URBAN ENGINEERING LECTURE NOTES (CHAPTER ONE)

URBAN PLANNING

Urban planning (urban, merged urban regions, regional, city, and town planning) is a technical and
political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment, including air,
water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas such as transportation and distribution
networks.

These are programs that are pursued as a means of improving the urban environment and
achieving certain social and economic objectives. It is an attempt to manage a town or city often
in order to avoid, or alleviate common urban problems such as inner city decay, overcrowding,
traffic and other forms of congestion.

It is therefore the drawing up of an organized arrangement (e.g. of streets, parks and business, as
well as residential areas) of a proposed or growing urban centre.

It deals with the design and regulation of the uses of space that focus on the physical form,
economic functions and social impacts of the urban environment and on the location of different
activities within it. Urban planning draws upon engineering, architectural, social and political
concerns.

URBAN ENGINEERING

Urban engineering is a subset of the general practice of urban planning. It is limited to

engineering in an urban setting. Urban Engineers must have knowledge in areas of;

 Human settlement and forces that shape them;

 Processes of change;
 Law, economy and government;
 Planning processes and processes of design;
 How to formulate and implement plans;
 Environmental principals;
 Professionalism values and ethics.

They also must be aware of streets systems and conduits for water, sewerage, drainage and
communication lines, as well as plots of land for residential, educational, industrial and other
uses.

City or Town engineers get involved in imposing regulatory laws establishing standards for
housing, sanitation, water supply, sewerage and public health conditions and introduced parks
and playgrounds. Building activities must be regulated according to the use and location
(Zoning).
This means urban engineers should ensure conscious planning, design and layouts that achieve
circulation of the populace and provide the necessary measures to ensure that the engineering
aspects are maintained.

URBANISATION

This can in simple terms be defined as a process by which there’s an increase in the population/
proportion of people living in an urban area coupled with improved structural and infrastructural
development. It can also be defined as a physical growth of an area as a result of global change.
Urbanization is the outcome of social, economic and political developments that lead to urban
concentration and growth of large cities, changes in land use and transformation from rural to
metropolitan pattern of organization and governance. The UN defines urbanization as the
movement of people from rural areas to urban areas. This movement from rural to urban areas
can be explained by some of these factors.

a) Search for jobs that are believed to be in urban areas.

b) In search for better social services like education, health care and communication.
c) To avoid conflicts of various kind from areas of origin.
d) High population growth in some rural areas which exerts pressure to the available
resources. Etc.

In Africa, most people move into the urban areas because they are ‘pushed’ out by factors such
as poverty, environmental degradation, religious strife, political persecution, food insecurity and
lack of basic infrastructure and services in the rural areas or because they are ‘pulled’ into the
urban areas by the advantages and opportunities of the city including education, electricity, water
etc. Even though in many African countries the urban areas offer few jobs for the youth, they are
often attracted there by the amenities of urban life (Tarver, 1996).

Urbanization is closely linked to modernization and industrialization. The global proportion of

urban population grew dramatically from 13% (220m people) in 1900 to 29% (732m people) in
1950 to 49% (3.2 billion people) in 2005. The UN world urbanization prospects report projects
that this figure is likely to rise to 60% (4.9 billion people) by 2030.

Some of the largest population densities in the world as of April 2020.

 Dhaka, Bangladesh 44,000 persons/km2

 Mumbai, India 32,300 persons /km2
 Delhi, India 11,600 person/km2
 Chennai, China 9,700 persons / km2
 Sao Paulo, Brazil 7,100 persons /km2
Kampala City (i.e. Central Division) area is 197 km2. Kampala population in1990 was 800,000
people, which increased to 1.2 million in 2002, to now 3.3million people as of April 2020 and
the annual population growth rate is 6.5%

A number of indices can be used to define the urban areas and the level of urbanization.

