. Taylor et al.
recently proposed to couple the TTM with a heat conduction model
to enable better estimation of the heat source and also account for
changes in the energy input due to increased temperatures [246].
For material ablation, heat accumulation can be seen as a third
ablation regime in which the assumption of “cold ablation” breaks
down. Considerable melting is taking place and the quality of the
resulting surface is low with small bumps and oxidization [8]. While
this regime seems not ideal for material ablation, it is essential for in-
bulk processing of transparent materials. This opens the possibility of
direct waveguide writing or glass welding, which will be discussed in
more detail in section 4.5.
In addition to the interaction with a changed material system,
interaction with ablated material from the previous pulse also plays a
significant role. Pump-probe experiments were performed by Ko € nig
ð5Þ
et al. to measure the transmission of the laser through the particle/
plasma plume [110]. They found two minima in transmission, with a
strong first one after a few nanoseconds due to the plasma close to
the interaction zone. The second minimum at about 100-200 ns is
weaker and can be attributed to the ejected material. For all investi-
gated materials, the transmission completely recovered after 5 µs
which corresponds to a laser repetition frequency of 0.2 MHz. Note
that Ko € nig et al. used a fluence roughly two orders of magnitude
above the ablation threshold. Shielding will be less pronounced in
most applications of ultrafast lasers in material processing. Still, laser
systems with repetition frequencies above 0.2 MHz can suffer from
reduced efficiency due to absorption of light in the ablated material.
2.6. Filamentation
At the onset of the ultrashort era, scientists believed that high
energy ultrashort pulses would not propagate in air or other media
due to diffraction and nonlinear phenomena. In 1995, it was first
observed [23] that a collimated ultrashort beam damaged a mirror
placed at a long distance, but left the same mirror undamaged when
placed close to the laser output. It was argued that nonlinear effects
induced by high photon intensity caused self-focusing of the laser
pulse, or so-called “filamentation”. Pulses dynamically evolve in time
and space, self-compressing in the propagation direction and collaps-
ing transversally. The term light bullet [226] may be more appropriate
in describing this dynamic process.
A detailed review of the physical aspects underlying the propaga-
tion of femtosecond pulses in transparent material can be found in
[36] and schemed in Figure 12.
Different nonlinear phenomena take place during propagation of
laser pulses in dispersive media, including almost all gases, liquids
and solid transparent materials. Amongst these phenomena, group
velocity dispersion is related to the intrinsic non-monochromatic
 L. Orazi et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566
Fig. 12. Schematic of filamentation. In the upper part of the figure a material with pos-
itive Kerr index n2 acts as a focusing lens until the collapse of the beam.
nature of ultrashort pulses. Lower frequencies within the pulse travel
faster than higher frequencies, leading to an increase in the pulse dura-
tion with propagation and a weakening of the peak intensity [222]. Self-
focusing effects appear when the photon density is sufficient to induce
non-linearity in a material with a refractive index n. For a laser pulse, n
¼ n0 þ n2 Iðr; tÞ, where Iðr; tÞ is the time-dependent radial pulse inten-
sity distribution. The Kerr index n2 is usually positive, with most trans-
parent media acting as a focusing lens. In the absence of other
phenomena, this effect leads the beam to collapse when the peak power
exceeds a critical threshold value. Self-steepening [214], can also play an
important role in filamentation, where the peak of an ultrashort pulse
with a Gaussian temporal profile travels slower than the tail, creating a
step trailing edge, enhancing self-focusing and increasing the refractive
index gradient, resulting in pulse splitting and single cycle pulse as
shown in Figure 13.
Other phenomena also contribute to spatial and temporal modifi-
cation of the laser pulse. Self-phase modulation arises from the tempo-
ral intensity distribution. The gradient @I=@t is positive within the
front part of the pulse with the appearing of new lower frequencies,
while the opposite is true in the trailing part, leading to generation of
higher frequencies. The final effect is a shorter pulse with a broad
spectrum. In the case of a long path, the spectrum can easily cover
the entire visible range [248].
Fig. 13. Self-shortening of a 25 fs laser pulse under filamentation in Argon. Numerical
simulation predicts the generation of a single cycle pulse [36].
The spatial and temporal collapse of an ultrashort laser pulse is bal-
anced by other effects, mainly plasma defocusing and plasma losses.
Plasma defocusing is caused by a reduction in the refractive index n with
an increase of electron density, n ¼ n0
r=2rC where r is the local elec-
tron density and rC the critical density at which plasma is opaque to the
laser pulse [56]. Plasma losses are instead due to dissipation of the pulse
energy. Free electrons generated by both multiphoton and tunnel ioniza-
tion (see Section 2.2) are accelerated, increasing their kinetic energy by
inverse Bremsstrahlung effect and, upon collision with other molecules,
generating an avalanche of secondary electrons giving rise to electronic
breakdown of the transparent material. The highly ionized plasma defo-
cuses the beam, and if the remaining peak power is above a critical
power Pcr , the focusing and defocusing cycles repeat over a long distance
in a self-guided propagating filament [32, 36]. This process is repre-
sented in Figure 14.
It must be noted that such a filament does not exist on timescales
longer than the pulse duration. In practical applications, each pulse
evolves along its own path, with successive of self-focusing and defo-
cusing cycles taking place, driven by a dynamic balance between self-
focusing, plasma defocusing, self-phase modulation, group velocity
dispersion and self-steepening.
549
Fig. 14. Schematic representation of focusing/defocusing cycles during filamentation
[36].
As a general rule, the critical power to induce filamentation in
transparent solid materials for a 100 fs laser pulse corresponds to a
pulse energy in the order of 1 µJ [209].
Filamentation can be exploited in materials processing to deliver
high intensity pulses perpendicular to the interface of fused silica
blocks, creating reliable welded joints. With an appropriate choice of
parameters, successful welding of dissimilar materials has been dem-
onstrated [75].
Water-assisted processes have also been shown to efficiently
cut and drill soda-lime glass [25]. A layer of water has been
exploited above glass plates to induce filamentation of femtosec-
ond pulses, allowing the generation of objects with complex
shapes and micro-channels with aspect ratios of 1:20. These
results have been achieved without the use of high numerical
aperture optics but using galvanometric scanners equipped with
f-theta lenses for flexible and efficient manufacturing. A physical
model of water-assisted filamentation has also been developed
[26] and applied to determining the optimal focal position
required to guarantee the onset of filamentation just above the
sample surface. In this way, excessive energy loss within the
water can be avoided, while plasma confinement, debris removal
and a reduction in thermal effects can be achieved. Water-
assisted processes have been further enhanced in terms of cut
quality and complexity by using a low thickness, and a sacrificial
glass layer above the workpiece [27]. This secondary plate, dis-
carded at the end of the process, can strongly reduce the pres-
ence of defects on the processed part given that free-gap
coupling between the workpiece and secondary glass layer can be
obtained during the process.
While filamentation and other nonlinear effects can be exploited
and controlled to increase process performance, in some cases they
can have detrimental effects when tight control of the focusing vol-
ume in the beam propagation direction is required, such as during
generation of optical waveguides [178]. A simple technique to over-
come self-focusing and filamentation has been presented in [119]. It
is based on splitting the laser pulse into two coherent and parallel
beams that, when focused into a transparent medium, maintain a
sharp spectral response with reduced spatial aberration at the cost of
an overall power reduction due to spatial filtering of the original
Gaussian beam.
2.7. LIPSS
Laser Induced Periodic Surface Structures (LIPSS) appear as a
series of reliefs generated by ablation and oxidation with some kind
of cyclic regularity and with periodicity comparable or lower than
the laser wavelength λ. LIPSS are a characteristic signature of ultra-
short laser processing.
Since the introduction of the term ''Laser Induced Periodic Surface
Structures'' in 1982 many research findings on LIPSS have appeared
in literature. However, despite the large amount of published experi-
mental data and proposed models, not all the phenomena classified
under this generic term have been fully explained.
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566

A practical detailed classification of the different kinds of LIPSS
depending on the periodicity, on the orientation with respect to the
polarization plane and on the substrate material can be found in [20],
presented by Bonse et al. and reported in Figure 15
Marangoni forces induced by a periodic modulation of the tempera-
ture profile caused by an interference pattern [72].
A model that explicitly considers the effect of oxidation is the
Nonlinear Laser Lithography method (NLL). It is based on a balance
between positive and negative feedback due to the interaction of the
laser pulse with the dipole field induced by some topographic defects
on the surface [173].
A simplified scheme of LIPSS formation induced by the surface
topography is shown in Figure 17.

Fig. 15. Classification scheme of the laser induced periodic structures [20].

By following this classification, the periodicity of LIPSS LLIPSS

varies between λ=2 and λ for Low Spatial Frequency LIPSS (LSFL)
resulting in the sub-micron range for the usual laser wavelengths.
High Spatial Frequency LIPSS (HSFL) are shorter as they lie in the
100 nm and sub 100 nm range and they generally appear by applying
a high number of pulses at low fluence.
LIPSS generation can be considered a laser-based surface nanoma-
nufacturing process with the possibility to generate quasi-regular,
non-deterministic structures, overcoming the diffraction limit inside
the focal spot and without the need of expensive and complex vac-
uum systems. Typical examples of LIPSS on metals and silicon are
shown in Figure 16. LIPSS was also demonstrated on dielectrics [223,
268], glasses [149, 268], polymers [151, 152, 191] and bio-polymers
[163].

Fig. 17. A simplified explanation of the NLL model for LIPSS generation. (a) and (b) rep-
resent direct ablation by pulses with focal diameter d; the defect in (c) induce a dipole
field that causes the laser intensity diffraction (d); each topographic relief caused by
ablation/oxidation act as a source of diffraction (e) resulting in a quasi-regular distribu-
tion (f).

It should be emphasized that, in all the theoretical models, an

Fig. 16. Examples of LIPSS obtained with a 1030 nm femtosecond laser, pulse duration
230 fs pulses: (a) LSFL on silicon. (b) LSFL on AISI 316 generated with elliptic polariza-
tion, (c) highly regular LIPSS on molybdenum, (d) presence of HSFL in the valleys of
LSFL on AISI 316.
ultrashort pulse duration is not a requirement for the sub-wave-
length spatial modulation of energy. In fact the first LIPSS were
observed using a ruby laser [13]. The link between the duration of
the pulse and the formation of LIPSS must be sought in the possibility
of freezing the effects of energy modulation on the material.
