19AR03007

HUMANITIES
Semester III

Faculty : Ar.Sriparvathy Unni

ar.sriparvathy@gmail.com
+91 8281926256
 Module Contents
MODULE 1
Sociology and Its Relation to Architecture
• Definition of Sociology; nature, scope and utility of
Sociology; branches of sociology.

• Different social processes - cooperation, conflict,

competition, accommodation, assimilation, progress and
evolution.

• Forms of social organization: society, community, family,

culture.

• Different family structures and architectural responses to

different family types and housing typologies (traditional
and contemporary).

• Relationship of social, economic and political systems to

the built environment, relevance in Architecture.
SOCIAL PROCESSES
Kinds of Social Interaction

COOPERATION

CONFLICT

COMPETITION

ACCOMMODATION

ASSIMILATION

PROGRESS

EVOLUTION
Social Processes
• Social processes are the ways in which individuals and groups
interact, adjust, readjust and establish relationships and pattern of
behavior, which are again modified through social interactions.
• MacIver: Social process is the manner in which the relations of the
members of a group, once brought together, acquire a distinctive
character.
• Horton and Hunt: The term social process refers to the “repetitive
forms of behavior which are commonly found in social life.”

The Concept of Social Process

 Society is a system of social relations. Social relationship may be
studied by the kind or mode of interaction they exhibit. These kinds
or modes of interaction, essence of social life are called social
processes. Social processes are the fundamental ways in which
men interact and establish relationships.
 Interaction between individuals and groups occurs in the form of
social process.
 Thus social processes refers to forms of social interaction that occur
again and again.
 Social Processes
• Social processes are the ways in which individuals and groups interact, adjust, readjust and
establish relationships and pattern of behavior, which are again modified through social
interactions.
• MacIver: Social process is the manner in which the relations of the members of a group,
once brought together, acquire a distinctive character.
• Horton and Hunt: The term social process refers to the “repetitive forms of behavior which
are commonly found in social life.”
The Concept of Social Process
 Society is a system of social relations. Social relationship may be studied by the kind or mode of interaction they exhibit. These
kinds or modes of interaction, essence of social life are called social processes. Social processes are the fundamental ways in
which men and women interact and establish relationships.
 Interaction between individuals and groups occurs in the form of social process.
 Thus social processes refers to forms of social interaction that occur again and again.
Social Interaction:
• Man is a social animal. It is difficult for him to live in isolation. They always live in groups. As members of these groups they act
in a certain manner. Their behavior is mutually affected. This interaction or mutual activity is the essence of social life. Social
life is not possible without interactions.
• Social interactions are reciprocal relationships which not only influence the interacting individuals but also the quality of
relationships.
Definitions
 Eldredge and Merill: Social interaction is the general process whereby two or more persons are in meaningful contact as a
result of which their behavior is modified however slightly.
 Drawson and Gettys: Social interaction a process whereby men interpenetrate the minds of each other.
 Gish, N.P.: Social interaction is the reciprocal influence human being exert on each other through inter stimulation and
response.
The two basic condition of social interaction are contact and communication.

I. CONTACT
 Contact is the first stage of interaction. Contact means simply a
coming together of independent social units [individuals].
 It involves a mutual response, an inner adjustment of behavior to the
actions of others.
 The two kinds of contact are:
 Contact in time: The first one refers to contact of group with the earlier
generations through customs, traditions, folkways, morals, etc.
 Contact in space: The second one refers to the relationship between
contemporary individuals and groups within a particular area. The
contacts may be primary and personal or secondary and impersonal
in nature.

2. COMMUNICATION
 Communication is the medium of interaction. In communication one
person infers from the behavior of another the idea or feeling of the
person. It may take place at three levels – through the senses, the
emotions and the sentiments and ideas.
Types of Social Processes / Kinds of Social Interaction
• There are hundreds of social processes. The fundamental processes that are found to appear repeatedly in society are
socialization, cooperation, conflict, competition, accommodation, acculturation and assimilation etc.
• Social process can be positive or negative.
• Accordingly, social process have been classified into two broad categories, associative and dissociative.

1. ASSOCIATIVE PROCESSES 2. DISSOCIATIVE PROCESSES

The associative processes of Social processes which leads

social interaction are of to negative results are called
positive type of interaction. dissociative processes.
The associative process is These social processes result
always worked for the in disintegration of society.
integration and benefit of These are also known
society. These processes bring disjunctive processes.
progress and stability in
society. Associative processes Examples of dissociative
are also called as conjunctive social processes are:
processes. 1. Competition
2. Conflict
The main types of associative
interaction are:
1. Cooperation
2. Accommodation
3. Assimilation
 1. COOPERATION
A
 Cooperation is one of most basic, pervasive and continuous social process. It is the very basis of social existence.
S
 The term ‘cooperation’ has been derived from two Latin words – “Co” meaning ‘together’ and “Operary” meaning ‘to
S work’.
O  Hence cooperation generally means working together for the pursuit of a common goal.
C
 DEFINITION
I
 Merrill and Eldredge: Cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more person work together to gain a
A common end.
T  A.W.Green: Cooperation is the continuous and common endeavor of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach
I a goal that is commonly cherished.
V  Fairchild: Cooperation is the process by which the individuals or groups combine their effort, in a more or less organized
E way for the attainment of common objective.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COOPERATION:
1. Cooperation is an associative process of social interaction which takes place between two or more individuals or groups.
2. Cooperation is a conscious process in which individuals or groups have to work consciously.
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3. Cooperation is a personal process in which individuals and groups personally meet and work together for a common
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objective.
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4. Cooperation is a continuous process. There is continuity in the collective efforts in cooperation.
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5. Cooperation is a universal process which is found in all groups, societies and nations.
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6. Cooperation is based upon two elements such as common end and organized effort.
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7. Common ends can be better achieved by cooperation and it is necessary for the progress of individual as well as society.
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 TYPES OF COOPERATION:
A  Maclver and Page have divided cooperation into two main types.
S (i) Direct Cooperation:
S  Under direct cooperation may be included all those activities in which people do similar things together.
O  The essential character of this kind of cooperation is that people do such identical function which they can also do
C separately. This type of cooperation is voluntary e.g., cooperation between husband and wife, teacher and student,
master and servant etc.
I
A  For example, plying together, working together, carrying a load together or pulling the car out of mud together.