1) Population size: For example according to the National Housing and population census
(1991) any locality with 2000 people was regarded as urban.
2) Population density: In most urban centre, the number of people per sq.km is higher than
in rural areas.
3) Functionality of the area; it is common to find a concentration of schools, churches,
health centers etc. in urban centres.
4) Level of administration;
5) Economic activities; urban areas are characterized with many railway terminal points,
markets, shopping centres, manufacturing, service centers etc.
6) Development density: there are normally increased physical structures like buildings,
infrastructure and vertical construction. The roads in urban areas are usually paved and
there is a high (Floor Area Ratio) (FAR). People tend to utilize every available space
because of high rent and economic value of land.

PROCESS OF URBANISATION

Site and situation of settlements can be used to understand reasons for the development of some
urban centres.

As agriculture replaced nomadic existence, permanent human settlements and larger settlements
begun to appear. The settlements keep expanding and later become centres for trade, defense and
politics and for distributing the agricultural supplies a settled farming society produces.

In this case the urban centre exists unplanned and would therefore need urban renewal and
regeneration by adopting urban design methods.

Note that sometimes urban growth in this setting occurs “like the annular ring of a tree” whether
in an extended village or the centre of a larger city. It will be common to find such an urban
centre following irregularities of elevation contours.

In the modern world, urban centres can be deliberately planned and managed. The decision
makers gazette area for specific purposes, provide layouts for streets, etc. As development
progresses, modernism begins to surface, sky scrapper building techniques arise, the urban centre
starts to have less disorder and congestion as for example grade separated road networks are
introduced together with other preplanned and widely spaced freeways and tower blocks set
within gardens.
Concepts like garden cities begin arising and some model towns are built. The construction of
the ideal structures for the proper functioning as and of an urban centre will greatly rely on the
civil engineer. Currently the construction of the roads, highways, roundabouts, stadiums etc.
found in urban centres are the responsibility of the civil engineer.

SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT

It is the duty of urban engineers to ensure sustainable development and sustainability in the
process of urbanization.

Present ways of consumption and living have led to problems like the over use of natural
resources, ecosystem destruction, pollution, growing inequality in cities, the degradation of
human living conditions and human induced climate change.

Sustainable urban development improves the long term social and ecological health of cities and
towns and it encompasses;

 efficient land use,

 less automobile use yet with better access,
 efficient resource use,
 less pollution and waste,
 the restoration of natural systems,
 good housing and living environments,
 a healthy social ecology,
 sustainable economics,
 community participation and involvement
 preservation of local culture and wisdom.

ASPECTS OF URBANISATION.

1) Aesthetics - sense of place; local identity; respect for natural, artistic and historical
features; urban green/ town scape.
2) Personal safety- retaining and perimeter walls; emergency evacuation points; emergency
operation centers; fire rescue centers; surveillance cameras.
3) Reconstruction and renewals of existing buildings and infrastructure.
4) Slums- due to rapid urbanization.
5) Urban decay- city disrepair; unemployment; crime; drug abuse.
6) Transport systems and network- high capacity urban transit; traffic jam.
7) Addressing – Plot and house numbering; street naming.
8) Environment factors- toxic gas emissions; noise; sustainable urban drainage; solid waste
management.
 9) Planning – sustainable physical planning involving knowledge of surveying; engineering;
architecture and changes to be made.

Other considerations to be made in the urbanization process include;

1. Urban structure- How a place is put together and how its parts relate to each other.
2. Accessibility- Providing for ease, safety and choice when moving to and through places.
3. Legibility and way finding- Helping people find their way around and understand how a
place works.
4. Function and fit- Shaping places to support their varied interests and uses.
5. Complementary mixed uses- Locating activities to allow construction interaction between
them.
6. Character for Meaning- Recognizing and valuing the differences between one place and
another.
7. Order and incident – balancing consistency and variety.
8. Continuity and change- locating people in time and place.
9. Civil society – making places where people are free to encounter each other.
10. Equality issues- handling issues related to gender; disability; ethnicity etc.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH URBANISATION

 Costs of necessary infrastructure

 Loss of prime agricultural land
 Increase in impervious surface
 Traffic related issues.

EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION

Economic effects.