Although LIPSS appear as quasi-regular, non-deterministic struc-
tures, the request of regularity depends by the application. Figure 18
shows a simplified classification based on the concepts of regularity,
i.e. the inverse of the dispersion of period, orientation, peak-valley
distance or other cyclic characteristic and on the presence of

Different physical models have been presented to explain the for-

mation of LIPSS, some of which take into account the phenomena
occurring during the single pulse while some others are driven by a
multiple pulse sequence. The readers are directed to [21] for a
detailed review. The first accepted model explaining some of the
LIPSS types was proposed by Sipe et al. in [88] where the interaction
between the laser electromagnetic wave and the micro roughness
contained in the so-called “selvedge region” creates Surface Electro-
magnetic Waves (SEWs) at the material interface. This electrody-
namic theory was further extended by other authors as in [17, 81],
where LIPSS follow by the excitation of coherent Surface Plasmon
Polariton (SPP) by SEWs.
Other approaches are based on the evaluation of hydrodynamics Fig. 18. A schematic representation of the relationship between regularity, determin-
instabilities where it is supposed that LIPSS growth is driven by istic position and possible applications.
 L. Orazi et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566
deterministic structures, that is the possibility to produce topo-
graphic features with high positional accuracy as obtainable by
photo-lithography. The concurrent realization of both deterministic
and regular structures could be obtained, in principle, by clamping
the phase of the periodic distribution with the use of some point
defect on the surface but. At the moment, this appears beyond the
capability of LIPSS based processes.
In the case of polished surfaces, LIPSS can be highly regular.
Experiments show that regularity basically depends by the material
to process. In [69] authors presented a model to predict LIPSS regular-
ity based on the decay length of the Surface Plasmon Polaritons,
which is related to the material permeability.
LIPSS generation became interesting for applications with the
availability of ultrafast lasers with a repetition rate in the MHz regime
(section 3.4) and fast scanner systems (section 3.7). These two factors
opened the field for uniform treatment of large areas and a plethora
of applications of LIPSS based processes were published. The use of
LIPSS to control wettability was demonstrated on different metallic
alloys [105]. As verified in [14], laser induced texturing generates
metallic hydrophilic surfaces that turn to hydrophobic and superhy-
drophobic after an appropriate aging. Hydrophobic and super-hydro-
phobic behaviors were also demonstrated on silicon [280] and on
PMMA [256]. One of the most interesting characteristics of the LIPSS
based processes is the possibility to orientate the wettability proper-
ties on the surface. In [177] the control of the polarization plane ori-
entation caused the surface of AISI 316 became hydrophobic in one
direction while maintaining wettability in the other.
Tribology is another field of application of LIPSS for several rea-
sons: the reduction of the contact area, the creation of a high aspect
ratio reservoir for lubricant and oxides at the micro and sub-micro
scale and the generation of an oxide thin layer of controlled thick-
ness. Several alloys were treated, including stainless steel [68], mold
steel and titanium [18] and metal matrix composites [115]. Particu-
larly interesting are the results on Ti alloy in the presence of engine
oil lubricant, while, as expected the main drawback of the method is
the short duration in the case of severe wear.The depth effected by
ultrafast laser structuring is limited to few hundreds of nanometers
and can be quickly worn. LIPSS were more widely employed to
improve adhesive strength on Ti sheet bonding [204] and to decrease
the friction on the face rake of carbide cutting tools inserts [51, 52].
Recent work exploited the application of LIPSS on mold surfaces to
reduce drag force during polymer injection. Results obtained on PET
[232] and on Polypropylene [145] suggest that the LIPSS oriented
along the polymer flow direction can induce wall slip condition, espe-
cially in case of thin-wall injection conditions.
3. Technological advances in ultrafast laser sources
Shortly after demonstration of the first flashlamp pumped ruby
laser by Maiman in 1960 [134], scientists developed methods for gen-
erating giant pulses [146], obtaining pulse durations in the nanosec-
ond range through the use of mechanical and optical Q-switches.
This technology is based on optical gain modulation (the Q factor)
achieved with rotating shutters or mirrors, or opto-acoustic switches
exploiting the Kerr effect. The gain factor is lowered for a period of
time, allowing the laser cavity to absorb energy and generate a strong
population inversion. A sudden periodic increases in the gain factor
induces stimulated emission and generates pulses with a peak power
depending on the duty cycle i.e. the ratio between the active lasing
time and period over which energy is accumulated until the next
pulse cycle.
There is a limit to the minimum pulse duration t P obtainable with
Q-switch technology. The technique assumes that t P  t cav where
t cav is the time required for light to travel a round trip along the
entire length of the cavity. Tcav ¼ 2Lcav =c where Lcav is the geometric
cavity length and c the speed of light. For a more accurate calculation,
c should be substituted with the group velocity vg , the velocity of the
pulse peak in the cavity medium. Gain modulation technology basi-
cally requires a uniform energy and photon distribution within the
cavity. The length of industrial cavities (from centimetres for crystals,
551
to meters for fibre-based oscillators) limits the minimum pulse dura-
tion t P to about 500 ps.
Shorter pulses can only be generated by constraining energy to a
small portion of the laser cavity. These packets of photons oscillate
within the cavity, the resulting output being a train of ultrashort
pulses emitted at a frequency of 1=t cav separated in space by 2 Lcav .
This operating mode universally denominated mode locking [168],
and was first demonstrated using a dye laser [43]. It consists of induc-
ing phase relationships between the different longitudinal oscillating
modes inside the cavity. This is obtained using nonlinear absorbers
(passive mode locking) or active modulators in phase with the pulses
oscillating in the cavity (active mode locking). A brief review of these
aspects can be found in [102, 103], with the descriptions of the most
common mode-locking systems employed in scientific and industrial
lasers. The development of semiconductor saturable absorber mirrors
(SESAMs) in the 90s paved the way for the new generation of high
pulse energy Ti:sapphire lasers [100, 101]. SESAMs behave like mir-
rors, with their reflectivity increasing with light intensity as shown in
Figure 19. Incident photons are absorbed by semiconductor films if
energy exceeds the bandgap. In case of a high photon density, con-
duction band saturation and concurrent valence band depletion
increase reflectivity.
Fig. 19. Example of SESAMs reflectivity variation with incident pulse fluence [102].
The reflectivity of the film increases to an asymptotic value corre-
sponding to the residual non-saturable losses DRns . When a SESAM is
inserted into a laser cavity, the leading and trailing parts of the pulse
are absorbed while the high-intensity peak is reflected as a shorter
pulse that will travel back inducing mode-locking. These devices
obtained by epitaxial semiconductor deposition are widely used for
both solid-state and fibre lasers. They can be designed to optimize
optical and operational parameters like the wavelength, pulse dura-
tion and damage threshold. An important characteristic of the SESAM
architecture is their reliable self-starting mode-locking.
Another approach implemented within modern ultrafast lasers is
Kerr Lens Mode-locking (KLM). The theoretical basis for this phenom-
enon, first observed in [233] (magic mode-locking), can be found in
[210] and [165] where readers are addressed for mathematical
details. KLM architecture exploits a Kerr medium within the cavity,
such as the Ti:sapphire rod itself. Self-focusing induced by the nonlin-
ear refractive index (see section 2.6) is coupled with a calibrated hard
aperture allowing the passage of high intensity self-focused pulse
peak while partially blocking unfocused CW and spurious modes, as
shown in Figure 20. By maintaining the cavity set-up close to the CW
mode stability limit, KLM can sustain self mode-locking.
Another version of KLM is based on the use of a “soft aperture”. In
this case, self-focusing temporarily increases the coupling of the
pulse with a tightly focused pump beam, while CW and spurious
modes are subjected to lower gain.
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566
Fig. 20. Kerr lens mode-locking schematic [102].
One of the main drawbacks of KLM architecture is that it is not
self-starting and it is generally very sensitive to cavity misalignment.
Laser activation is obtained by shaking one of the optical components
with a piezoelectric device or by inducing temporal energy fluctua-
tions within the resonator. KLM Ti:sapphire oscillators can generate
very short, few optical cycles, high energy pulses [245]
The latest advances in ultrashort pulse laser engineering are pre-
sented in the following sections.
3.1. Pulse duration
Current industrial-grade lasers generally fall within two groups
depending on the pulse duration. A large set of industrial laser sys-
tems are based on Nd and Yb-doped crystals, fibres and thin disk
oscillators operating with a fixed pulse duration on the order of
10 ps. These pulses, once amplified generate an average power of
approximately 100 W and a repetition rate in the MHz regime [77].
This pulse duration is comparable with the electron-phonon relaxa-
tion time of many materials (see section 2.3) and it is often a good
compromise between ablation rate and surface quality. For some
materials such as sapphire, the range 10-20 ps appears to be an opti-
mal choice in terms of ablation rate [59].
Another group of industrial-grade laser systems emit pulses with
durations almost two orders of magnitude lower, in the range of
200 fs, with pulse energy below 1 mJ and average power in the range
10-100 W. Some of these are equipped with a pulse stretcher to tune
the pulse duration in the range 200 fs - 20 ps.
Most manufacturers of ultrashort laser produce reliable multi-
watt sources based on KLM Ti:Sapphire technology with pulse dura-
tions below 100 fs, down to a current limit of 25 fs. Despite elevated
average power and pulse energy, such sources usually feature under
“scientific applications” within product catalogues. This is mainly due
to their low repetition rate, well below 10 kHz, which strongly limits
their application to manufacturing.
Despite this, several recent investigations have presented exam-
ples of multi-watt femtosecond lasers operating with pulse durations
below 100 fs. Examples can be found in [158], with a Yb:Lu2 O3 thin
disk emitting 21 W at a repetition rate of 48 MHz, and recently in
[148], where a diode-pumped Yb:CGA solid state laser exhibited sta-
ble emission of 93 fs pulses with an average power of almost 5 W at a
repetition rate of 80 MHz. These examples are based on two
completely different architectures, KLM for [158] and SESAM for
[148], representing a clear indication of the upcoming availability of
high power, high repetition rate sub-100 fs laser sources. This indica-
tion, supported by the trend shown in Figure 21, opens up interesting
Fig. 21. Historical progress of average power in the sub 100-fs pulse duration regime. New
modern Yb-based oscillators are promising for application in laser manufacturing [158]
possibilities for micro-machining of polymers and bio-polymers,
where the shortest possible pulses can be beneficial [59].