T (ii) Indirect Cooperation:

I  Under indirect cooperation are in included those activities in which people do different tasks together towards a
common end. This cooperation is based on the principle of the division of labour.
V
E  In it people perform different functions but for the attainment of the common objective. In the modern technological
age, specialization of skills and function are more required for which indirect cooperation is rapidly replacing direct
cooperation.
 For example, when carpenters, plumbers and masons cooperate to build a house.

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S TYPES OF COOPERATION:
S  A.W. Green has classified cooperation into three main categories.
O (i) Primary Cooperation:
C  This type of cooperation is found in primary groups such as the family. In this
form, there is an identify of interests between the individuals and the group. The
I
achievement of the interests of the group includes the realization of the
A individual’s interests.
T (ii) Secondary Cooperation:
I  Secondary cooperation is found in secondary groups such as Government,
V industry, trade union and church etc.
E  For example, in an industry, each may work in cooperation with others for his
own wages, salaries, promotion, profits and in some cases prestige and power. In
this form of cooperation there is disparity of interests between the individuals.
(iii) Tertiary Cooperation:
 This type of cooperation is ground in the interaction between the various big and
P small groups to meet a particular situation. In it, the attitudes of the cooperating
R parties are purely opportunistic; the organization of their cooperation is both
loose and fragile.
O
C  For example, two political parties with different ideologies may get united to
defeat their rival party in an election.
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 ROLE OF COOPERATION IN SOCIAL LIFE:
A
S  Cooperation is the most elementary form of social process without which society
cannot exist. According to Kropotkin, it is so important in the life of an individual is
S that it is difficult to survive without it. Even among the lowest animals such as ants
O and termites, cooperation is evident for survival.
C
I  Cooperation is the foundation of our social life. The continuation of the human race
requires the cooperation of male and female for reproduction and upbringing of
A children. Cooperation for human beings is both a psychological and social
T necessity. It is needed at every step in our life.
I
V  If one does not cooperate with others, he is left to live a solitary life. The physical
E mental and even the spiritual needs of the individual remain unsatisfied if he does
not agree to cooperate with his fellow-members. It is very difficult for a man to lead
a happily conjugal life without the active cooperation of his wife and via-versa.

 Cooperation helps society to progress. Progress can better be achieved through

P united action. The outstanding progress in science and technology, agriculture and
R industry, transport and communication would not have been possible without
Cooperation.
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 All the progress that mankind has made in the various fields is to be attributed to
E the cooperating spirit of the people. Cooperation is an urgent need of the present-
S day world. It is not only needed among the individuals and groups but also among
the nations. It provides solutions for many international problems and disputes.
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 2. ACCOMMODATION
A
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Meaning of Accommodation
S
• Accommodation is one of the principal types of social
O processes. It is through this process that social order arises.
C • Park and Burgess have said that human social organization is
I fundamentally the result of an accommodation of
conflicting elements. Throughout his life man has to face a
A number of conflicting situations.
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Definition of Accommodation
I
• 1. The famous psychologist I.M. Baldwin was the first to use Characteristics of Accommodation
V the concept of accommodation. According to him, the term
E denotes acquired changes in the behaviour of individuals 1. Accommodation is the natural result of conflict.
which help them to adjust to their environment. 2. Accommodation may be a conscious or an unconscious
• 2. Maclver says that “the term accommodation refers activity.
particularly to the process in which man attains a sense of
3. Accommodation is universal.
harmony with his environment.”
P • 3. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff. “Accommodation is a 4. Accommodation is continuous.
R term used by the sociologists to describe the adjustment of 5. The effects of accommodation may vary with the
hostile individuals or groups.” circumstances.
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF ACCOMMODATION
A
S  It is the End-result of Conflict:
The involvement of hostile individuals or groups in conflict makes them realize the importance of accommodation. Since
S conflict cannot take place continuously, they make room for accommodation. It is the natural result of conflict. If there
O were no conflict, there would be no need of accommodation.
C  It is both Conscious and Unconscious Process:
I Accommodation is mainly an unconscious activity because a newborn individual accommodates himself with his family,
caste, play-group, school, and neighborhood or with the total environment unconsciously. Sometimes, individuals and
A groups make deliberate and open attempt to stop fighting and start working together. For example, warring groups enter
T into pacts to stop war. Striking workers stop strike after having an understanding with the management.
I  It is a Universal Activity:
V Human society is composed of antagonistic elements and hence conflicts are inevitable. No society can function smoothly
if the individuals and groups are always engaged in conflict. They must have to make efforts to resolve conflicts, so
E accommodation is very much necessary. It is found in some degree or other in every society all the time.

 It is a Continuous Process:
Accommodation is not confined to any particular stage or to any fixed social situation. Throughout the life, one has to
accommodate oneself with various situations. The continuity of the process of accommodation does not break at all. It is
as continuous as man’s breathing.
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R  It is a Mixture of both Love and Hatred:
In the words of Ogburn and Nimkoff, accommodation is the combination of two kinds of attitude love and hatred. The
O attitude of love makes people to cooperate with one another but it is the hate which leads them to create conflicts and
C to get involved in them and then to accommodate with one another.
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 FORMS OR METHODS OF ACCOMMODATION:
A
S  Accommodation or resolution of conflicts may be brought about in many ways
and accordingly may assume various forms, the most important of them being
S the following:
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1. Admission of one’s Defeat:
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I  This method of accommodation is applicable between the conflicting parties of
unequal strength. The stronger group can pressurize the weaker group by its
A strength. The weaker party submits to the stronger one out of fear or because of
T fear of being over-powered.
 For example, in war, the victorious nation imposes its will on the vanquished and
I the war comes to close when the stronger party achieves a clear-cut victor)
V over the other. The loser has to choose whether it will admit one’s own defeat or
continue the conflict with the risk of being eliminated together.
E
2. Compromise:

