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COLLEGE OF NURSING
BERHAMPUR

SUBJECT- APPLIED SOCIOLOGY

TOPIC- SOCIAL PROCESS

SUBMITTED TO- SUBMITTED BY-
Mrs Debika Mishra Miss Anwesha
Nursing Officer MSc Nursing 1st yr.
MSc in Mental Health Nursing
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SL NO
CONTENT PAGE NO

1 INTRODUCTION 3

2 DEFINITION 3

3 CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL PROCESS

1. CO-OPERATION
2. COMPETOITION 4-13
3. CONFLICT
4. ACCOMODATION
5. ASSIMILATION
6. ISOLATION
4 CONCLUSION 14

5 BIBLIOGRAPHY 14
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INTRODUCTION-
Society is a system of relationships between two or more individuals and also between different
groups. Social relationships represent the functional aspects of society. Analyzing and
classifying them is a difficult task. They refer to a pattern of interaction between these
individuals. Thus, social relationships may be studied by the kind or mode of interaction they
exhibit. These kinds or modes of interaction are called social processes. Social processes are
the fundamental ways in which men interact and establish relationships.

DEFINITION-
According to Maclver, “Social process is the manner in which the relations of the members of
a group, once brought together, acquire a distinctive character”.

Arnold W. Green: Social processes are merely the characteristic ways in which interactions
occur.

• Sociologically interaction is divided into five categories –

1) Exchange – The process of transferring goods, services with each other is called
exchange. Exchange is a social process whereby social behaviour is exchanged for some
type of rewards for equal or greater.
2) Competition – It is a social process by which two or more people do the work to obtain
the same goal and out of them the best is selected. This concept of social process is in
our society.
3) Cooperation – In cooperation, people work together to achieve common goals. In
cooperation, people don’t think about personal goal but work together for the goal of the
group or team.
4) Conflict – Conflict is the social process in which people physically and socially conquer
each other. This type of situation is often seen in the politics.
5) Coercion – It means use of force, it is the process by which people force other peoples
to do something against their will/wish. It is used by the police mostly.

FORMS/CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL PROCESS–

❖ Conjunctive or associate social process -These processes are positive. These social
processes work for the solidarity and benefit of society. This category of social processes
include cooperation, accommodation, and assimilation.

❖ Dis-conjunctive or dissociative social process -These processes are negative. E.g.

conflict, competition, isolation.
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1. COOPERATION:
Cooperation is one of fundamental processes of social life. The term ‘cooperation’ has been
derived from two Latin words – ‘Co’ meaning ‘together’ and Operary meaning ‘to work’.
Hence, cooperation means working together with common interest for the achievement of a
common goal.

According to Merrill and Eldregde, “Cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two
or more persons work together to gain a common end”.
According to Fairchild, “Cooperation is the process by which the individuals or groups
combine their effort in a more or less organized way for the attainment of common objective”.

Characteristics of cooperation:
• Associative process- Social interaction takes place between two or more individuals or
groups.
• Conscious process-Individuals or groups have to work consciously.
• Personal process-Individuals and groups personally meet and work together for a
common objective.
• Continuous process-There is continuity in the collective efforts in cooperation.
• Universal process-Found in all groups, societies and nations.
• Based upon two elements such as common end and organised effort. When different
persons have the same goals and also realize that individually they cannot achieve these
goals, they work jointly for the fulfilment of these goals.
• Developmental process-Common ends can be better achieved by cooperation and it is
necessary for the progress of individual as well as society.

Types of Cooperation:

Cooperation is of different types. Maclver and Page have divided cooperation into two main
types namely, (i) Direct Cooperation (ii) Indirect Cooperation.
Direct Cooperation: It includes all those activities in which people do like things
together. For example, plying together, worshiping together, and carrying a load
together. They can also do it separately. It provides social satisfaction, and is voluntary.
Indirect Cooperation: It includes activities in which people do unlike tasks together
towards a common end. For example, when carpenters, plumbers and masons
cooperate to build a house. This cooperation is based on the principle of the division
of labour. In it people perform different functions but for the attainment of the common
objective. In the modern technological age, specialization of skills and function are
more required for which indirect cooperation is rapidly replacing direct cooperation.
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A.W. Green has classified cooperation into three main categories such as (i) Primary
cooperation (ii) Secondary cooperation (iii) Tertiary cooperation.

Primary Cooperation: This type of cooperation is found in primary groups such as

the family, neighbourhood, and friends. Every member in the group work in
cooperation with every other member to achieve common means or goals. The reward
for which everyone worked are shared.
Secondary Cooperation: Secondary cooperation is found in secondary groups such as
Government, industry, trade union. Each performs the task to have common ends and
everyone enjoys the fruit of this cooperation separately.
Tertiary Cooperation: This type of cooperation is ground in the interaction between
the various big and small groups to meet a particular situation.it may be found between
two or more social groups based on caste, tribe religious partiers, political parties etc.
For example, two political parties with different ideologies may get united to defeat
their rival party in an election.
Advantage-
- Increased understanding.
- Develop social skills
- Improve self esteem
- Complete task quicker through shared effort.
- All members are motivated
- Less tension, fewer conflict, greater cohesion
Disadvantage-
- Different managing style.
- Incorrectly formulated exercises can be harmful