Larger cities provide more specialized goods and services to the local market and surrounding
areas. They function as the transportation and wholesale hub for smaller places and accumulate
capital financial services provision and educated labour forces as well as concentrating
administrative functions for the areas which they lie. As cities develop, effects can include a
dramatic increase in costs, often driving the local working class out of the market. Growing cities
create class segregation pushing the laboring poor into misery that leads into the mushrooming of
slums. The centres of government and business and the newly specialized residential areas
become areas for the rich people or elite.

Environmental effects.

Urbanization has detrimental effects on the environment. The growing population causes stress
to the available limited natural resources. The effects include; pollution from vehicles and
industries, floods due to unplanned settlements and inadequate drainage systems, encroachment
on wetlands in search for areas for industrial development; water quality declines; the urban heat
island phenomenon – this occurs when industrial and urban areas are developed and heat
becomes more abundant. In rural areas, a large part of incoming solar energy is used to evaporate
water from vegetation and soil. So not much heat is felt in rural areas. In cities/ urban areas
where less vegetation and exposed soil exist, the majority of the sun’s energy is absorbed by
urban structures and even the population at large. Also global warming exists now majorly due to
urbanization.

URBAN AUTHORITIES

Urban authorities include but are not limited to the following:

1. City councils
2. Municipal councils
3. Town councils
4. Town boards
5. Trading centres.

Functions

Urban authorities are given general authority by several Acts of Parliament. Notable among is
the Local government Act, 2010 and the KCCA Act 2010. These acts give the local and urban
authorities power to carry out functions which may include enhancement of health, relieve
poverty and distress and to control and improve commerce and industry.

This provision implies urban authorities have the authority to control environmental pollution.
They are given explicit power to take the following actions to control pollution discharge.

a) Provide for or facilitate the licensing or regulation of the activities of persons engaged in,
or the premises used for the manufacture and preparation of items for use or consumption
by man.
b) Prohibit or control noxious or offensive trades.
c) Plan and coordinate the activities of and render assistance and advice to the residents of
the area engaged in industry of any kinds.

Below is an extract from the KCCA Act, 2010, depicting the functions of the KCCA.

Functions of Authority
(1) The functions of the Authority are—
(a) to initiate and formulate policy;
(b) to set service delivery standards;
(c) to determine taxation levels;
(d) to monitor the general administration and provision of services in the divisions;
(e) to enact legislation for the proper management of the Capital City;
(f) to promote economic development in the Capital City;
(g) to construct and maintain roads;
(h) to construct and maintain major drains;
(i) to install and maintain street lights;
(j) to organize and manage traffic;
(k) to carry out physical planning and development control;
(l) to monitor the delivery of services within its area of jurisdiction;
(m) to assist in the maintenance of law, order and security;
(n) to draw the attention of the divisions to any matter that attracts the concern or interest of the
Authority;
(o) to mobilise the residents of the Capital City to undertake income generating activities and
self-help community projects;
(p) to assist the City division in mobilising the residents to pay local taxes;
(q) to register the residents in their area of jurisdiction;
(r) to register births and deaths in their area of jurisdiction; and
(s) to perform any other function given to the Authority by the central government.

Urban councils have the discretion to take measures for the prevention and abatement of public
nuisances and to safeguard and promote public health.

Township authorities may require the taking of measures for conservation of natural resources,
safeguard and promote public health and take all necessary and reasonable practicable measures
for maintaining the area of the authority in clean and sanitary condition and for preventing the
occurrence of or for remedying or causing to be remedied any nuisance or condition likely to be
injurious or dangerous to health.

The authorities may therefore do the following:

1. Control the manufacture, storage state and use of petroleum fireworks, gas and other
combustible or dangerous substances.
2. Control and prohibit the development of and use of land and buildings in the interest of
public health safety and the proper orderly development of the area of the council.
3. Prevent damage and trespass to property whether public or private.

Because Urban authorities have the powers to prohibit and control development and land use,
they are empowered to establish and maintain sewerage and drainage works, with their areas.
They further may do the following:

 Layout building plots or otherwise subdivide any of its land for the purpose of housing
schemes for the inhabitants of the area.
 Erect and maintain dwelling houses on such plots or subdivisions of land.
 Convert buildings into dwelling houses.
  Let any dwelling house erected or provided by it.
 Sell, let or otherwise dispose of any such dwelling.