 This method is applicable when the combatants are of equal strength. In

compromise, each party to the dispute makes some concessions and yields to
some demand of the other. The “all or nothing” attitude gives way to a
P willingness to yield certain points in order to gain others.
R  In other words, it can be aid that this method is based on the principle of give
and take. Both the combatants should make some concessions or sacrifices
O voluntarily for each other because they know that conflict would cause the
C sheer waste of their energy and resources.
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3. Arbitration and Conciliation:
S
S  Accommodation is also achieved by means of arbitration and conciliation
which involves attempts of the third party to resolve the conflict between the
O contending parties. For example, the conflict between the employer and the
C employee, husband and wife, two friends, labour and management are
resolved through- the intervention of an arbitrator or a conciliator or a mediator.
I Difference should, however, be noted between conciliation and arbitration.
A
 The conciliator offers only suggestions in order to terminate a conflict. The
T acceptance of these suggestions is up to the discretion of the contending
I parties. It has no binding force upon them. Arbitration differs from conciliation in
that the decision of the arbitrator is binding on the parties concerned.
V
E 4. Toleration:

 Toleration is the method of accommodation in which there is no settlement of

dispute but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict or open conflict.
Toleration is found in the field of religion where different religious groups exist
side by side, having different policies and ideologies.
P
 For example, the co-existence of States with radically different economic and
R social system such as communist and capitalist systems are the examples of
O toleration. Similarly, at many places we find temples, churches, mosques etc.
standing in close proximity to each other for centuries. After many years of
C religious conflict this kind of religious toleration has been possible.
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 5. Conversion:

A  Conversion is a method of accommodation in which one of the contending parties tries

S to convent his opponents to his view of point by proving that he is right and they are
wrong. As a result, the party which has been convinced is likely to accept the view point
S of other party. For example, the conversion of a large number of Hindus to Islam and
O Christianity was owing to their inability to tolerate the sufferings of caste-restriction in
India. This method may also occur in politics, economics and other fields.
C
I 6. Rationalisation:
A  Accommodation can be achieved by rationalization. It is a method which involves the
T withdrawal of contending party from the conflict on the basis of some imaginary
explanations to justify his action. In other words it means an individual or a group
I rationalizes has behavior by plausible exercises and explanations.
V
 For example, the poor people, attributes their poverty to the will of God. Sometimes,
E students believe that their failure in the examination is due to the defects in the valuation
of their answer scripts by examiners, they do not see the fact that their preparation for
examination is quite inadequate.

7. Superordination and Subordination:

P  The most common method of accommodation which is found in each and every society
R is superordination and subordination. In the family the relationships among parents and
children are based on this method. In larger groupings whether social or economic the
O relationships are fixed on the same basis.
C
 Even under a democratic order there are leaders who give order and the followers who
E obey order. A caste society, for example, is a stratified society in which groups have
S accommodated to a low or high position. When individuals or groups ordinarily accept
their relative positions as a matter of fact, accommodation is said to have reached a
S state of perfection.
A IMPORTANCE / NEED FOR ACCOMMODATION:
S  Accommodation is the way which enable people to work together
S whether they like it or not. Society can hardly go on without
accommodation. Since conflict disturbs social integration, disrupts
O social order and damages social stability, accommodation is essentially
C essential to check conflict and to maintain cooperation which is the
sine qua non of social life.
I
A  It not only reduces or controls conflict but also enables the individuals
and groups to adjust themselves to changed conditions. It is the basis of
T social organisation. As Burgess remarks: “Social organisation is the sum
I total of accommodation to past and present situations. All the social
heritages, traditions, sentiments, culture, techniques are
V accommodations………….. ”
E  Accommodation makes for group life. It is indispensable in modem
complex society. In accommodation the barriers between the parties
have been partially broken down, social distance weakened and
formal relations established whereby groups can work together.
 Thus, accommodation is essential for social harmony. It is close to
P cooperation and conflict and thus must take trends on both fields into
consideration.
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3. ASSIMILATION
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Meaning and Definition
O
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I  Assimilation is one of the types of interaction. Like
accommodation it is also a form of social adjustment. But
A it is more permanent than accommodation.
T
 Assimilation is concerned with the absorption and
I incorporation of the culture by another. Hence assimilation
V requires more fundamental changes than
accommodation.
E

Definition
Characteristics of Assimilation

P  1. According to Young and Mack. “Assimilation is the

1. Assimilation is not confined to single field only.
R fusion or blending of two previously distinct groups into
one”. 2. Assimilation is a slow and gradual process.
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 2. Biesanz: Assimilation is the “social process whereby 3. Assimilation is an unconscious process.
C individuals or groups come to share the same sentiments
E and goals”. 4. Assimilation is a two-way process
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S CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSIMILATION:
O
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 Assimilation is an associative process.
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 Assimilation is a universal process. It is found in every place and at all times.
A
T  Assimilation is a slow and gradual process. It is gradual as the individual comes
to share the expectations of another group and slowly acquires a new set of
I values. The process cannot take place overnight. The assimilation of the Anglo-
V Saxon and Norman cultures has taken more than two centuries in Britain.

E  Assimilation is a unconscious process. Individuals are not conscious that the

discard their own values and acquire new set of values.
 Assimilation is a two-way process. It is based on the principle of give and take.
Assimilation takes place when groups of individuals borrow cultural elements
from each other and incorporates them to their own culture. Contact between
two groups essentially affects both. Both the groups discard their cultural
P element and substitute them with new ones.
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 FACTORS FAVORING ASSIMILATION / FACTORS CONDUCIVE FOR ASSIMILATION:
A
S The following factors may account for the ready occurrence of assimilation:
S 1. Toleration:
O
C  Toleration is an important factor which facilitate the process of assimilation. Tolerance helps people to come together, to
I develop contacts and to participate in common cultural and social activities. When the dominant group is hospitable and
tolerant towards differences, the minority groups have a greater opportunity to participate in the total community life.
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I 2. Close Social Contact:
V
E  Close social contact is another leading factor which promotes the process of assimilation in a greater way. When the
people or group of different cultures come into close proximity with each other, the assimilation process takes place very
easily. The close social contact creates a good understanding among the people and the group and this creates a
healthy atmosphere in which people exchange their views in a better way.
 For instance, in India the assimilation between Hinduism and Buddhism is possible due to the close social contact among
the members of these two religious groups. Thus, the close physical proximity plays a vital role in promoting the assimilation
P process.
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S 3. Amalgamation:

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O  Amalgamation is another promoting factor of assimilation. By amalgamation
we mean, individuals or groups come into close contact to one another. It
C occurs when two different cultural groups establish matrimonial relationship
I among themselves.
A  For example, the marital relations among the Hindus and non-Hindus
T facilitate the process of assimilation. The marital relationship brings the
people of different culture very close to one another. Thus, amalgamation is
I an important factor which promotes assimilation process through
V matrimonial contacts or alliances.