2. COMPETITION:

Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is based on the fact that all
people can never satisfy all their desires. Competition takes place whenever there is an
insufficient supply of things that human beings commonly desire. Whenever and wherever
commodities that people want are available in a limited supply, there is competition. It is a
social process in which two or more individuals or groups are striving to achieve some mutually
desired goal. The desires and wants of the individuals or groups are unlimited. The objects are
short in supply and of high value. If they are available in abundance, then no competition takes
place
Competition is a process of struggle between people not for themselves but for scarce goods,
goals, money, rewards, status, values, love or recognition. Competition may take place on an
unconscious level. Individuals compete to achieve their objectives unaware of the competitive
character of their activities.
For example, a large number of students in matriculation or higher secondary compete without
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being aware of the competitive character of each one of them.

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Maxwell: It is a personal unconscious continuous struggle between individual or groups for

satisfaction because of their limited supply which all not have.

Edwin H. Sutherland: Competition is an impersonal, unconscious, conscious struggle

between individuals or groups for rewards, which, because of their limited supply, all may not
have.

Nature of competition –

➢ Competition is dynamic, continues, universal. It is also never ending process.

Individual try more and more to achieve the higher goal
➢ Competition leads to social changes ,it may able the people to adopt the new changes
and new form of behaviour which finds the way of new invention and invention which
naturally brings social changes
➢ Competition may be personal or impersonal directing towards a goal and not against
any individual. Sometimes it takes place without the actual knowledge of the other’s
existence. It is impersonal as in the case of civil services examination, in which the
contestants are not aware of one another’s identity. Competition may also be personal
as when two individuals contest for election to an office
➢ Competition may be constructive or destructive. Competition may be healthy or
unhealthy. If one or more of the competitors tries to win only at the expense of the
others, it is destructive. But constructive competition is mutually stimulating and
helpful. It contributes to the welfare of all at large. For example, farmers may compete
with one another to raise the best crops, workers in a factory to maximize production
➢ Competition is always governed by norms. Moral norms or legal rules always govern
and control competition. Competitors are expected to use fair tactics and not unfair
means.
Advantage-
- Motivate people to perform better.
- Increase efficiency.
- Enhance productivity.
- Results in better quality of work.
- Ensures delivery of work on time
- Brings higher profitability.
Disadvantage-
- Leads to too much stress
- Work pressure affects the health of competitors.
- Team spirit gets affected.
- Unhealthy completion leads to rivalries and friction.
- Each individual works for his own selfish motives.
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- Reduces productivity and profits.

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Competition Cooperation
Individual try to struggle with each other to Two or more persons work together to gain a
obtain rewards or achieve the goal common aim or end

Competition can take place at the level of the
group and also at the level of the individual
Gain positive effects like satisfaction
happiness etc. negative effects also shown
same time
Cooperation is always based on the
combined or the joint efforts of the people
Bring satisfaction and decline the internal
group conflict

It can bring positive result or can causes Bring positive results loss of individual is
damage or loss to the party and individual rare

Competition has its own limitations. It is Cooperation is boundless. It has no

bound by norms. Limitless or unregulated limitations. One can go to any extent to help
competition can cause much harm others

Competition require qualities life confidence It required kindness sympathy and mutual
strong aspirations the readiness to suffer and understanding, Readiness to help each other
struggle

3. CONFLICT:
Conflict is an ever-present process existing in varying degree in human relations. It is one of
the forms of struggle between individuals and groups. It takes place whenever a person or group
seeks to gain a reward not by surpassing other competitors but by preventing them from
effectively competing.

J.G. Gillin and J.A. Gillin: Conflict is a process in which individuals or groups seek their
ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence
P.B. Horton and C.L. Hunt: Conflict may be defined as a process of seeking to monopolize
rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors

Causes –
▪ Individual differences
▪ Cultural differences
▪ Social change
▪ Limited resources
▪ Insecurity
▪ Frustration
▪ Clash of interest
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Universal

Personal or Conscious
impersonal action

Conditioned Personal
by culture interest

Not
continuous
but
intermittent

Types of conflict –

❖ Approach-approach conflict- Arises when a person is forced with two alternative,

while one of them can be selected. These are easy to resolve.eg- there are two course
that you want to take, but they are scheduled for the same time.
❖ Avoidance-avoidance conflict- occurs when a person faces two undesirable situations
and avoidance of one forces exposure to the other. These are very difficult to resolve
and create intense emotions. E.g. - a woman trying to choose between continuing an
unwanted pregnancy and getting abortion done.
❖ Approach- avoidance conflict-exists when one event has both attractive and
unattractive features. The result is continuing oscillation between approach and
avoidance, creating a great deal of emotional conflict and stress. E.g.- to marry and not
marry
❖ Multiple approach- avoidance conflict- arises when a choice must be made between
two or make alternatives, each of which has both positive and negative features. These
are most difficult to resolve and to make right decision the individual must analyse the
expected values of each course of action.eg a person may have the alternative of
accepting any of the two jobs of which one may be boring but with a very good pay
while the other may be interesting but a very poor pay.
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Gillin and Gillin classified conflict as-