3.2. Energy per pulse
In the case of direct amplification of ultra-short pulses, the inten-
sity of the laser beam quickly reaches the damage threshold of the
active material in the cavity and this limited, for years, the maximum
achievable energy per pulse. Things suddenly changed in 1985 with
the publication of the milestone paper of Strickland and Mourou on
Chirped Pulse Amplification (CPA) [240].
The basic steps of CPA are to stretch the pulse duration by two or
three orders of magnitude, to safely increase the energy of the same
factor by amplifying it and recompressing it to increase the peak
power. These steps are shown in Figure 22.
Fig. 22. Schematic of the Chirped Pulse Amplification. Pulse generated by oscillator is
chirped, i.e. stretched in function of the wavelengths by using a pair of diffraction gra-
tings. The stretching factor permits a safe amplification of the pulse that is finally
recompressed by the same factor (Courtesy of Choerent, Inc.).
Stretching is performed by chirping, i.e. by varying the instanta-
neous frequency of the pulse light, while the compression is based on
the opposite transformation. In principle, by using two pairs of dif-
fraction gratings, it is possible to stretch and re-compress pulses
reproducing the original temporal and spectral distribution.
In fiber based ultrashort lasers the pulse stretching is directly
obtained in the oscillators through the nonlinear dispersion of the
fiber while other advanced methods are implemented for ultra-high
power systems [269].
Architectures of ultrashort pulse amplifiers fall in two groups: in
multipass amplifiers the optical path is folded and the pulses travel a
finite number of times through the gain medium, usually a crystal as
shown in Figure 23. Number of passes and path geometry are opti-
mized for the efficient coupling with active media.
In regenerative amplifiers the gain medium is placed inside the
optical cavity, fast electro-optic or acousto-optic modulators act as
gates by periodically allowing single pulses to enter in the cavity and
controlling the pulse emission.
During past 15 years, multipass and regenerative amplifiers are
increasingly switched from Ti:Sapphire to Yb doped material as gain
media. While Ti:Sapphire architectures are strictly based on slab
geometry, thin-disk and fibers are used in case of Ytterbium for their
high effectiveness in cooling.
The graph in Figure 24 shows the current state of the art in term of
pulse energy, repetition rate and overall power generated by thin
disk, fiber and slab architectures [212]. Several milestones were
 L. Orazi et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566
Fig. 23. Schematic representation of light paths in a) multipass and b) regenerative
amplifier.
Fig. 24. State of the art characteristics of ultrafast laser based on different geometries
[212].
reached in term of pulse energy: in the range 0.1
1 MHz, typical for
many manufacturing processes, a pulse energy of more than 1 mJ can
be obtained both from thin-disk and fiber geometry.
3.3. Wavelengths
For many years, the fundamental wavelengths generated by ultra-
short laser sources were limited to 800 nm for Ti:Sapphire and 1030-
1070 nm for Nd and Yb based systems. Nowadays, higher harmonics
can be obtained by Second and Third Harmonic Generators (SHG,
THG respectively). High efficiency, high power harmonic generators
have become available in recent years for both picosecond and fem-
tosecond regimes [106,188,277].
These harmonic generators are currently available as separate
devices and many producers distribute laser systems that integrate
them. In addition to the fundamental wavelength, these systems
have outputs at 515-532 nm and 343-355 nm which are switchable
by software and with an overall efficiency not less than 50% and 30%
respectively.
For industrial applications, longer wavelengths can be obtained by
using different lanthanides as dopants for gain media. Among them
Thulium, Erbium and Olmium are already employed, in particular
Thulium based lasers are available since almost two decades.
Thulium fiber systems operating in the picosecond and sub-pico-
second regime [60,62,220] and Olmium thin disk amplifiers [28]
were recently presented: the combination of the mid IR emission at
» 2 µm and the short pulse duration has been selected in welding of
bio-polymers [205].
While for continuous wave (CW) and ns pulsed lasers, the use of
different gain media is the only method to change the fundamental
553
wavelength, the nonlinear phenomena characterizing ultrashort sys-
tems open completely different possibilities and in the last 20 years
the Optical Parametric Amplifiers (OPA) became a valuable tool for
scientific applications.
A comprehensive description of the physical background of Opti-
cal Parametric Generation (OPG) can be found in [29] where the read-
ers can find more details. OPG occurs in suitable nonlinear crystals
like beta-barium borate (BBO) or lithium triborate (LBO). In these
nonlinear crystals the energy of a beam having short wavelength and
high intensity (pump beam) is transferred to amplify a signal of lower
intensity and longer wavelength (signal beam) with a subsequent
generation of a third beam (idler beam) at a further longer wave-
length. Energy conservation is guaranteed by equation hvp ¼ hvs þ h
vi where vp , vs and vi (vi < vs < vp ) are the three beam frequencies,
while momentum conservation respects the equation  hkp ¼ hks þ hki
given the three wave vectors kp , ks and ki . This nonlinear phenom-
enon requires high power density, comprised between GW/cm2
and TW/cm2, that can be found, confined in time, during ultrashort
pulsing.
Two main applications are exploited: if OPG crystal with a positive
gain is put inside a cavity it operates as an optical parametric oscilla-
tor (OPO), but in this case the need of resonant mirrors can limits the
spectral tunability.
OPG crystals are widely used to amplify a “seed” beam signal in
order to obtain an optical parametric amplifier. Different architec-
tures of OPAs are thus implemented: compact, industrial grade sys-
tems are based on collinear architecture between the seed and the
pump pulse, while for Terawatt and Petawatt systems architectures
based on non-collinear, chirped pulse amplifier are frequently used
[125]. One of the interesting characteristics of the OPAs is that,
despite the low ratio between output power and pumping power,
the OPG process is not dissipative by principle, making it suitable for
very high pulse energy/intensity. Examples of full fibre OPAs are par-
ticularly attractive because of their easy implementation but their
performances currently limit the application to bio-photonics and
surgery [189] and are not employed in material processing.
The scheme in Figure 25 describes the modulation of the output
wavelength from a collinear OPA. The signal wavelength is basically
controlled by introducing a variable delay line operating on the phase
matching between the pump (the signal beam of the OPG) and the
stretched seed pulses.
Fig. 25. Schematic concept of the interaction between pump pulse and seed pulse in a
collinear OPA. The spectral and temporal distribution of the amplified pulse is con-
trolled by the stretching of the seed pulse and the delay (phase-matching) between
pump and seed pulses, [55].
Current trends in research and development aim to further
increase the overall power and the tuneable wavelength range that
can actually span well over an octave [55]. The majority of these sys-
tems are employed for pump-probe analysis or, in the case of mid-IR
wavelength, for biomedical applications. The main drawback for the
industrial use of these systems is the delivery of ultrashort pulses of
variable wavelengths to the workpiece. A recent study on the optimi-
zation of micromachining process by tuning the wavelength through
OPAs is found in [176]. An example of wavelength tunability range of
a commercially available system (femtosecond laser combined with
multi-output OPA) is shown in Figure 26.
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566
Fig. 26. Example of a wavelength tunability for a commercially available system span-
ning over 6 octaves (Courtesy of Light Conversion).
3.4. Repetition rate
Ti:Sapphire laser architecture was the first technology that gener-
ated sub-100 fs pulses in the mJ range. Nowadays, commercially
available Ti:Sapphire sources for industrial applications are charac-
terized by an average power of few tens of Watts and pulses of sev-
eral mJ with a peak power in the order of GW.
While Ti:Sapphire oscillators work at tens of MHz in nJ range,
their relatively low quantum efficiency and the bulk geometry reduce
the cooling efficiency when used as amplifiers. In addition, high
energy pulses are emitted with repetition rate from few tens of Hz to
few kHz, and this low throughput limits the application of Ti:Sap-
phire sources in manufacturing and industrial applications. Higher
performances could be attained by implementing cryogenic cooling
but this increases the system complexity and operational costs, so
cryogenic cooling is normally reserved to high energy physics appli-
cations where a further increase of the peak power at very low repe-
tition rate is needed [184].
In recent years a new generation of high repetition rate systems
based on the ytterbium fibre master oscillator/power amplifier
(MOPA) architecture appeared on the market. This architecture is
basically the sequence of a fibre oscillator operating at tens of MHz, a
pulse picker and a fibre amplifier normally operating at a lower fre-
quency. Advances in electronic boards and an accurate control of the
nonlinear effects induced in the long fibre path permit a very flexible
regulation of the repetition rate while maintaining the full output
power in the range from few kHz to the maximum oscillator fre-
quency [117], and with the possibility to operate in burst mode with
full energy pulses.
By increasing the repetition rate in the GHz range ultrashort lasers
operate in a regime where the temporal distance between pulses is
comparable with the characteristic time of thermal diffusion and
well below the re-solidification time (see section 2.5).
At the GHz repetition rate, cavities with typical length of 100 mm
or less can difficulty sustain pulse generation. Ultra-high frequencies
are obtained thanks to repetition rate multipliers: these are based on
cascades of delay lines each of which doubles the input frequency
and concurrently splits the energy per pulse [50]. An analysis of the
direct effects of frequency on the ablation rate can be found in [265];
in this work, femtosecond ablation of aluminium and copper at dif-
ferent repetition rate of 0.88, 1.76 and 3.52 GHz is investigated show-
ing that it is possible to achieve removal rates comparable to what
obtainable with nanosecond pulses.
3.5. Burst Mode
Ultrashort laser processing guarantees high quality, low heat
affected zone and a defect-free operating window. Nevertheless, the
research on high removal rate by increasing laser power, especially
in case of metals, is limited by saturation and heat accumulation [8],
Fig. 27. Schematic of burst generation in a MOPA ultrashort laser systems.
[57]. One method to overcome this limitation is the use of a peculiar
operating mode of ultrafast mode-locked laser: the burst mode,
depicted in Figure 27.
The modular architecture of modern ultrafast laser system based
on oscillator, pulse picker and amplifier permits, thanks to the appro-
priate design of the pulse picker module [126, 197] to select and
modulate trains of n ultrashort pulses with duration t p to be sent to
amplifier obtaining, under the appropriate conditions, the maximum
pulse energy at the oscillator repetition rate Dtp
1 ranging from few
teens to hundreds of MHz.