E
4. Equal Economic Opportunity:

 The inequality of economic status among the people of different cultural

P groups hinder the process of assimilation. But the equal economic
opportunities facilitate assimilation process. The people or groups having
R equal economic position become more easily intimate. Thus, intimate
O relationship promotes assimilation.
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S 5. Common Physical Traits:
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O  Common physical traits or qualities of the people of different cultures
C also promote the process of assimilation. The foreign immigrants of the
same race can more easily assimilate than those with different races.
I For instance, the Indians who live in America permanently can easily
A assimilate with the Indian culture.
T
I 6. Cultural similarity:
V
E  Cultural similarities between two groups of individuals promote
assimilation. If there are similarities between culture groups, assimilation
is quick to take place. Similarly, assimilation occurs most readily when
two culture groups have common language. Without knowledge of
language, the individual remains outside the adopted society. The first
step in assimilation into a new society is, therefore, to a lean language.
P
R  In reality, assimilation is a part of life itself, as the individual slowly learns
to participate in the symbols and expectations of another group.
O Assimilation can be hastened by such devices as learning of language,
C getting a job and joining a union. But these things all take time.

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A FACTORS HINDERING ASSIMILATION:
S
S  Merely bringing persons of different backgrounds together does not assure that a fusion of cultures and personalities
O take place. Sometimes it results in conflict rather than fusion between the contiguous groups. There are various factors
that retard assimilation. These factors are discussed below.
C
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A 1. Physical Differences:
T
I  Differences in features, complexion of skin and other physical trait may also help or hinder in assimilation. Generally the
V adjustment problems are the easiest for those immigrants who in appearance are supposedly most like the people of
the new land.
E
 It may be pointed out that physical differences in themselves may not produce antagonisms or prejudice between
peoples as is the case in South Eastern, Asia and Latin America, but when other factors operate to produce group
frictions, physical differences give rise to inferiority and undesirability.

P 2. Cultural Differences:
R
O  Language and religion are usually considered to be main constituents of culture, Immigrants having the same religion
C and language can easily adjust themselves in other area or country. In America for example English speaking
Protestants are assimilated with the great speed and ease whereas non-Christians who do not speak English, have the
E greatest difficulty in being assimilated there. Customs and belief are other cultural characteristics who can aid or
S hinder assimilation.
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A 3. Prejudice:
S
S  Prejudice is a barrier to assimilation. Prejudice is the attitude on which segregation
O depends for its success. As long as the dominant group prejudices those who have been
set apart, neither they as a group nor their individual members can easily become
C assimilated to the general culture. Prejudice also impedes assimilation between
I constituent elements within a given society.
A  Religious groups often allow the social distance created by prejudice to maintain their
T separateness when both would benefit by a cooperative effort in community
undertakings. Prejudice within a community, within a family or within any group plays into
I the hands of factions who prefer disunity to a fusion of interests.
V  Not all prejudice is negative; however, when groups prejudice one another with
E unusually favorable attitudes, the process of assimilation is speeded, just as it is retarded
by negative attitudes.

4. Sense of superiority and inferiority:

P
R  Assimilation is hindered by the feelings of superiority and inferiority. The people who have
strong feelings of superiority, generally hate the people who suffer from a sense of
O inferiority. Due to this reason intimate relationship between two groups of people
C become difficult. Hence, assimilation is retarded.
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S 5. Domination and subordination:

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O  Assimilation between two groups of people is almost impossible where one group dominate the other. In this case
social relation which is essential for assimilation does not develop among the people of dominant and subordinate
C groups. The dominant group always considers the people of subordinate group as inferior and exercises its power over
I them. As a result jealousy, hatred, suspicion and conflict etc. develop among them. All these hinder the process of
assimilation.
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I 6. Isolation:
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E  Isolation also hinders assimilation. People who live in isolation fail to establish social contacts with others. The isolated
people cut off entire social relationship with other people in society. Therefore, the process of assimilation becomes
very difficult.
 In short, it can be summed up that assimilation is a slow process of adoption and adjustment on the part of individuals.
There is no abrupt change in the way of life. In short, assimilation is a process of cultural adoption and adjustment.
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S Difference between Accommodation and Assimilation
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ACCOMMODATION ASSIMILATION
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I 1. Accommodation may take place suddenly and in 1. Assimilation is a slow and a gradual process. It takes time.
A radical manner. Example: immigrants take time to get assimilated with the
Example: workers after having talks with the majority group.
T management may decide to stop their month-long
I strike all on a sudden.
V
2. It may or may not provide permanent solution to 2. Assimilation normally provides a permanent solution to
E group differences and disputes. It may only provide a inter-group dispute and differences.
temporary solution.