THE PLANNING PERSPECTIVE OF AUTHORITIES

Planning perspectives are the broad framework within which the planning process is undertaken.
It includes the following:

1. Identification of the problem;

i. It is vital to identify the problem at the beginning of the planning process.
ii. One who faces the problem must be identified.
iii. Who identifies the problem?
iv. How does the other party perceive the problem?
v. Where do the different parties converge?
vi. Conflict resolution about the problem.
2. The planning stage.
This is the process where solutions are sought, decisions made, analyses are made and
generation of alternatives.
3. Major decision making stage.
It involves adoption of the plan, decision to adopt the plan, the procedures undertaken
and stakeholders involved.
4. Implementation of the plan.
This involves the actual execution of the selected scheme.

THE PLAN MAKING PROCESS (planning process)

The constitution of Uganda (1995) under the 6th schedule gives authority to councils to
make plans for the provision of services according to plans made by the local
governments.
The local government Act, also states that councils can prepare comprehensive and
integrated plans, and empowers them to review architectural and structural engineering
design standards and approve building plans.
In planning, clear steps must be taken by the authorities.

STEPS.

1) Decision to adopt planning.

It is a vital part of the planning process;
 It is a time when decision makers determine what planning process to be used to
solve the problem; the proposed development of the area and here planning
becomes political.
 It is a single stage of problem identification.
2) Establishment of organizational framework.
 There are specialized departments/ agencies and units set up because planning has to be
set up and decisions followed up. The body must have finance and manpower resources,
available to monitor and / or implement plans.
3) Specify planning goals and objectives.
Planning goals must be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time
specific), differentiate between planning goals and development objectives.
Planning goals are used as a strategy to help to achieve defined objectives.
Goals are high level abstract statements showing the direction which the plan should take.
Objectives are precise and represent specific steps towards attainment of goals. The
people set the goals and planners play a key role of realizing the goals.
4) Collect and analyse data.
This is important so as to be able to analyse the existing situational development and
planning problems. It confirms whether the earlier defined problem is true. Helps in
refining earlier stated goals and objectives.
5) Monitoring
Is the follow up of the implementation process. The idea here is to see that the various
components are being implemented. Monitoring takes place as implementation is being
done.
6) Evaluation
Takes place to check setbacks as implementation is taking place. It answers questions
why setbacks are occurring, why activities are not taking place as planned or as they
appear on the plan.
It helps in review of earlier objectives/ plans because new problems may have occurred.
It may require reformulating the goals and objectives. Review can be done for the whole
plan or do it in sections where the events may have overtaken the plan.

More on the plan making process is discussed in the topic on Community Decision
making.

TYPES OF PLANS (Land use Plans)

a) Comprehensive plans (can cover the whole country)
b) Master Plans (can cover a region e.g Eastern region)
c) Structure Plans (outline plans)
d) Layout plans (detailed plans)
e) Action area plans.

Comprehensive, Structure and Master plans usually cover large areas.

Detailed plans are strategic and they focus on a particular area to solve a problem. They are
sectoral in nature because they deal with particular sectors.
Action area plans are unique, specific and are meant to exploit the development potential of an
area, or solve a particular problem.

Identification of alternative courses of action to be pursued.

This is a plan designing stage. There’s focus on a number of alternatives which offer a range of
potential alternative solutions.

i. Appraisal of alternatives
It is a form of assessment/ evaluation of each alternative formulated and it gives the
merits and demerits of the plan. There is a criteria used to assess the alternatives and the
parameters include cost, accessibility, environment quality, urban form, neighborhood
community and all those form a checklist.

The criteria are ranked regarding each alternative. It helps the making of appraisal to be scientific
and helps to prioritize alternatives.

ii. Selection of preferred alternatives.