The use of burst mode to increase the removal rate in semicon-
ductors is analysed and successfully demonstrated in [167]. Good
results for silicon and tungsten carbide are moreover confirmed by
recent work as in [150]. While burst mode are effective for semicon-
ductors the results on metals shown in [167] appear unclear and
these results are confirmed by other investigations in [111, 89] and
[22]. The majority of these investigations of the effect of burst mode
on metals are based on Yb picosecond systems working both with
the fundamental wavelength and second harmonic. Intra-burst fre-
quencies Dtp
1 for these systems are of about 80 MHz while burst
repetition rate Dtb
1 vary in the 100 kHz range.
To increase the effectiveness of burst mode on processing metals,
a further increase of the pulse repetition rate in the GHz regime was
investigated. Under this approach an appropriate choice of burst
mode parameters can sustain the so-called ablation-cooled material
removal regime [104]. Under this regime it is not necessary that the
energy of a single pulse overcomes the ablation threshold. This per-
mits one to obtain a higher ratio between the ablated material and
the energy diffused in the material bulk while the energy emitted by
the single pulse, once the critical temperature is reach during burst,
can efficiently ablate material as shown in Figure 28.
Fig. 28. Schematic of the two phases ablation mechanism in burst mode, accumulation
in the heating time t h and removal material in the ablation step t a [265].
Authors in [50] operated a Yb all-fibre ultrafast laser with a pulse
duration t p » 300 fs, a pulse repetition rate of 1.6 GHz, that means
Dtp = 625 ps, and 200 kHz of burst repetition rate Dtb . Under these
conditions a removal rate of several mm3 =s was obtained on copper
and silicon with pulse energy of » 100 nJ for an overall power of
24 W. Scalability of the removal rate with laser power operating in
burst mode with GHz is moreover confirmed in [16] where the
removal rate on copper are comparable of what obtainable with ns
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566
laser with mJ energy pulses and, at the same time, the surface quality
is typical of the femtosecond regime.
3.6. kW and multi kW systems
In the last years, the request for material processing and
manufacturing applications drove the development of ultrashort
laser systems capable of satisfying the throughput rate for mass pro-
duction. This driver allowed industry to reach and rapidly overcome
the milestone of 1 kW average power with a single ultrashort beam.
In the past, the use of multi-pass, Yb doped slab crystals amplifier
was considered as a potential way for high average power. Innoslab
amplifier [207] demonstrated the generation of 1.1 kW operating at
20 MHz with pulse energy of 55 µJ. The complex architecture of that
system is shown in Figure 29 and readers can refer to [208] for a
detailed description.
Fig. 29. Multipass, solid-state Innoslab laser [207].
Fibre based amplifiers are characterized by compactness and reli-
ability. A decade ago, a fiber-based amplifier in a classic CPA configu-
ration permitted the generation of 0.83 kW operating at 80 MHz with
more than 10 µJ of energy per pulse
The 1 kW threshold was broken also by ultrafast lasers based on
the competing thin-disk technology (TDL). In [171], a TLD regenera-
tive amplifier guaranteed a very high quality 1.1 ps ultrashort beam-
line with M2 = 1.1. The regenerative configuration setup, shown in
Figure 30 results in a relatively low repetition in the kHz regime but
with a remarkable value of 200 mJ per pulse.
Fig. 30. Optical setup of high pulse energy TDL system [171]
The 1 kW threshold was passed by femtosecond laser emitting
pulses with 2 µm wavelength trough a Thulium based fiber MOPA
architecture [60].
The use of phase stabilization systems that permit a coherent
combination of beams permitted the scaling-up of power emitted by
different amplifiers. In [160] ultrashort pulses generated by a 80 MHz
oscillator are split in twelve channels and singularly amplified. The
555
Fig. 31. Combined fibre laser for 10.4 kW [160].
use of motorized mirrors controls the beam phase of eleven of them
(Figure 31), obtaining a singular 245 fs, high quality beam for a total
power of 10.4 kW.
3.7. Advances in delivering ultrashort pulses
Handling of ultrashort pulsed laser beams puts the highest
demands on optical components. While the average power of ultra-
fast lasers is usually low, the pulse peak power and consequently the
intensity are very high. Thus, the highest risk for optical components
is determined in the best case by direct laser induced damage by
optical breakdown in the substrate or otherwise by imperfections
leading to higher absorption and thermal damage [138]. Therefore,
the dielectric optical coating is commonly the limiting factor in the
performance of optical components. To achieve a high laser induced
damage threshold value, a well-controlled coating process is neces-
sary to avoid imperfections and consequently absorption which can
cause localized melting or thermal stress. Usually plasma reactive
sputtering, thermal evaporation or ion-beam technologies are
applied for coating deposition. Furthermore, internal reflections can
be averaged over multiple layers, to avoid high intensity within a rel-
atively small number of layers. Optical components with LIDT in a
range of up to 5 to 10 J/cm2 are available for e.g. a 1030 nm ultrafast
laser with 500 fs pulse duration[61].
While in most optical components, laser induced damage can be
avoided by adjusting the beam diameter, this is not possible for fibre
optics. Ultrafast laser beam delivery using conventional fibres is pre-
vented as a tightly focused beam leads to damage by self-focusing of
the beam and optical breakdown in the fibre silica [229]. Comparing
to free space, there are many advantages of using fibres for beam
delivery, especially in an industrial environment. Therefore, in the
last two decades, novel hollow core photonic crystal fibres have been
developed [37] and are available for industrial use over the past few
years. These fibres have a microstructured hollow core filled with air
or gas in which the beam propagates. As direct interaction with the
fibre silica material is avoided, a significantly higher damage thresh-
old can be achieved. The transmission of a single mode ultrafast laser
beam with an average power up to 1 kW and 300 µJ pulse energy
was successfully shown [58].
In the last decade, significant progress has been made in the
development of industry-ready micro drilling and cutting optics, too.
Conventionally, deep cut kerfs and drill holes suffer from tapered
walls due to the natural beam divergence and shadowing effects. As
many applications require precise cutting edges and taper angles in
the micrometre range, precession optics with up to 7 galvanometric
and/or rotational axes have been developed by several companies
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566
[142]. The most sophisticated products offer precession frequencies
up to several hundred Hz with a tuneable angle of incidence in a
range of up to §16°. By controlling the angles of incident beam, zero
taper angled walls and even negative tapered holes can be achieved.
Furthermore, polarization and full beam shape rotation is achievable
which enables high circularity and homogeneous edge quality. As the
rotation of galvanometric axes can be directly controlled, complex
hole shapes such as ellipses or rectangles are possible [87].
Deflection of a focused laser beam is conventionally done by gal-
vanometer scanning systems which allow for random-access scan-
ning with deflection speeds up to several tens of m/s. Yet, there are
several applications in which an increasing interest for even higher
deflection angle speeds is present. One example is microstructuring
with a sufficiently low lateral pulse-to-pulse overlap [213]. To trans-
fer this ability to ultrashort pulsed laser machining with repetition
rates exceeding the MHz range, new concepts for scanning systems
have been introduced. A very promising concept is polygon scanner,
which consists of a fast rotating polygon mirror with about eight fac-
ets for beam deflection in one direction combined with galvanomet-
ric driven mirrors for deflection in the perpendicular direction and
for aberration compensation. However, only fixed scanning paths are
possible, potentially leading to low duty cycles of the laser source.
Commercially available polygon scanners offer deflection speeds up
to 100 m/s. The high scanning speeds lead to increased pulse posi-
tioning jitter due to demanding conditions in synchronization
between laser and scanning system. Thus, these systems are best
suited for high-power, high-repetition rate large area material
removal or single pulse drilling of thin foils [128].
Instead of scanning a single spot over the workpiece, an alterna-
tive approach is to apply beam shaping to utilize high ultrafast laser
power. The idea behind this is to ablate large areas or spot patterns
simultaneously with an adapted intensity distribution in the focal
plane of a lens. Highest efficiency is achieved with phase modulation
techniques. These are based on the manipulation of the phase of the
collimated beam which leads to a manipulation of the intensity dis-
tribution in the focal plane of the focusing optics. Using iterative
Fourier-transform algorithms such as the well-known Gerchberg-
Saxton, the required phase masks can be calculated for any desired
intensity distribution [230]. Besides static beam shaping components
which are conventionally made of fused silica by a costly etching pro-
cess [114], dynamic beam shaping devices are also available. Most
frequently discussed are spatial light modulators based on a pixelated
liquid crystals layer on silicon substrate (LCOS-SLM) which offer the
possibility to flexibly control the phase, thus the beam shape by elec-
tronics [66]. Localized phase control is achieved by changing the volt-
age of single pixels which influences the orientation of the liquid
crystals consequently changing the local refractive index. Such LCOS-
SLM usually operates in the reflection mode to allow for better cool-
ing by attaching heat sinks to the backside [10]. Such beam shaping
modules are commercially available for ultrafast laser beams with
average laser power up to 300 W and frame rates of 60 Hz. Com-
monly, at even higher laser power levels they suffer from thermal
drifts, which leads to reduced diffraction efficiency and beam shape
instability [279].
4. Manufacturing processes
Femtosecond laser irradiation exhibits major advantages over lon-
ger pulse durations for precision manufacturing processes. Superior
flexibility through precise control of energy density allows surface
structuring and bulk machining to be performed on almost any mate-
rial. These processes have become commonplace within manufactur-
ing environments and the relevant aspects of laser-material
interaction reported in Chapter 2 are the testimony for the increasing
use of ultrashort pulse laser sources in the fabrication of mesoscale
components. The removal of material without significant transfer of
heat into surrounding areas is in fact the most unique advantage of
femtosecond laser pulses and the following sections will report on
the relative manufacturing improvements in last five years.
4.1. Cutting
Laser cutting performed with continuous wave beam, millisecond
and nanosecond pulses exhibits limitations in terms of processing
materials that are sensitive to thermal load. In contrast, the unique
interaction of femtosecond laser pulses with such materials offer a
less invasive alternative for cutting various kinds of materials with
negligible thermal damage such as metals, ceramics, glass, polymers,
CFRP composites and even organic tissues.