3. It may be both conscious and unconscious a 3. It is mostly an unconscious process. Individuals and groups
process .in most of the instances it takes place involved in it are
P consciously. often not aware of what actually happens within themselves
R Example: Labour leaders who come for talks are or in their group.
sufficiently aware of the fact that they are purposefully
O seeking out a solution to their dispute.
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4. COMPETITION
S
S  Social process which leads to negative results is called
dissociative processes. These social processes result in
O disintegration of society. These are also known disjunctive
C social processes.
I  Competition and conflict etc. are examples of dissociative
social processes.
A
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I COMPETITION
V
E Definition
Meaning of Competition
 Park and Burgess: “Competition is an interaction
 Competition is the most fundamental form of social without social contact”.
struggle. It is a natural result of the universal struggle for
existence. It is based on the fact that all people can never  Biesanz: “Competition is the striving of two or more
satisfy all their desires. persons for the same goal which is limited so that all
P cannot share.”
 Competition takes place whenever there is an insufficient
R supply of things that human beings commonly desire.  Horton and Hunt: “Competition is the struggle for
O Whenever and wherever commodities which people want
possession of rewards which are limited in supply,
are available in a limited supply, there is competition.
C goods, power, love – anything.”
E  Competition may also be defined as “the process of
S seeking to monopolize a reward by surpassing all
rivals.”
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O NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETITION:
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I 1. Scarcity as a Condition of Competition
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2. Competition and Affluence
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3. Competition is continuous
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4. Competition is Universal
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E 5. Competition is Dynamic
6. Competition – A Cause of Social Change
7. Competition may be personal or Impersonal
8. Competition may be Constructive or Destructive
P 9. Competition is Always Governed by Norms
R 10. Competition may be Unconscious also
O
C
E
S
S
D NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETITION:
I By analyzing various definitions, the following characteristics of competition can be drawn:
S (i) It is Universal:
S  Competition is found in every society and in every age. It is found in every group. It is one aspect of struggle which is
O universal not only in human society but also in the plant and animal worlds. It is the natural result of the universal struggle
for existence.
C
(ii) It is Impersonal:
I
A  Competition is not a personal action. It is an ‘interaction without social contact.” The competitors are not in contact and
do not know one another. They do not compete with each other on a personal level. The attention of all the competitors
T is fixed on the goal or the reward they aim at. Due to this reason competition is known as an impersonal affair.
I (iii) It is an Unconscious Activity:
V  Competition takes place on the unconscious level. Achievement of goal or the reward is regarded as the main object of
E competitors. Rarely they do know about other competitors. For example, the students of a particular class get engaged
to secure the highest marks in the final- examination. They do not conceive of their classmates as competitors. Students
may, no doubt, be conscious of the competition and much concerned about marks.
 Their attention is focused on the reward or goals rather on the competitors. (iv) It is Continuous Process: Competition
never comes to an end. It is not an intermittent process. It is continuous. As goods are short in supply there must be
P competition among the people for their procurement. The desire for status, name, fame, glory, power and wealth in an
ever increasing degree makes competition a continuous process in human society.
R
O
C
E
S
S
D FORMS / TYPES OF COMPETITION
I
S  Competition can be divided into many categories or forms. They are economic competition, cultural competition, social
S competition, racial competition, political competition etc. It exists everywhere but appears in many forms.
O
C 1. Economic Competition:
I  Generally, economic competition is found in the field of economic activities. It means a race between he individuals and
A groups to achieve certain material goods. Thus economic competition takes place in the field of production, consumption,
distribution and exchange of wealth. For example, competition between two industrial sectors for the production of goods.
T In modern industrial society, the materialistic tendency of people has led to economic competition to a great extent.
I
V
2. Cultural Competition:
E
 Cultural competition is found among different cultures: It occurs when two or more cultures try to establish their superiority
over others. This type of competition leads to cultural diversities in society. When one culture tries to establish its supremacy
over other cultures, it gives birth to cultural competition.
 In ancient times, it was found that there was a strong competition between the Aryans and non-Aryans and sometimes it
P led to conflict. The religious competition between the Hindus and Muslims in present day is a bright example of cultural
competition.
R
O
3. Social Competition:
C
E  Social competition is mainly found in modern societies. It is the basic feature of present day world. For acquiring a high
status, popularity, name and fame in society people compete with each other. Social competition plays a vital role in the
S determination of individual’s status in society.
S
D
I
4. Racial Competition:
S
S
O  Racial competition is found among different races of the world. It takes place when one race tries to establish its superiority
over the other. The whole human society is divided into a number of races and there always arises an intense competition
C among them. The competition between the Indo-Aryan race and Dravidian race in India is example of racial competition.
I Similarly, in South Africa, there is a competition between the white and black races.
A
T 5. Political Competition:
I
V  Political takes place in the political field. In all democratic countries, competition is inevitable among the various political
E parties and even between the different members of a political party to obtain political power. Similarly, at the international
level, there is always diplomatic competition between different nations. In India, competition between Congress (I) and B.J.P.
for political power is a bright example of political competition.
 Besides the above types, there are two other types, of competition such as personal and impersonal competitions. Personal
competition means the rivalry between the people. It occurs among the two opponents on their personal level.
P  In this competition, the competitions are well known to each other personally. Competition between the two students in a
R class-room or competition between two players in a particular game is the bright example of personal competition.
O  Impersonal competition, on the other hand, takes place among the groups not among the individuals. In this competition, the
competitors compete with one another not one personal level but as members of groups such as business, social and cultural
C groups. In India, competition between he various religious groups like Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs etc. is an example of
E impersonal competition.
S
S
D ROLE OF COMPETITION – POSITIVE
I
S  Competition is considered to be very healthy and a necessary social process. It is indispensable in social life. It has played
a major role in the survival of human beings. It is the basic law of life. It is extremely dynamic. It performs many useful
S functions in society, According to H.T. Mazumdar; it performs both positive and negative functions. They are briefly
O mentioned below:
C
I (i) Assignment of right individual to proper place:
A  Competition assigns right individual to a place in the social system. It provides the individuals better opportunities to satisfy
their desires for new experiences and recognition. It believes in achieved status. It spurs individuals and groups on to exert
T their best efforts. Competition determines who is to perform what function. The division of labour and specialization of
I function in modern life are the products of competition. It fulfills one’s desire for higher status, which one can achieve by
struggling and competing.
V
E
(ii) Source of motivation:
 Competition motivates others to excel or to obtain recognition or to win an award. The practice of awarding prizes and
scholarships to those who occupy the few top position on the merit is designed to foster creativity and promote striving
excellence. Competition stimulates achievement by lifting the levels of aspiration for which some individuals work harder
P for success.
R
O (iii) Conducive to progress:
C  Healthy and fair competition is considered essential for economic, social as well as technological and scientific progress.
Through competition a proper man is selected and placed in the proper place. It is obvious that when a proper man is in
E the proper place the technological and general progress of the society cannot be hampered. People make their best
S efforts when they find themselves in competition. It is competition which has made inventions and discoveries in different
fields possible.
S
D ROLE OF COMPETITION – NEGATIVE
I
S  Besides the above positive functions, competition also performs a few negative functions as well.
S
O (i) Competition may lead to frustration:
C
 Competition may create emotional disturbances. It may develop unfriendly and unfavorable attitudes among the persons
I or groups toward one another. Unfair and unhealthy competition has the most disintegrating effects. It may lead to
A neurosis through frustration and to violation of the rules by those who fail in the struggle for status according to “the rules of
the game”.
T
I
(ii) Competition may lead to monopoly:
V
E  Unlimited competition in a capitalist economy gives rise to monopoly. It throws the real needs of the people into waste and
causes starvation in the midst of plenty. It may cause fear, insecurity, instability and panic.
 For example, in the economic field, businessmen seek to protect themselves against competition that is, by erecting tariff
barriers against foreign competition by agreeing upon prices. Laborers unite for protecting their wages and bureaucrats
protect themselves through their associations.
P
R (iii) Competition may lead to conflict:
O  Competition, if it is uncontrolled, may lead to conflicts which are considered inimical to group solidarity or cohesion.
C Sometimes it may become violent involving unethical and unfair means to divert the competitors’ attention from
sportsmanship which is outcome of fair competition.
E
 Therefore, competition should always be healthy and fair.
S
S
D
I
S Difference between Cooperation and Competition
S
O
COOPERATION COMPETITION
C
I
1. Cooperation refers to a form of social interaction 1. Competition is a form of social interaction wherein the
A
wherein two or more persons work together to gain individuals try to monopolize rewards by surpassing all the
T a common end. rivals.
I 2. Cooperation is always based on the combined or 2. Competition can take place at the level of the group and
V the joint efforts of the people. also at the level of the individual.
E 3. Cooperation normally brings about positive results. It 3. Though competition can bring about positive results, it can
rarely causes losses to the individuals. cause damages or losses to the parties and persons involved.
4. Cooperation is boundless. It has no limitations. One 4. Competition has its own limitations. It is bond by norms.
can go to any extent to help others. Limitless or unregulated competition can cause much harm.