Plans are presented to the community after ranking based on methodology of raking from
“best to least”. The politicians or community select the plan and the best plan should
incorporate the best qualities of the other plans.
iii. Implementation
Here are defined activities that are to be undertaken. It sets the time frame for various
activities and also sets up the management structure. Funds should be availed for plan
implementation.
The terminologies used for these plans differ from country to country.

STRUCTURE PLANS

Structure plans contain broad statements on the development strategy of an area. They are
composed of illustrations (maps and drawings) of basic land use distribution and communication
network proposal.

It also has written statements on the development strategy. For instance a structure plan report
basing on the structure map.

It delineates natural features to be retained.it proposes roads, main land use activity areas e.g.
residential, industrial, open space, commercial, institutional etc.

It set a firm urban pattern (sets direction of urban development) and it doesn’t deal with precise
boundaries for each of the activities that is why it remains a structure, but the determination of
precise boundaries s normally reserved for detailed planning process.

It is often used where a large area is proposed for development, whether urban, rural or regional.
It provides a standard base for proceeding with development by local authorities planning
departments for private and public interests.

In case of an urban area, a structure plan can cover an entire municipality. It could cover part of a
town and leave out another and cover part of the peripheral and this allows interim development
order.

Interim development order is that type of order which is given to areas which have not yet been
subjected to structure planning. Its success depends on the cooperation of the community. For
example if it is not known where a road in future may pass, we restrict the community from
carrying out development unless they have approved plans.

AIMS OF A STRUCTURE PLAN

1) It works out a continued program for expansion i.e. it helps in directing possible
expansion and how it will take place.
2) It helps in the conservation of the urban environment.
3) Helps in identifying development needs so that action can be practical.
4) It proposes future infrastructure.

PRINCIPALS OF A STRUCTURE PLAN.

1. It lays down the framework for development, where by it portrays the development of
land uses in the area.
2. Lays down planning policies and guidelines which affect development or policy
guidelines on development e.g. the location of activities by zoning, development
specifications like Floor Area Ration (FAR), setbacks, skyline height, type of
developments to be made, specification on city centre development, plot development
specifications, etc.
3. It has a time period after which it should be subjected to revision. It helps to review the
plans that have not yet been completed. Short and medium term plans undergo short term
reviews while after a long term period, major reviews take place.
4. The structure plan must be flexible because it is just a guideline principle. Deviations
take place, evaluations are made and components changed within the broad framework of
the structure plan. The plan is changed within defined intervals.
5. It specifies desirable development in a larger perspective and serve as a guidance in a
sense that it gives general direction. Any deviations which occur have to be done in the
formal revision of the established procedures.

COMMON LAND USES IDENTIFIED ON A STRUCTURE PLAN.

1) Residential land use: low density, high density, medium low density, medium high
density.
2) Commercial land use; city centre, town centre, trading centre.
 3) Open space land use: Leisure Park, city square, recreation- stadium, playgrounds, sports
fields, play fields, community centre.
4) Industrial land use: large scale industry, medium scale, small-scale.
5) Environmental land use: forests – natural, planted, proposed; ecologically sensitive areas
e.g. hilltops; marshy areas, swamps, wetlands.
6) Institutional land use: tertiary, vocational, secondary, primary, nursery, health etc.
7) Special areas: sewerage lagoons, sewerage treatment plants, sanitary landfills, cemeteries.
8) Civic Land use: office space, prisons, police stations, military barracks.
9) Health: hospitals, clinics, health centres.
10) Roads: primary, secondary, cycle lanes, walkways, local roads, pedestrian paths.
11) Agricultural
12) Undetermined land-use: shows flexibility of the structure plan.

The structure plan follows a cycle. Structure plans are done under the following conditions;

1) Where none and no other structure plan exists.

2) Drawn to improve on an existing one.
3) Drawn to solve particular problems or achieve particular goals.

POSSIBLE FRAMEWORK FOR APPRAISING ALTERNATTIVE PLANS.