Femtosecond laser cutting of metals (copper, stainless steel and
Ni-alloys) [82] has been widely used for the production of coronary
and biliary stents with extremely high quality; the resulting cut edges
are smooth and free of burrs and deposited particles. Novel irradia-
tion strategies such as pulse bursts [111] and polygon scanners capa-
ble of scanning speeds up to several hundred meters per second
[113] have recently allowed ultrafast laser technology to prevail over
much cheaper fibre lasers emitting longer laser pulses. High aspect
ratio kerfs have been obtained while cutting Inconel 738 superalloy
[263], a strengthened nickel-base super-alloy containing refractory
elements that is extensively used for manufacturing hot section com-
ponents in both aerospace and gas turbines. Ultrafast laser cutting of
lithium-ion battery electrodes is also becoming an important applica-
tion of femtosecond lasers [273], with increasing available average
power allowing precise cutting of graphite-copper wafers up to a
thickness of 0.5 mm.
Femtosecond lasers exhibit even greater potential for cutting sen-
sitive and delicate materials such as glass. Chemically strengthened
glass used in smartphones and tablets can be cut into elaborate
shapes by creating internal micro-cracks using femtosecond laser
pulses [182]. Cutting of 100 µm thick aluminoborosilicate flexible
glass sheets has been demonstrated. In terms of brittle materials, sen-
sitive to mechanical stress induced by thermal transients, femtosec-
ond lasers have been successfully demployed for the processing of
sintered alumina with a thickness of 250 µm at an overall processing
speed of 143 µm/s [175]. Shaping of extremely high hardness tools
such as binderless polycrystalline diamond (BLPCD) has also be
achieved using femtosecond laser pulses [172], opening up a wide
range of applications relating to edge sharpening and functionalisa-
tion (e.g. for low wear, tribological resistance etc...).
Polymers, in particular, are very sensitive to increases in tempera-
ture and are usually optically transparent at laser wavelengths in the
visible and near infrared. Femtosecond laser pulses can therefore
achieve a cut quality that is unmatched with almost any other
machining process. Due to their transparency, the interaction of fem-
tosecond laser pulses with polymers is mainly through nonlinear
absorption, as reported in section 2.1. The non-thermal nature of the
ablation process ensures that material properties are maintained,
even in areas immediately adjacent to the cut edge. For example, con-
tour cutting of PMMA by ultrashort pulse laser ablation has been
demonstrated as a superior alternative to machine diamond tools for
the production of ophthalmic intraocular lenses. Ablation of polysty-
rene (PS) foils has revealed that thermal effects at the focal position
are more pronounced with a smaller focused laser spot size [254].
Femtosecond laser cutting of soft materials with low thermal diffu-
sivity should therefore be performed with controlled defocusing to
distribute the thermal load over a larger volume and avoid associated
damage. Similar considerations are valid in the case of cutting bio-
compatible polymers such as polycaprolactone (PCL) for biomedical
devices [137].
4.2. Drilling
Important geometric characteristics of holes are difficult to
achieve with conventional laser sources, including precise entrance
and exit diameters, elevated roundness, low wall roughness and low
conicity [276]. Comparing to conventional single-pulse drilling, per-
cussion drilling and trepanning, femtosecond laser drilling can yield
better performance if combined with drilling strategies that provide
the lowest irradiation transient on the workpiece. Such strategies,
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566
Fig. 32. (a) Schematic of a helical drilling system. (b) Three-dimensional helical path in
positive, negative conical and cylindrical profiles [74].
illustrated in Figure 32, involve helical/spiral motion of the laser
beam or subdivision of the drilling operation in multiple phases.
Single-pulse drilling is used when high processing speeds are nec-
essary and relatively low quality is acceptable, for example, the pro-
duction of pores in PMMA [272]. If a larger depth is required, a
greater number of pulses are necessary as more material must be
removed. Such an approach can also be used to improve process
accuracy by removing a smaller volume of material per pulse. This
has been found to be especially applicable for soft materials such as
polymers and rubbers [3], as well as some metal alloys [278]. Trepan-
ning instead employs a moving laser beam that follows a circular
path on the workpiece surface.
Trepanning is commonly employed to drill larger holes up to sev-
eral millimetres in diameter; however, it does not lead to good
results in terms of roundness. Despite that this approach exhibitin-
gexhibits less dependence on the laser intensity profile than for dril-
ling with a stationary focused laser beam, circular trepanning affects
the profile of the hole and its edge due to heat accumulation (par.
2.4). Spiral trepanning is therefore preferable, with the material ini-
tially removed from the core of the hole, where the spiral diameter is
close to zero, then progressively further from the centre up the nomi-
nal hole diameter [253].
Helical trepanning combines a spiral trajectory with adjustment
of the focal axis, enabling the hole profile to be changed. This can be
applied to producing convergent or divergent holes with respect to
the drilling direction [74]. If higher precision and drilling repeatabil-
ity is required, the process can be divided into a roughing phase,
where the core of the hole is removed, and a finishing phase, which
then smoothens the inner surface. This drilling strategy has been
used for the production of fuel injector nozzles requiring unique hole
geometries [203].
The main advantages of femtosecond pulse laser drilling include
efficiency of material removal due to highly localised deposition of
energy, precise material ablation thresholds, minimal thermal dam-
age and the possibility of structuring inner hole walls [199] to achieve
specific functionalities. These advantages make it possible to produce
high quality holes in solids by limiting laser fluence to slightly above
the ablation threshold. For practical applications such as drilling
holes with high aspect ratios or drilling at high speed, fluence levels
557
largely exceed the ablation threshold. At high laser fluence, energy
transfer into the material increases, as does the corresponding ther-
mal load. The per-pulse ablation depth is a function of both energy
transfer into the target through electron thermal conduction, and
creation of a mechanical shock wave via similar phenomena observed
during nanosecond and longer laser pulses. The considerable advan-
tages of femtosecond laser pulses are therefore of more limited influ-
ence in the high fluence regime. Reduced thermal conduction losses
and limited hydrodynamic expansion of ablation products nonethe-
less contribute to the production of holes with aspect ratios
approaching 10 [154].
Beam polarisation is of strong influence for high aspect ratio mul-
tiple-pulse drilling. This is due to polarisation-dependent reflections
from the hole walls, which can lead to non-uniform intensity distri-
butions and poor hole circularity. Early micro-drilling experiments
[170] revealed that the backside of the substrate is characterised by a
bulge overlapping the circular exit hole, perpendicular to the beam
polarisation direction. To overcome this unwanted effect, linear
polarisation of the laser beam can either be converted into circular
polarisation with a quarter-wave plate or a mechanically rotating
half-wave plate placed within the optical path. The latter solution
has been shown to be more robust, as the quarter-wave plate
requires very careful adjustment to fully compensate for polarisation
effects. Radial and tangential polarisation have also been investigated
[259], exhibiting increased efficiency especially for aspect ratios
greater than 3. Nevertheless, circular polarisation is still most com-
monly used for micro-drilling due to energy losses in polarisation
converters and difficulties in their setup.
4.3. Welding
The unique ability to locally deposit energy within the volume of a
transparent material enables the use of femtosecond laser pulses for
fusion welding of glass and polymers. Selective melting is possible at
the interface between two plates without damaging the upper or
lower surfaces. Crack-free overlap welding can be obtained with
most commercially available glass materials, even if their thermal
expansion coefficients are 10 times greater than fused silica. Intra-
thickness welding can be performed within the interior of transpar-
ent materials, thus hindering the emission of debris.
Welding of various glasses through nonlinear absorption, see Sec-
tion 2.1, of tightly focused ultrashort laser pulses has been studied
over the past decade [155]. Femtosecond laser welding of similar and
dissimilar materials has numerous applications in the production of
sensors, microfluidic devices and micro-electromechanical systems
(MEMS). The welded joint cross-section consists of a teardrop-shaped
inner region and an elliptical outer region. As glass does not exhibit a
clear melting point, the characteristic temperature of the outer struc-
ture is defined as the forming temperature of the glass, while the
inner structure corresponds to the region where the laser beam is
absorbed [156]. High repetition rate femtosecond lasers have proven
to be effective heat sources for fusion welding of glass, including con-
tinuous leakproof seams [198]. With correct modulation of the pulse
energy, glass substrates can be selectively melted at the interface
with no damage of the upper or lower surfaces and without the need
for absorbing layers. Conversely, if the volume of the molten zone
grows too rapidly, the resulting thermal expansion and contraction
can lead to crack formation. This drawback can be partially overcome
by using focusing objectives with a very high numerical aperture to
produce a more uniform temperature distribution [40]. Similar
equipment and principles have also been used for micro-welding of
cyclo-olefin copolymers [206]. Being transparent to the laser wave-
length, polymers can be selectively softened via nonlinear absorption
to seal two or more substrates.
Dissimilar transparent materials with large differences in melting
temperature and thermal expansion coefficient can be joined with
green ultrashort laser pulses via local melting without the develop-
ment of cracks. Welding of glass to silicon has been demonstrated
using this technique [274], as well as welding of glass and silicon
[80]. In the latter case, morphological changes observed within the
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566
Fig. 33. (a) Teardrop structure. (b) Nonlinear absorption by ultra-fast laser pulses. (c)
Optical-contact welding at different focal positions [274].
glass layer were very similar to those observed during welding of two
glass layers. The schematic of the process is shown in Figure 33.
Ultrashort pulse laser welding of glass to polymers [258] and
metal alloys [33] has also been reported. Despite the extremely short
interaction time, dissimilar micro-welded lap joints involve the for-
mation of a constrained plasma cavity at the joint interface, rapid
heating by non-linear absorption (section 2.1) within the glass, and
creation of multiple secondary keyholes within the metal substrate
due to beam scattering.