P 5. As C H Cooly has pointed out cooperation requires 5. Competition requires qualities such as strong aspirations, self-
qualities such as kindness, sympathy, concern for confidence, the desire to earn name and fame in society, the
R others, mutual understanding and some amount of spirit of adventure and the readiness to suffer and struggle.
O readiness to help others.
C 6. Cooperation brings people satisfaction and 6. But competition may cause satisfaction as well as
E contentment. dissatisfaction, anxiety, indefiniteness and uncertainties.
S
S
D
I
5. CONFLICT
S
S • Conflict is a form of struggle between individuals or groups.
O Unlike competition, the focus in conflict is not on the reward,
but on eliminating the opponent. It is more negative than
C competition.
I
A
Definition
T
I
V • Horton and Hunt define conflict as a process of seeking to
monopolize rewards by eliminating or weakening the
E competitors.
• In the words of A.W.Green, Conflict is the deliberate attempt
to oppose, resist or coerce the will of another or others.
• According to Gillin and Gillin, Conflict is the social process in
P which individuals seek their ends by directly challenging the
antagonist by violence or threat of violence
R
O
C
E
S
S
D NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CONFLICT
I  Conflict is an important form of social process. It is a part of human society. The main characteristics of conflict are as
follows:
S
S
O (i) It is a Universal Process:
C  Conflict is an ever-present process. It exists at all places and all times. It has been in existence since time immemorial.
The cause of the universality of conflict is the increase of man’s selfishness and his materialist tendency. Karl Marx has
I rightly mentioned, that ‘violence is the mid-wife of history’.
A
T
(ii) It is a Personal Activity:
I
 Conflict is personal and its aim is to eliminate the opposite party. The defeat of the opponent is the main objective in
V conflict. When competition is personalised it becomes conflict. The parties, locked in conflict, lose sight of their definite
E goal or objective and try to defeat one another.

(iii) It is a Conscious Activity:

 Conflict is a deliberate attempt to oppose or resist the will of another. It aims at causing loss or injury to persons or
P groups. The attention of every party is fixed on the rival rather than on the reward or goal, they seek for. So consciously,
knowingly or deliberately the parties make struggle with each other in conflict.
R
O
C (iv) It is an Intermittent Process:
E  There is no continuity in conflict. It is occasional. It lacks continuity. It is not as continuous as competition and
cooperation. It may take place all of a sudden and may come to an end after sometime. If the conflict becomes
S continuous, no society can sustain itself. So it is an intermittent process.
S
D FORMS / TYPES OF CONFLICT
I
S  Conflict expresses itself in thousands of ways and various degrees and over every
range of human contact.
S  Maclver and Page have distinguished two fundamental types of conflict, Direct and
O Indirect conflict.
 Gillin and Gillin has mentioned five types of conflict: personal, racial, class, political
C and international conflict.
I  George Simmel has distinguished four types of conflict. These are war, feud, litigation
and conflict of impersonal ideals.
A
T War:
 When all the efforts to resolve the conflict between two States fail, war finally breaks
I out as it is the only alternative to the peaceful means of solution. War provides only
V means of contact between alien groups. Though it is dissociative in character but it
has a definitely associative effect.
E
Feud:
 Feud or factional strife does not take place among the states or nations. It usually
occurs among the members of the society. This kind of strife is known as intra-group
but not the inter-group conflict.
P Litigation:
R  Litigation is a form of conflict which is judicial in nature. To redress their grievances
and to get justice people take recourse to legal means in the court of law.
O
C Conflict of Impersonal ideals:
 It is a conflict carried on by the individuals not for themselves but for an ideal. For
E example, the conflict carried on by the communists and capitalists to prove that
S their own system can bring in a better world order.
S
D
I ROLE OF CONFLICT – POSITIVE FUNCTIONS
S (i) It promotes the solidarity and fellow-feeling:
 The conflict which promotes the solidarity and fellow-feeling within the groups and societies is known as corporate
S conflict. This conflict tends to increase the moral and promote the solidarity of the in-group, threatened by the out-
O group. For example, in war time cooperation and patriotism among the citizens of a nation are more perfect than in
peace time. “Inter-group conflict”, to quote Ogburn and Nimkoff’ is a potent factor in promoting inter-group
C
cooperation.”
I
A (ii) It enlarges the victorious group:
 The victory won through the process of conflict enlarges the victorious group. The victorious group either increases its
T power or incorporates new territory and population. In this way conflict makes possible the emergence of a larger
I group.