1. Health- convenient location of facilities makes life easy. Movement factor- how easy it is
to reach services.
2. Efficiency – how does it promote or minimize where there is energy in terms of fuel and
costs.
3. Cost- in terms of development, how much does one spend to travel where various
activities are proposed e.g. proposing roads in swamps.
4. Environment – in terms of quality and relation to transport and industrial location. Don’t
locate industries on hills.
5. Intensity –in terms of development because development tends to go with people.
Balance between commercial and residential.
6. Social equity and choice as criteria in terms of jobs, accessibility to industries, medical
care and office space allocation etc.
7. Amenity – pleasantness of urban environments of leisure parks, theatres etc.

THE DETAILED PLAN.

Unlike the structure plan, detailed plans show much more details of the use proposed for any
particular area/ sector i.e. the activity type e.g. housing, industry, open space. They are in form of
maps and plans and also have written statements which explain what the plan is talking about.
They form the basis for making decisions by local authorities for development planning
application, because all developments have to be referred to the detailed plans to check on their
conformity.

Plans can either be ad hoc plans (or piece meal plans) or detailed plans, but zoning plans define
activity areas. They give rise to the land layout plans and show some land us distributions.

The detailed plans indicate issues like:

1) Clearly demarcate land area boundaries which lead to survey boundaries/property

boundaries.
2) They show land subdivisions in layout form and also the requisite or accompanying
sizes/ dimensions of plans.
3) It also shows orientation of the plots(where plans face) and an account has to be taken
for the direction where the sun sets or rises to minimize the effects of sunshine on
houses when orientation is done; wind aspects are also covered.
4) It identifies reserves for communication networks and other services like roads and
dimensions or widths are given on detailed plans.
5) They also indicate development density by the size of plots, the floor area ratio (FAR),
the plot ratio i.e. the relationship between vertical and horizontal space (how much
development can be allowed to go up vis-a–vis the horizontal land).
6) It shows the skyline or the height which is a defined height that shows how high
buildings can be allowed to go.
7) Shows setbacks (distance between proposed building and the boundary). Setbacks can
be determined using;
Frontage lane – part of the road facing the front of the property,
Building line- line beyond which no development goes towards the frontage lane. It is a
living space for utilities like electricity lines, sewerage drains, water lines,
communication and ICT lines etc.
A detailed / layout plan is preceded by a zoning plan which is a structure plan. The
zoning plan gives the distribution of activity areas e.g. Roads in an industry and other
services that complement it.
The detailed plans regulate the use and the design of buildings.
They help the developer to know the requirements of a particular area or location. It is a
legal document as soon as it is approved. Its legality gives security to the public to be
given specific layouts for items of common interest.
Its legality also helps in preservation of buildings and other areas of historical
importance and tourism but also the environment.
It protects an individual plot so that someone can get a land title for that plot.
However, the detailed plans have to be flexible and have to focus on changing demands
i.e. sometimes re-zoning and re-subdivision are inevitable.
 The detailed plans have to be robust, evolving to cope with the changing times and have
to be with an implementation time period to have goals and objectives achieved.
However, there is need to adhere to the principles of the detailed plans although some
minor changes have to be made.
A detailed plan is used as an important planning document and often times they are
called development control plans because:
1. They give conditions to develop
2. They affect the use of the land,
3. They are used as a basis for granting building permits.

ACTION AREA PLAN (for specific projects in a particular area)

They are identified in specific locations for immediate planning actions and have specific goals
and objectives geared at solving those problems or exploiting a potential that has been identified
e.g. a street with adjoining developments that have a lot of traffic congestion.

In this case an action plan would be called in to provide up of more alleys, one way traffic
system, open space etc, to improve the general circulation and reduce congestion. For example, a
sector within the Central Business District – CBD, could be identified for action planning to tap
a potential and create dynamism in terms of economic performance and to reduce on the dullness
of the area.

It is identified with specific activity zones with defined development conditions e.g. issues of the
skyline, frontage lane of buildings, building design frameworks, provision of pedestrian
walkways and precincts, open spaces, building densities etc.

LAND DEVELOPMENT CONTROLS (strategies put up to manage land)

Why do we have land development controls?

1. To make sure that development plans are adhered to.

2. It is a strategy or means of implementing these plans.
3. To protect community rights and interests.
Land development control tools include;
 Zoning
 Subdivisions
 Change of user
 Law and statutes.