4.4. Scribing and micro-milling
Femtosecond laser scribing, intended as engraving to a defined
depth, has seen increasing attention within the scientific community
due to rapid development of optoelectronics, in particular photovol-
taics and electronic displays. The objective is often to engrave films
generated by sputtering or silicon wafers to a controlled depth so as
to increase their voltage capacity [2]. Scribing with femtosecond
lasers is of superior quality to mechanical scribing with diamond cut-
ters or thermal modification with longer laser pulses [262]. At pres-
ent, laser scribing with nanosecond laser pulses covers the majority
of technical applications; however, continual progression towards a
reduction in layer thickness requires finer ablation features and a
negligible heat affected zone to avoid cracking from mechanical
stresses during the cooling phase. This drawback is frequent when
scribing glass, but can be significantly reduced by using perpendicu-
lar polarisation with respect to the plane of incidence to increase
reflectance from trench walls [34]. Similar to longer pulses, the abla-
tion depth of grooves scribed on silicon wafer and quartz glass
increases with average power and decreases with increasing scan
speed [120]. A particularly complex scenario involves scribing of
perovskite layers through glass for solar cell production. This struc-
ture comprises a stack of hybrid organic and inorganic materials,
involving various decomposition/ablation scenarios [9]. Numerical
modelling has revealed that scribed lines exhibit steep walls and neat
delaminated areas, indicating mechanical stress-driven ablation
[216]. Multi-pass scribing at high repetition rate can also be used to
produce microfluidic devices in soda-lime glass for biomedical pur-
poses. In order to achieve a reproducible ablation process and over-
come difficulties in determining the focal point in transparent
materials, it can be beneficial to adopt methods of fast focusing based
on measurement of the intensity of laser-induced plasma [227].
In addition to direct laser scribing, ultrashort pulsed lasers can be
used to generate plasma in a dielectric near the workpiece surface
whose explosive expansion results in material removal by vaporiza-
tion mechanisms similar to those that occur in m-EDM [180]. As the
laser is used for generating the plasma and not for direct ablation, the
laser-induced plasma micromachining (LIPMM) process can machine
a wider variety of materials as compared to direct laser ablation as it
is capable of machining even materials of high reflectivity, low
photo-absorptivity, and the transparent ones. Using the LIPMM pro-
cess, machining on transparent alumina ceramic, reflective silicon
wafer and opaque sialon has been demonstrated, as reported in
[136]. As a consequence of the thermal removal, the LIPMM process
also resulted in high aspect ratios grooves with near-vertical wall
angles [12].
Layer-by-layer micro-milling is also employed for the processing
of PMMA within the biomedical industry. Being an amorphous poly-
mer, PMMA is obviously much more easily modified than steel and
other metal alloys. The per-layer removal depth represents a key
parameter that must be kept constant to increase the cavity depth.
The non-linear absorption process can be controlled as a function of
repetition rate and fluence to achieve repeatable material removal
[250].
A completely different application of femtosecond laser scribing is
elective removal of the polymer matrix from CFRP multilayers. By
correctly modulating pulse energy, the matrix can be totally ablated
without damaging the underlying carbon reinforcement. Such a pro-
cess has been used in the aerospace industry for fast preparation of
composite surfaces prior to bonding with new plies for scarf repair.
Fibres can also be ablated if deeper interaction is necessary [174].
Scribing of stainless steel is a precursor to micro-milling of preci-
sion components destined for the automotive and aerospace indus-
tries. If the repetition rate is in the order of hundreds of kHz and the
pulse overlap exceeds 90%, groove profiles can be controlled with a
single operational parameter such as energy density (J/cm2).
Attempts to define the groove profile as a function of energy density
have been made [200]. Removal of layers from martensitic stainless
steel has also been demonstrated [201] by flanking adjacent grooves
in a spiral trajectory. Layers with a depth in the range of 1-2 µm and
a uniform areal roughness Sa of about 0.1 µm can be achieved by
using such a scanning strategy.
A unique quality of femtosecond laser micro-milling is the possi-
bility of combining material removal and surface structuring. Despite
the low per-pulse ablation rate, polarisation-dependent surface
structuring is possible where ablation is performed in a fluence
regime that does not exceed the ablation threshold by more than one
order of magnitude. This has been demonstrated with the removal of
100 µm-deep cavities in titanium, aluminium alloy and silicon [190].
It has also been reported during surface laser ablation of nickel, cop-
per, TA6V titanium alloy and 316L stainless steel, where specific
trends were identified [219]. In the latter study, the ablated surfaces
of nickel and copper exhibited low roughness (Ra below 0.5 mm)
under all conditions; however, the ablation quality of stainless steel
and titanium alloy degraded rapidly with increasing fluence and rep-
etition rate. Such a phenomenon can be attributed to a transition
from periodic surface structures induced by laser irradiation to much
larger cone-like structures. Another possible explanation for the gen-
eration of cones relates to the presence of ceramic-like inclusions
having a higher threshold fluence than that of the base material
[249].
4.5. In-bulk processes
The possibility of achieving nonlinear optical absorption within
suitable transparent materials such as glass makes femtosecond
lasers unique tools for inducing variations inside bulk materials with-
out damaging the surface or surrounding volume. This has already
been discussed as a method for welding glass plates, but it also
presents many more important applications in the field of opto-elec-
tronics and photonics.
Peak power intensities greater than 1013 W/cm2 lead to nonlinear
absorption of laser radiation in dielectrics, which are generally trans-
parent to laser wavelengths in the visible and near infrared. Femto-
second lasers are therefore a key technology for inducing
modifications within the volume of bulk transparent materials, which
can be used for glass marking, production of waveguides, fusion
welding or even selective laser-induced etching. Two different
regimes can be used to leave tracks within transparent materials,
depending on comparison of the pulse duration to the time required
for dissipation of accumulated heat from the focal volume. As a result,
repetition rate plays a major role as it influences the amount of
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566
thermal transfer into the material [63]. For repetition rates in the
order of 1 kHz, modification is generated by pulses separated by
approximately 1 ms, which exceeds the time required to conduct
heat away from the focal volume. The material therefore returns to
ambient temperature before the successive pulse arrives. For repeti-
tion rates in the order of 1 MHz, cumulative effects occur due to tem-
poral super positioning of thermal effects induced by each pulse.
Energy is accumulated within the focal volume with a consequent
increase in local temperature. This can be simulated to understand
the dynamics of heat accumulation (par. 2.4) and its influence on the
resulting structural changes [169]. Such modification is no longer
confined but can be controlled to affect areas larger than the focal
volume through the number of incident pulses.
Among the many types of structural modifications induced in
glass by near-infrared femtosecond laser pulses [257] those related
to the production of optical components are arguably the most
important, Figure 34. Voids can be obtained by emitting pulses with a
stationary beam to locally generate vapour. If the fluence is increased
beyond the threshold value for which glass can contain the expansion
of internal plasma, microcracks are formed. Such generation is
related to the fact that plasma generated in the focal volume moves
periodically towards the laser source, with consequent thermal
expansion of the glass and mechanical fracture [157].
Fig. 34. Schematic of internal modifications in transparent materials using ultrafast
laser pulses [257].
Refractive index contrast for photonic crystals or optical memory
can be attained at low pulse energy in the low repetition rate regime.
Point-by-point engraving can be achieved through local melting and
rapid resolidification of glass [185]. At intermediate energy levels,
between the generation of voids/cracks and refractive index changes,
birefringent structures are achieved due to the formation of periodic
nanogratings. Nano-scale stripes evolve from the irradiated volume
with orientation depending on the light polarisation [275].
The possibility of placing the focal plane within a material allows
the formation of channels to be used as waveguides or microchannels
for 3D fluidic devices. Much research has been undertaken into this
topic over the past five years, reflecting increasing interest in opto-
electric components. As a proof-of-concept of such complex internal
micromachining, a tubular-like architecture for the fabrication of
waveguides in tellurite glasses was recently demonstrated [228]. The
maximum achievable depth with a single focal position depends on
the optics employed, making the process sensitive to controlling the
focal axis. Moreover, direct writing of microchannels gives rise to an
elliptical cross section unless beam shaping is used. The generation of
such depressed-index claddings has been shown to be a very flexible
and efficient way of producing photonic guiding elements with ver-
satile geometries. High-density straight lines comprising parallel
low-index laser damage tracks have been produced with the overall
effect of guiding light propagation. These devices have generally
been used for CW and ns lasers; however, temporal behaviour of
ultrashort pulses propagating through such waveguides has also
559
recently been explored [159]. This unique application could provide
the basis for a new generation of ultrashort pulse lasers.
Bulk colouring of glass is also possible with ultrashort laser pulses
at low repetition rate by selectively activating noble ions (Au, Ag, Cu)
dispersed in a dielectric matrix. This application paves the way not
only for commercial applications such as cosmetics or packaging, but
also production of complex nanoparticle structures with high spatial
resolution in an inert medium [164]. If the concentration of noble
metals does not exceed 10 wt.%, their influence on thermal accumu-
lation and heat transfer to the glass is almost negligible, with no for-
mation of intra-volume cracks.
Recent applications include modification of the dielectric proper-
ties of narrow band gap materials via a sequence of ultrashort laser
pulses. For example, it has been shown that the dispersion of electro-
magnetic waves in gallium phosphide increases exponentially after
femtosecond exposure without any physical damage [127].
4.6. Shock Wave based processes
Stress waves of sufficiently high amplitude are able to plastically
deform metals and alter their mechanical properties. Ultrashort laser
pulses are particularly effective at this process as they induce rapid
material expansion and vaporisation with limited melting and resoli-
dification. Shock wave based processes typically employ power den-
sities greater than 108 W/cm2, while the thermal transient within the
workpiece is well below 1 ms.
Ultrashort laser pulses only interact with a very thin surface layer
of metallic targets, typically less than 50 µm for multi-pulse absorp-
tion. This layer is heated rapidly, with thermal diffusion limited to
only a few microns due to the ultrafast nature of laser interaction.
The material reaches several thousand degrees Celsius, vaporising,
then ionising to become plasma. If the material is confined by an
optically transparent layer, expansion of the heated plasma generates
a high amplitude pressure wave. Energy loss due to absorption of
laser radiation by the plasma or reflection from the surface may be
limited by using shorter wavelengths or with the addition of absorb-
ing coatings at the interface.
Amongst the consolidated fields of research making use of shock
wave processes for micro additive manufacturing, laser-induced for-
ward transfer (LIFT) have been recently reviewed in [11]. Micro-
removal, laser shock peening (LSP) and shock wave induced thin film
delamination (SWIFD) have seen particularly widespread investigations.
Depending on the pulse energy employed, LSP can be performed
either via direct irradiation of a metal surface, through the use of a
sacrificial layer that protects the sample from ablation damage while
coupling the shock wave to the substrate, or through the use of a con-
fining medium such as water that is transparent to the radiation and
transfers the shock wave to the substrate, Figure 35.
Fig. 35. (a) direct LSP in air, (b) LSP in water, (c) LSP with a black tape in water and (d)
LSP with a black tape under a glass overlay.