V (iii) It leads to redefinition of value system:

E  Conflict may lead to a redefinition of the situation by the contesting parties. Generally, the parties which are in conflict
with each other give up the old value system and accept new ones when the conflict is over. In this way conflict may
give rise to new types of cooperation and accommodation.

(iv) It acts as a cementing factor in the establishment of intimate relations:

 Conflict in certain cases acts as a cementing factor in the establishment of intimate and friendly relations among people
or parties that were involved in it until a short time ago. For example, the end of the verbal conflict between lovers,
P
friends and married couples leads to the establishment of relations which are now more intimate than before.
R
O (v) It changes the relative status of the conflicting parties:
 Conflict changes the relative status of the contestants and of the non-contestants as well. For example, after the Second
C World War, both Germany and Japan lost their status as great powers. China today has become a leading Asian power;
E United States has merged as a super-power.

S
S
D
I ROLE OF CONFLICT – NEGATIVE FUNCTIONS
S
S
 The negative functions of conflict are mentioned below:
O
C
(i) It causes social disorder, chaos and confusion:
I
A  War, a type of conflict, may destroy the lives and properties of which are involved in it. It may bring incalculable damage
and immeasurable suffering to a number of people. The warring parties generally incur great losses. They gain nothing in
T comparison with the loss incurred. The modern mode of warfare which can destroy million of people and vast amount of
I properties within a few minute, has brought new fears and anxieties for the mankind.

V
E (ii) It disrupts social unity and cohesion:
 Conflict is regarded as anti-thesis to cooperation. It disrupts normal channels of cooperation. It is a costly way of settling
disputes. The results of intergroup conflict are largely negative. Conflict weakens the solidarity of the group by diverting
members’ attention from group objectives. It violates the national integration in a greater way which may lead to the
disorganization of the society.
P
R (iii) It causes a lot of psychological and moral damage:
O
 The morale of individuals touches a new low in conflict on a personal level. It makes people psychologically weak. It spoils
C the mental peace of man. It may even make the people to become inhuman. In case, conflict does not come to quick
E end, it makes the conflicting individuals very weak and apprehensive about losing something. Therefore, it is quite likely
that- it may lead to their moral deterioration.
S
S
D
I
S Cooperation, Competition and Conflict
S
O
COMPETITION CONFLICT
C
I i. Competition is unconscious. i. Conflict takes place on a conscious level.
A ii. Competition does not involve contact. ii. Conflict involves contact.
iii. Competition is non-violent. iii. Conflict may involve violence.
T iv. Competition is impersonal activity. iv. Conflict is personal.
I v. Competition is a continuous process. v. Conflict lacks continuity.
V vi. Competition does care for social norms. vi. Conflict disregards social norms.
vii. Competition keeps members alert to the goal or vii. Conflict diverts members attention from group objectives.
E objective.

COOPERATION CONFLICT

P i. Maybe a conscious or unconscious act i. A conscious and deliberate act

ii. Based on sympathy and consideration for others ii. No regard for others
R iii. A continuous process iii. An intermittent process
O iv. Brings about positive consequences iv. Brings about mostly negative
C
E
S
S
6. SOCIAL EVOLUTION
Evolution

The Origin of species by Charles Darwin is a complete

treatise on the evolution of different species. The
book explains in detail why some species have
become extinct, and why some have survived 2
Million years.
 Cyanobacteria – 2.8 billion years old.
 Sponge – 580 million years old.
 Jelly Fish – 550 Million years old.
 Nautilus – 500 million years old
 Horseshoe Crab – 445 million years old.
 Coelacanath – 360 million years old3
 Sturgeon – 200 million years old
 Horseshoe Shrimp – 200 million years old
 EVOLUTION

"Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin." C. Darwin
Bi-pedalism is a defining feature of the human lineage.

 Our early ancestors could neither outfight nor

outrun wild dogs, hyenas, or the big cats. They
(Australopiticus) had not yet developed weapons.
My theory, despite the fact that no one agrees, is
that they had an audacious body odor. Perhaps
enough that they were not a predators first choice
of a meal. They most likely didn't have weapons
per say but they did use tools, even sharp rocks for
carving meat off bone. From what we were told, it
isn't tools that truly created our evolutionary boom
(intelligence) but the control of fire. The cooking of
meat allowed us to bring out the nutrients
unobtainable in raw meat which created an
increase in brain size throughout the evolutions of
man. It also allowed us to stay in one place and
build civilizations.
 SOCIAL EVOLUTION
The Concept of Social Evolution – Origins of Society

The earliest representatives of our species, according to Renfrew, may well have been anatomically modern, but they lacked
political leadership, large-scale cooperation, food production, organised religion, law or symbolic artefacts.
Humans were simply hunter-gatherers, who - much like extant apes - ate whatever food they could find in the vicinity.