ZONING

Zoning in a planning context means delineating, marking, identifying, delimiting areas for
certain specific land use types e.g. residential, civil, open spaces, industrial, commercial,
educational, special sites, etc.
The purpose of zoning is to concentrate compatible land use and segregate the incompatible
areas. E.g. a hospital and a sanitary landfill; an airport and a sanitary land fill, because of
pollution agent. Also a school in an industrial area; a medium density industry and residential
area are all incompatible.

Zoning is usually indicated by drawing a map which shows the distribution of land uses and it
forms a component of the structure plan.

Zoning has development specifications:

1. Site layout requirements such as those used to determine the density of development.
Generally, the plot area should be at least 15m x 30m (450m2) or 50ft x 100ft or 11
decimals of an acre. For high density residential areas, the plot area shouldn’t be below a
certain specified figure. It shows the minimum road reserve expected in the given area,
maximum site to be covered by the development, minimum setback from plot boundary,
also other developments including driveways, parking spaces, utilities etc.
2. Requirements of the structure proposed.
 It includes maximum and minimum height (skyline). Different zones have
different skylines.
 It has maximum floor area/ plot ratio i.e. the relationship between the floor area
and the site area i.e. how much of the floor can be permitted in relation to the area
of site. The floor area increases but the site area remains the same. The more the
floor area is increased, the more vertical increases are made.
 It also shows the maximum and minimum heights, number of stories and
maximum floor areas.
3. Uses for which the structure should be utilized; for instance, a residential building should
specify whether it is for single or multiple families.
It could be in the specifications where areas may accommodate nonresidential uses e.g.
churches, schools, offices, funeral homes etc.

It may be a commercial building and it may have activities that may be permitted and those that
cannot be permitted e.g. bars can be permitted. Clinics and shops in a residential area can be
permitted. For industries, some activities can be permitted. Any activity which deviates from the
zoned area requires consent from the controlling authority called a Re-zoning consent.

Application for a re-zoning consent may be accepted or rejected. Re-zoning should be as per the
structure plan and if it affects the structure plan, it has to go through the town council or county
planning board which could reject or accept the consent.

Effectiveness of zoning.

1) It can be effectively applied in a growing area where land use patterns are not yet
established and also guides an onset of development.
 2) It prevents any change that may be disastrous especially in the interest of the community.
3) It helps to create beauty/ aesthetics; and establishing development patterns and
segregating others is itself beauty / aesthetics.

Limitations of zoning.

 It can be ineffective where people are eager to develop.

 It cannot help to address re-development.
 It is limited by economic and legal forces.
Jane Jacobs an architect and planner criticizes zoning urging that development should
take place as it occurs with minimum controls.

Also says that zoning causes architectural birth control because it has specific development
requirements e.g. residential densities. Therefore architecture would be restricted by the
requirements of zoning and standards.

She urges that mixed development should be encouraged for example shops, restaurants,
discotheques (sound proofed) in residential areas to allow continuity.

Also urges that zoning just predicts what is to be done but does not make anything happen. It
thus stifles development and diversity within a single user zone.

That generally zoning should be made flexible to accommodate other but on a different scale,
because exclusive user areas mostly do not make sense.

SUBDIVISION

This is where a large piece of land is divided into two or more smaller pieces (for purposes of
easy development).

OBJECTIVES OF SUBDIVISION

1) To sell one piece or two of the subdivided plots.

2) To develop a particular plot other than the whole area.
3) To give to the next of kin.

Subdivision has to be made in accordance with the Town and County planning Act and any other
Municipal planning guidelines which define density in relation to the defined Plot sizes.

PROCEDURE FOR SUBDIVISION.

1. Submit the subdivision application to the Local Authority. Here the area is looked at to
gauge if development would be in line with the earlier plan.
 2. A sub division consent is made or not and if made it is from the controlling authority.
3. A land surveyor is called in to survey the independent plots.
4. The plots are then renamed differently since they will have to get different land titles.
5. A re-survey has to be made at the approval of the controlling authority.
6. Different land titles have to be made for each of the different plots.