There is ongoing debate as to whether direct ablation or confined
ablation is most effective. Experiments have been performed on
galvanised SUS316L stainless steel with several coatings including
polystyrene, electroplated zinc and nickel. Fluence levels in the range
0.75-1.8 J/cm2 led to the greatest increase in hardness, while lower
fluence levels generated shock waves that did not induce plastic
deformation. Conversely, higher fluence levels led to ablation of both
the sacrificial layer and metal, leading to surface defects and oxida-
tion. Nickel exhibited the most effective shock wave coupling at a
pulse fluence of 1.71 J/cm2 [186]. LSP performed on Mg-3Gd Magne-
sium alloy with a pulse energy of 430 mJ and repetition of 1 kHz has
been shown to enhance surface hardness by approximately 70%,
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566
while the process has been found to be less effective at increasing
hardness when using a confining water layer [132].
Direct LSP on polycrystalline pure zinc has also been performed
[162], with process efficiency found to depend on the ability to tune
laser energy such that surface ablation is avoided. Single pulse treat-
ment can also be used to rearrange crystal orientation within the irra-
diated area. Direct LSP of AA5083 aluminium alloy with high-fluence
single-shot exposure has been found to increase hardness by about
45% without a significant variation in the main chemical components
at the surface (Al, Mg). Nevertheless, considerable post-ablative oxi-
dation and carbonisation due to interaction with the ambient atmo-
sphere has been reported [1]. Plastic deformation induced by
femtosecond laser irradiation can also be used to implant SiC nano-
particles into the surface of aluminium alloys by exploiting the very
different ablation thresholds of the two materials [38]. LSP has also
been performed on NiTi shape memory alloy with distilled water as a
confining medium, exhibiting remarkable improvements in terms of
increased hardness. Moreover, the presence of water has been found
to enhance super-cooling effects, leading to grain refinement [255].
SWIFD, (Figure 36) is instead performed by directing laser pulses
onto the rear side of a transparent medium covered with an absorb-
ing layer, which is mechanically removed without thermal effects
taking place in the irradiated zone [129].
Fig. 36. Schematic illustration of the Shock-Wave Induced Delamination (SWIFD) pro-
cess. The SWIFD process can be split into three phases: (1) initialization, (2) delamina-
tion, (3) plastic deformation of the polymer substrate [129].
As an example, CIGS (copper indium gallium (di)selenide) layers
are selectively removed from flexible polyamide substrates using UV
nanosecond laser pulses [130]. Long pulses of this type are indeed
still the most commonly employed for this application, which aims at
producing flexible electronics. Ultrashort pulses represent an alterna-
tive, that can generate precise direct delamination of the thin film, if
the pulse energy is appropriately selected to avoid vaporisation [64].
This opens up new opportunities for exploiting direct delamination
on a wide variety of substrates, including those that are not transpar-
ent to the laser wavelength.
4.7. Surface texturing
Surface texturing is one of the most extensively investigated applica-
tions of femtosecond laser processing. The term texture refers to surface
topography characterised by periodic repetition of the same features;
that is, by a certain level of autocorrelation. This unique characteristic
can be achieved through femtosecond laser irradiation either by direct
structuring or self-reorganisation. Direct structuring involves ablation
with a focused laser spot or a diffractive technique such Direct Laser
Interference Patterning (DLIP). As already depicted in par. 2.7, self-reor-
ganisation instead exploits the electromagnetic coupling between ultra-
short laser pulses and a target surface, resulting in Laser-Induced
Periodic Surface Structures (LIPSS). Fine ‘ripples’ are obtained via self-
reorganisation at low pulse fluence, while larger ‘bumps’ are created
through coalescence at higher fluence [202]. Research into ultrashort
pulse laser texturing of metals, semiconductors and plastics has received
strong stimulus from biomimetics, as structures inspired by nature can
be produced with high throughput. Compared to nanosecond laser
pulses, femtosecond pulses produce more stable and reproducible tex-
tures with less prominent surface oxidation and melting.
Femtosecond laser texturing can be employed to modify optical
properties of a surface by tailoring the periodicity and orientation of rip-
ples via the laser wavelength and polarisation. Applications include con-
trolling the orientation of nano gratings obtained through super
positioning of multiple laser pulses [93], producing polarisation-depen-
dent diffraction gratings [270], imprinting images onto metallic surfaces
[48], controlling the appearance of two [271] or more symbols [124],
generating High Spatial Frequency LIPSS (HSFL) and Low Spatial Fre-
quency LIPSS (LSFL) within one field [92], superimposing and overwrit-
ing LIPSS [70], and generating LIPSS with different orientations within a
single spot using spatial light modulators [118]. Recently, an optical
setup comprising a liquid crystal polariser, laser scanner and 5-axis
stage was used to generate LIPSS with different orientations on a free-
form surface [76]. Amongst the various novel optical applications,
dynamically varying the laser electric field vector has been applied to
producing holograms on metallic surfaces [96].
Hierarchical structures obtained by the superposition of laser-
induced micro and nano-patterns have also gained recent interest due to
their capability of modifying surface wettability in line with the Wenzel
and Cassie-Baxter theories. Superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic sur-
faces characterised by ripples have been demonstrated, with potential
for exploitation in numerous applications including the production of
self-cleaning and anti-icing surfaces. Self-cleaning surfaces are character-
ised by low values of both water droplet contact angle hysteresis and
roll-off angle. Functionalities gained after laser texturing depend on both
surface morphology and chemistry, with the static water droplet contact
angle becoming stable after a well-defined period of time, in the order of
30 days for steel and aluminium. It has been suggested that enrichment
of non-polar carbon over time promotes a transition from hydrophilic to
hydrophobic state after laser texturing of steel surfaces [218]. Through
analysis of C-O and C-C bonds, a decrease in C-O bonds has been associ-
ated with changes in the wetting behaviour of laser-textured aluminium
alloy surfaces [44]. Increases in hydrocarbons and metal oxides over
time have instead been found to be responsible for a transition from
superhydrophilic to superhydrophobic state after laser texturing of stain-
less steel surfaces [65], the scheme is shown in Figure 37.
Fig. 37. Sketch of the experimental setup used for the generation of the bursts and for
the irradiation of the stainless steel samples. The burst of n sub-pulses generated by
burst generator were crossed-polarized (XP) as shown in (a). When a polarizer (b) or a
quarter-wave plate (c) were placed into the beam line, the XP bursts were converted
into linearly polarized (LP) or in circularly polarized (CP) bursts, respectively [65].
Changes in wettability of laser-textured titanium have instead
been associated with adsorption of organic compounds from the sur-
rounding atmosphere [131], with exposure of textured surfaces to
NaOH and H2O2 resulting in different evolution of surface wettability.
A prominent recent application of femtosecond laser texturing
has been the tuning of surface biological responses. Depending on
the feature size, surface topography can be used to promote the
adhesion of cells for scaffolds and implants [41, 143], or to reduce
 L. Orazi et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566
this effect for antibacterial surfaces [247]. While increased cell adhe-
sion can be achieved with nanosecond laser pulses by producing sur-
face textures with features in the order of tens of microns [54], a
reduction in cell adhesion relies on the capability of ultrashort laser
pulses to produce surface topographies characterised by a high den-
sity of peaks on a sub-micrometric-scale [215]. Such needle-based
surfaces, which reduce initial bacterial attachment by decreasing the
available contact area for cell membranes, have been shown to be
effective at reducing S. aureus retention on titanium [39]. Similar
reductions in S. aureus retention have been achieved with parallel
LIPSS produced via ultrashort pulse laser irradiation [45]. In a more
recent study [133], a reduction of approximately 99.8% in E.coli reten-
tion was instead achieved on laser-textured stainless steel surfaces
characterised by a peak density of 1.3 peaks/µm2. In the same study,
a more modest reduction in S. aureus retention was also achieved
(Figure 38). Similar behaviour has also been observed on textured
polyethylene [217]. Hierarchical structures comprising subwave-
length fs-LIPSS covered with nano-features have also been created on
gold [90] and shown to reduce E. coli retention by 97%. Despite prom-
ising results in obtaining antibacterial surfaces, femtosecond laser
surface texturing suffers from low throughput. Scanning heads
achieving texturing speeds in the order of hundreds of meters per
second are therefore required for treatment of large areas [153].
Fig. 38. Bacterial adhesion in static conditions is increased by surface topographies
showing features larger than bacterial dimensions. Surface characterized by low spatial
frequency ripples are supposed to lower the contact areas with the bacterial cells.
The possibility of obtaining well-ordered surface patterns charac-
terised by ripples may also play a significant role in reducing friction
and wear at contact surfaces between mechanical components such
as bearings and gears [140]. Surface reorganisation following femto-
second laser exposure has the potential to substitute direct ablation
[141] and interference patterning [71], which at present are
employed to improve the tribological performance of metals and
ceramics. Micro-grooved textures ablated on stainless steel surfaces
via ultrashort laser irradiation have been combined to generate nano-
structures with grain size in the range 80
400 nm, together with a
thin oxide film and martensite [252]. Friction coefficients and wear
rates can be reduced by increasing the spacing between adjacent
micro-grooves. Consequently, shorter laser pulses contribute to pro-
ducing a more uniform surface texture and creating a smoother inter-
face, which reduces friction. This is achieved by entrapping debris (in
case of direct ablation) and micro-droplets of lubricant [95]. Soft
materials like fluoroelastomer layers can also be treated with direct
femtosecond ablation due to the suppression of thermal transfer into
the workpiece. Micro-holes with different aspect ratios can be used
for fluid-dynamic support in the presence of lubricants [187]. The
possibility of further reducing the friction coefficient through a
561
decrease in contact area upon introduction of LIPSS has also been
hypothesised [49]; however, it has not yet been possible to verify
whether such a reduction is due to the geometry or modified surface
chemistry in the irradiated area. A similar and significant reduction
in friction coefficient has been observed on laser-irradiated steel sur-
faces characterised by LIPSS compared to untreated surfaces [19]. The
method employed, common to other work, is schemed in Figure 39.
This effect can be explained by the more efficient coverage of sur-
faces by lubricants due to their hierarchical nature. Recent studies
looking into biomedical applications of ceramic composites textured
with LIPSS have revealed increased wetting of these surfaces by lubri-
cants. Moreover, selectively structured composite surfaces have
exhibited a reduction in coefficient of friction by a factor of »3 com-
pared to untreated surfaces [115].