The concept of SOCIETY came into form only in the late Paleolithic age.
In early times, the basic unit of human social organisation was the patriarchal family:
Social evolution is a sub-discipline of evolutionary biology that is concerned with social behaviors that have fitness
consequences for individuals other than the actor. Social behaviors can be categorized according to the fitness
consequences they entail for the actor and recipient.
Mutually beneficial – a behavior that increases the direct fitness of both the actor and the recipient
Selfish – a behavior that increases the direct fitness of the actor, but the recipient suffers a loss
Altruistic – a behavior that increases the direct fitness of the recipient, but the actor may suffer a loss
Spiteful – a behavior that decreases the direct fitness of both the actor and the recipient
All forms of governments can be reduced to 2 general plans.
1. The Gens/Clan is the unit of this organization; the gens, the tribe, and the confederacy of tribes occupying independent
areas, coalesced into a nation. Like the GREEKS & ROMANS after civilization supervened.
2. The State, is founded upon territory and upon property, and may be distinguished thus.
SOCIAL EVOLUTION

According to evolutionistic principle, there are 3 stages in the development of ancient technology.
Stone Age | Bronze Age | Iron Age

Paleolithic Age - Old stone age – 50,000 BC to 15,000 BC

Stone tools were used - Fire was tamed - Bones were used as needles – language for communication
Neolithic Age - New stone age – 10,000 BC to 5,000 BC
Sense of possession- Food habits - Pagan worship – agriculture was predominant – Civilisations began
Copper Age - 5,000 BC to 2,000 BC
Social life started – clans and tribes formed – wheels discovered – copper tools were made

The evolution of every ancient society passes trough these 3 stages

Savagery | Barbarism | Civilisation

Savagery – Man lived in groups, but in animal like conditions –No notion of family or God
Barbarism – Man began to make tools. Care for his fellow beings. Notion of family came into existence. Pagan symbols of
worship began. Larger groups – clans began to form.
Civilisation – Man became more organised. Towns formed. Social systems came into shape.
SOCIAL EVOLUTION
The economic development of every society passes trough these 7 stages :
Hunting | Pastoral | Agricultural | Feudal | Urbanisation | Capitalist |
Industrial

Hunting – Humans were basically hunters. They hunt for food and lived in caves
Pastoral – He had domesticated animals- searching for pastors – For agriculture and rearing of animals
Agricultural – Attempts to settle down – agriculture developed with invention of Plough. Domesticated animals – sheep,
goat, etc.– boats, wheels, pottery & weaving –

Feudal – Class systems are established – The king was sole owner of land, and he gifts it to his Lords ….

Urbanisation – Agriculture remained the main occupation – but – trade flourished – cities developed to become trading
centres – planning, painting, sculpture & architecture developed – literature & science took to greater heights

Capitalist – Feudal system gave way to capitalism – religious dogmas were tested – religions and religious institutions
became reformed – Monarchy & feudal system was replaced by democracy & communism – colonialisation began to end

Industralisation – agriculture loses importance – Industry began to gain importance – materialism replaced moral values –
Trade unions gained prominence – Democracy became predominant form of govt – technological revolution saw great
advances in nations.
7. SOCIAL PROGRESS
• Social progress is defined as an increasing capacity of a society to meet
the basic human needs of its citizens, establish the building blocks that
allow citizens and communities to enhance and sustain the quality of their
lives, and create the conditions for all individuals to reach their full
potential.
Social Progress
The Enlightenment (1650–1800)
• The big breakthrough to a new idea in Europe was the Enlightenment, when social commentators and philosophers began
to realize that people themselves could change society and change their way of life. Instead of being made completely
by gods, there was increasing room for the idea that people themselves made their own society - and to provide new
scientific knowledge about what society was like, and how one may change it for the better.
• In turn, this gave rise to progressive opinion, in contrast with conservational opinion. The social conservationists were
skeptical about panaceas for social ills. According to conservatives, attempts to radically remake society normally make
things worse. They argue that society changes organically and naturally, and that grand plans for the remaking of society,
like the French Revolution, National Socialism and Communism hurt society by removing the traditional constraints on the
exercise of power.

The notion of freedom

• This new idea implied a new concept of human freedom, i.e. people independently making their own lives using their own
judgment. Initially, this concept appeared rather paradoxical; thus, Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote, "People are born free,
but are everywhere in chains". A big breakthrough was the French Revolution of 1789, which inspired a lot of new
philosophical thought.
• In the philosophy of the German thinker Hegel, history radically recasts itself as the continual development of humanity
towards ever-greater freedom, continually extending the limits of freedom. This was a hopeful philosophy, which in
a rational way sees real progress occurring in history. It was possible to detect human advances, as well as human
regressions to an earlier state. In Hegel’s view, if something existed, it was rational. If it passed out of existence, that was
because it had become irrational. This contained a very important idea, namely that history was not a fluke of fate
(a kismet) but that it could be rationally understood, at least in principle.
Social Progress

Marxist theory (late 19th century)

Marx developed a theory of historical materialism. He describes the mid-19th century condition in the Communist Manifesto as
follows:
• The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production.
• No social order is ever destroyed before all the productive forces for which it is sufficient have been developed, and new
superior relations of production never replace older ones before the material conditions for their existence have matured
within the framework of the old society.
• Capitalism is a process of continual change, in which the growth of markets dissolve all fixities in human life, and it is
progressive and non-reactionary. Marxists believe that, in the future, capitalism will be replaced by socialism and eventually
communism.

Modernist thought (20th century)

• Advocates of capitalism agrees with Marx's analysis of capitalism as a process of continual change through creative
destruction, but, unlike Marx, believed and hoped that capitalism could essentially go on forever. The beginning of the 20th
century saw two opposing schools of thought – Marxism and liberalism – believed in the possibility and the desirability of
continual change and improvement. Marxists strongly opposed capitalism and the liberals strongly supported it, but the one
concept they could both agree on was modernism, a trend of thought which affirms the power of human beings to make,
improve and reshape their society, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation.
Social Progress

Postmodernist thought (late 20th century)

• “As it will be in the future, it was at the birth of Man.
There are only four things certain since Social Progress began.
That the Dog returns to his Vomit and the Sow returns to her Mire.
”— Rudyard Kipling
• In the postmodernist thought steadily gaining ground from the 1980s, the grandiose claims of the modernizers are steadily
eroded, and the very concept of social progress is again questioned and scrutinized. In the new vision, radical modernizers
like Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong appear as totalitarian despots, whose vision of social progress is held to be totally
deformed.
• Postmodernists question the validity of 19th century and 20th century notions of progress - both on the capitalist and the
Marxist side of the spectrum. They argue that both capitalism and Marxism over-emphasize technological achievements
and material prosperity while ignoring the value of inner happiness and peace of mind.
• Postmodernism posits that both dystopia and utopia are one and the same, overarching grand narratives with impossible
conclusions.