EFFECTIVENESS OF SUBDIVISION

It is an effective way of meeting development needs because planning to react to the progressive
demands of the community is for public interest.

CHANGING USERS

 It is changing the use of a structure or space but within the specified zoning limits. E.g. if
a space is for a soap making industry, it can be re-zoned for making cosmetics.
 It has been used as a land development control tool to promote/ maintain economic
vibrancy of the area.
 It is used for a particular kind of thing e.g. single family to multi – family residential
development.
 It is flexible way of responding to fast development needs.
 It has to be done cautiously so that it does not become disastrous.

THE PLAN MAKING PROCESS.

The planning process is a process of preparing a set of decisions for actions in the future. It is
directed at achieving goals by optimal means. It involves deciding how to make use of resources
best, to achieve the desired goals and objectives.

What then is the nature of the planning process?

It is a continuous cycle as well as a cylindrical process rather than linear. It is generally given a
period of 10 years. It is carried out within a time frame perspective. Plan preparation becomes an
important element in planning and thus it must have a strategy.

There are various dimensions of the planning process:

1) Functional planning process- this aims at allocating resources to certain goals i.e. goals
are specified and a plan is prepared to be able to achieve those goals.
2) Future planning – it implies knowing what is to be achieved in the future. The process is
able to know what it will achieve in the future. The process is formulated having a pre-
 conception that it will achieve the targeted goals and objectives. Therefore it takes on the
form of goal oriented planning.
3) Rational comprehensive planning process- means making plans in a logical way in which
there are defined stages through which planning is undertaken. It pre supposes that
decisions taken at every planning stage are correct i.e. they are rational.
4) Mixed planning- it is a mixed approach to planning involving identifying the most
priority areas and solving those ones first and then the rest later.
5) Blue print planning approach- it involves going into so much details on what is being
planned.
6) Process planning- involves continuous planning and re-evaluating, constant monitoring
and changing among others the objectives in the best way possible. Since society changes
(in needs) we have to plan to be able to meet the changing needs.

2. URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICE PROVISION

Introduction.

Infrastructure refers to the capital facilities such as buildings, housing, factories and other
structures which provide shelter, transportation of people, goods and information; and the
provision of public services and utilities such as water, waste removal and environmental
restoration.

Urban infrastructure is dependent on contextual interactive variables of a country such as

economic, social, environmental and political forces which determine the composition, priorities
and timing of the infrastructure programs. Developing appropriate policy and strategy frame
work are therefore fundamental to infrastructural delivery, so is the need for practical approaches
to facilitate the implementation of infrastructure projects and the sustaining of the services
derived from their use.

Urban services in the past were called public services since they were provided by the states or
the local government. Today, urban services are those services provided in the urban areas to
ensure good quality of life and also ensure economic development.

Types of Physical infrastructure.

Physical infrastructure can be classified according to function as follows;

1. Technical (economic) infrastructure;

This comprises the long-lived networked, capital intensive and engineered structures
indirectly supporting economic production. The examples include;
 Public utilities e.g. power, water supply, piped gas, telecommunication etc.
 Public works e.g. roads and bridges, dams, canal works for irrigation etc.
  Transport e.g. railways, ports and waterways, airports etc.
 Sanitary e.g. sewerage, solid waste collection etc.
2. Trade infrastructure
This represents the facilities directly used for the production of goods and service.
Examples include;
 Factories e.g. electronics, biotechnology, food, textiles.
 Warehouses e.g. building materials, electronic goods, paper products.
 Offices e.g. banks, travel agencies, consultancies etc.
 Shops e.g. supermarkets, restaurants, retail centres etc...
3. Social infrastructure
This focuses on facilities directly related to human and social welfare. Examples include;
 Education and culture e.g. schools, libraries, churches, colleges etc.
 Health and social services e.g. Hospitals, clinics, housing, advisory centres etc.
 Sport and recreation e.g. play grounds, stadiums, parks etc.
 Public administration e.g. fire station, city hall, police station, prisons,
government buildings etc.

Morphological classification