Fig. 39. Scheme for the reciprocating sliding tribological tests (a). COF versus number of
cycles on the fs-LIPSS (red) and on un-structured Ti6Al4V (black) in engine oil (b). Optical
micrographs (c) and (d) (OM) and high resolution scanning electron micrographs (e)
(SEM) of the corresponding wear tracks taken after the tribological experiment [19].
5. Industrial applications
Although ultrafast lasers have only been around for less than three
decades, industrial applications have grown rapidly over the last two
decades. In 2019, the market value for ultrafast laser materials process-
ing was around $460 million at a CAGR of 13% [282]. The application
areas for successful industrial materials processing using ultrafast lasers
include photo-mask manufacturing and repair and silicon dicing in the
semiconductor industry, glass cutting/scribing and (Indium Tin Oxide)
ITO film removal in consumer electronics (e.g. mobile phones and flat
panels), piston texturing in the automotive industry, coronary stent
manufacturing and microfluidic device manufacturing in the medical
industry, and in-bulk glass processing in the consumer products.
Sugioka and Cheng [241] and Lei et al [121] provided excellent reviews
of ultrafast laser applications. A brief description and examples of these
applications are given the following.
5.1. Photo-mask manufacturing and repair in semiconductor industry
This is one of the earliest industrial applications of ultrafast lasers for
materials processing in industry. IBM reported in late 1990s the applica-
tion of fs laser ablation for the production of photo masks that had
shown advantages of non-thermal, no metal (chrome) splatter, no glass
damage, and higher resolution, compared with nanosecond pulsed laser
ablation that produced metal splatter and glass damages. These masks
are used to produce integrated circuits (IC). Up to 30 masks may be
needed to produce an IC chip that would cost > $100k. Femtosecond
laser ablation can achieve sub 150 nm lines and dots [73].
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566
5.2. Silicon dicing in semiconductor industry
Silicon wafer dicing or cutting is a standard manufacturing pro-
cess in the semiconductor industry, usually carried out using
mechanical cutting wheels that often generate micro-cracks and diffi-
cult to cut thin (e.g. < 150 mm in thickness) wafers. Laser dicing of sil-
icon wafers have been practically used in the semiconductor industry
for many years, particularly for thin wafers (100-200 mm), carried
out by multiple steps: laser grooving followed by mechanical singula-
tion or stealth dicing (i.e. an infrared laser beam scribing inside the
silicon) followed by mechanical tape separation. A picosecond laser
can process 23 wafers per hour compared with 15 wafers per hour
for a nanosecond pulsed laser, in addition to higher quality [161].
5.3. Glass cutting/scribing in consumable electronic industry
Mobile phone and laptop computer touch screens and protective
glasses are getting thinner and some of the geometry is curved. This
makes traditional mechanical cutting more difficult. CO2 and shorter
pulsed lasers often generate poor cut quality, particularly as these
glass displays screens are stacked 3-4 layers and the top layer of
700 mm thick protective glass is toughened that can shatter with local
stress field development. Ultrafast lasers have shown to be able to cut
these glasses with better edge strengths [161]. For large flat screen
cutting, a femtosecond laser can be focused to the rear surface of the
glass sheet to scribe inside the glass without damaging the front sur-
face. The glass can subsequently be broken along the scribed patterns
with mechanical or thermal means [281].
5.4. Piston texturing in automotive industry
Lightweight car engines are made of aluminium alloys that are not
as good as cast irons in wear resistance. Femtosecond texturing of
pistons has been found to reduce friction by up to 25% at 2000 rpm
[78], due to the effective storage of debris and oil.
5.5. Coronary stent manufacturing in the medical industry
Millions of coronary stents are implanted to human coronary
artery to open a passageway to allow blood to flow in otherwise clot-
ted blood vessels and have saved millions of lives each year. Coronary
stents are typically made of metallic (e.g. stainless steel, nickel-tita-
nium shape memory alloy, i.e nitinol, or more recently, cobalt-
chrome, platinum chromium alloy) wire meshes with strut widths
around 100 mm or made of a plastic material (e.g. polycaprolactone,
poly-L-lactide), cut from tubes using a laser. The advantage of using
an ultrafast laser for cutting stents is the high quality of cuts with bet-
ter surface finishes and lower amount of debris compared with lon-
ger pulsed laser cutting, thus reducing the post processing cost.
5.6. Microfluidic device manufacturing in the medical industry
Microfluidic devices are typically used in the medical industry for the
testing and diagnosis of diseases. These are usually manufactured by
micro-injection moulding of separate pieces followed by bonding using
gluing or welding. Ultrafast laser manufacturing of microfluidic devices
has an advantage of producing 3D micro-channels inside a transparent
material such as glass without the need for joining. One method is by
ultrafast laser fabrication inside a bulk glass followed by wet chemical
etching and the other method is femtosecond laser ablation inside glass
or plastic in distilled water to remove the debris [243]. Another approach
is to machine channels on the surface of the glass and seal them with a
glass cover by femtosecond laser welding [264]
5.7. Microdrilling of fuel injector nozzles
Due to higher flexibility in changing the flow-hole profile and to
the shorter process times, fs-laser microdrilling has substituted
micro-EDM in many companies in the market of high-pressure fuel
injectors. As already reported in par. 4.2, the capability of
automatically controlling the focal position and the inclination of the
beam by precessional scan heads leads to the design of hole profiles
(e.g. barrel-shape, trumpet-shape, convergent, divergent) which can
promote atomization or penetration in the combustion chamber.
An industrial microdrilling station consists of a precessional scan
head served by two monitoring stations, working alternatively,
where the nozzle is placed and its position is controlled made by
means of cameras and distance sensors. Each monitoring station is
equipped with 5-controlled axes which orientate the nozzle under
the beam once the station moves underneath the scan head. The dril-
ling time depends on the ablated volume and ranges between 0.8 s
and 2 s for drilling thickness of 0.2
0.5 mm and hole diameter of
0.12
0.25 mm, making this technology ten times faster than micro-
EDM. The microdrilling is performed in three phases including
through-pilot hole roughing and finishing, as reported in [203].
Argon is used as assist gas to protect the drilling from oxidation and
to shield eventual plasma at the initial stages of the percussion.
5.8. Ultrashort laser texturing of die and molds
In [109] it can impressively be seen that the application of fs laser
technology can reach best surface integrity from technological point
of view. No heat affected zone can be recognized on tool steel cross
sections in comparison to the competing technologies of milling,
grinding, EDM and ns-laser application which reveal comparably big
zones for a given dedicated surface roughness of Ra = 0.4 µm. Only
productivity and - of course - investment costs are still factors pre-
venting a broader application. But this can just be a matter of time.
When best surface integrities are needed from tool functionality
point of view fs-laser technology can therefore be successfully
applied in the future as final finishing technology. In combination
with more efficient roughing technologies an ideal and highly effi-
cient process chain could be set up like, as example, by combining
dual laser systems (ns and fs) for advanced machining.
6. Concluding summary, emerging trends and challenges
The use and deployment of ultrafast laser sources in industries was
driven by the rapid and unexpected technical advances. During the last
decades, apparently insuperable technological constraints were removed
paving the way for new developments and further applications.
For these reasons, predicting future trends of ultrafast laser
machining is a challenging task. Attempts of market analysis made in
[283] forecast a market growth for ultrafast (pico and femtosecond)
lasers with a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of about 25% in
the period 2020-2025 (pre-COVID forecast). At the same time, the
reduction of costs and the increased reliability of ultrafast lasers will
contribute, in the next future, to the conquest of market segments
currently covered by ns systems.
Many phenomena regarding laser matter interaction in the ultra-
short regime were investigated and modelled from a physical point
of view, as reviewed in Section 2. Nevertheless, many of these models
are still qualitative and their complexity does not allow for reliable
and accurate predictions.
From the experimental side, the capability to recognize and char-
acterize the effects of single pulses during high repetition rate proc-
essing will benefit from advances in sensors and diagnostic
instrumentations (many of which based on ultrafast lasers technol-
ogy, as in pump-probe method).
For numerical simulation and process digital twin [236], the key
challenge will be the multiscale approach by which every physical
aspect will be evaluated at a proper spatial and temporal scale.
The main and most evident trend in the ultrafast laser develop-
ment is the continuous increasing of the average power emitted both
from solid state systems and coherent combined fiber systems.
The engineering of a 20 kW femtosecond beamline [284] was
recently announced. This astonishing result opens new possibilities
in processing ultrahard materials like carbides, cubic boron nitride or
synthetic diamond from bulk. Other applications include laser
 L. Orazi et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 70 (2021) 543
566
machining of CRFP parts, photovoltaic components or battery electro-
des for large scale production.
These high average powers, comparable to what obtainable by
continuous wave CO2, diode or solid-state lasers, are emitted with
pulse repetition rates of tens of MHz. The efficient power deployment
will require the development of systems capable of efficiently distrib-
uting the pulses onto the workpiece. High-speed polygonal scanners,
diffractive optics and spatial light modulators (section 3.7) will fur-
ther increase speed, spatial and temporal accuracy and will require
higher damage thresholds optics to manage the extremely high
intensity/peak power emitted.
Moreover, these high repetition rates will be probably coupled
with sophisticated burst mode controllers, highly flexible in control-
ling temporal distribution of pulse trains, and a tight integration with
the kinematic process parameters for optimal results in terms of
throughput and quality.
Advanced scientific applications like high-energy physics and
nuclear applications drive the development of extreme laser systems
characterized, on the one hand, by ultra-high energy per pulse, cur-
rently on the order of hundreds of watts, and by peak power in the
terawatt and petawatt range. On the other hand, the generation of
single cycle pulses with a duration of attoseconds is emerging [135].
Although these laser systems will not be directly and immediately
used in industrial applications, there will be probably future spaces
for the production of new materials through the use of ultra-intense
induced pressure waves or extreme UV and X-ray pulses.
To conclude this review, in the ultrashort timescale with a per-
spective toward the future, theoretical physicists [98] already pro-
posed methods to overcome the minimum duration of the single
cycle pulse thanks to relativistic effects in reflecting a high energy
pulse from an appropriate target. The possibility to reduce the pulse
duration in the zeptosecond regime (10
21 s) will open new, and still
unpredictable, perspective for industrial applications.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr Adrian Lutey for his support in
proof-reading different sections of the paper.
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