➢ Personal Conflict-It takes place within groups. Husband may quarrel with his wife, a
student with his or her teacher, a friend with his or her friend, but they are less likely to
get violent.
➢ Racial Conflict-Racial conflict occurs mostly due to the physiological differences,
which are apparently seen among people. One race may claim superiority over the other
and start suppressing the other, resulting in conflicts. Conflicts between the whites and
the blacks are examples of this.
➢ Caste Conflicts-A sense of highness and lowness, of superiority and inferiority, of
holiness and unholiness that some caste groups have developed has been responsible
for caste conflicts. The so-called upper castes or Savarna Hindus conflicting with the
so-called Harijans or lower castes (untouchables) has become a common feature in
India.
➢ International Conflicts-It refers to the conflict between two or more nations or groups
of nations. It may take place for political, religious, economic, imperialistic, and
ideological or any other such reason.

Positive Effects of Conflict-

➢ Improve group stability
➢ Keeps the group alert
➢ Upholds group morale and promoter solidarity of the group
➢ Expansion of winning group
➢ Promote group and social unity e.g.- During the Indo–Pak War, all the political parties
joined together, forgetting their differences, and supported the Government of India in
facing the challenges

Negative Effects of Conflict

➢ Create bitterness
➢ Leads to blood shed
➢ Causes destruction and intergroup tension
➢ Damage mental peace
➢ Loss moral values
➢ Disrupts social unity and social channel of co-operation.

RESOLUTION OF CONFLICT-
Conflict lead to stress and anxiety causing harm to the body. Some methods of
relieving conflict are-
Identify the source, try to change or control. If can’t, learn to accept it.
Decide important things carefully, check everything carefully before taking a decision.
Review situation again.
Change our goals or modify desires.
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Substitute our goals with those which are equally satisfying but different and
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Seek advice from experts, friends or relatives.

Encourage full expression of positive and negative feelings within an accepting
atmosphere.
Avoid indecision. Stick with decisions and forgot about the other choices.

Competition Conflict
▪ Impersonal ▪ Personal
▪ Continuous ▪ Intermittent
▪ Unconscious ▪ Conscious
▪ Productive ▪ Non-productive
▪ Encourages hard work ▪ Discourages hard work
▪ Based on non-violence ▪ Based on violence
▪ Both combatants gain ▪ Both combatants lose
▪ Achievement of aim the primary ▪ Prevention of damage the prime
object consideration
▪ Observes social laws ▪ Discourages social laws
▪ Divides into very small divisions ▪ Divides into large divisions
▪ The aim is self-interest with loss to ▪ The aim is self-interest
opponent

4. ACCOMODATION:

Adjustment is the way of life. It can take place in two ways such as adaptation and
accommodation. Adaptation refers to the process of biological adjustment. Accommodation,
on the other hand, implies the process of social adjustment. “Accommodation is the
achievement of adjustment between people that permits harmonious acting together in social
situation. It is achieved by an individual through the acquisition of behaviour patterns, habits
and attitudes which are transmitted to him socially.
It is a process through which individuals or groups make adjustment to the changed situation
to overcome difficulties faced by them

M. Maclver and C.H. Page “The term accommodation refers particularly to the process in
which man attains a sense of harmony with his environment.”

Gillin and Gillin “Accommodation is the process by which competing and conflicting
individuals and groups adjust their relationship to each other in order to overcome the
difficulties which arise in competition, contravention or conflict”.

Characteristics:
(i) It is the End-result of Conflict Since conflicts cannot take place continuously, they make
room for accommodation. When parties or individuals involved in conflict do not relish the
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scene of conflict, they sit down for its settlement.

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(ii) It is both Conscious and Unconscious Process.Man’s adjustment with the social
environment is mostly unconscious. The newborn individual learns to accommodate himself
to the social order that is dictated by various norms, such as customs, morals, traditions, and so
on. Accommodation becomes conscious when the conflicting individuals and groups make
deliberate and open attempts to stop fighting and start working together

(iii) It is a Universal Activity Accommodation as a condition and as a process is universal. It

is found in all societies and in all fields of social life.

(iv) It is a Continuous Process .The process of accommodation is not confined to any particular
stage in the life of an individual. It is not limited to any fixed social situation either. On the
contrary, throughout one’s life one has to accommodate oneself to various situations

(v) The effects of accommodation may vary with the circumstances: Accommodation may act
as a means to reduce the conflict between persons or groups. It may serve to postpone outright
conflict for a specific period of time, and may permit groups marked by sharp socio-
psychological distance to get along.

Methods of Accommodation

Coercion/ use of force-This method of accommodation is applicable between the

conflicting parties of unequal strength. The stronger group can pressurize the weaker
group by its strength. The weaker party submits to the stronger one out of fear or
because of fear of being over-powered.
Compromise: This method is applicable when the combatants are of equal strength. In
compromise, each party to the dispute makes some concessions and yields to some
demand of the other
Toleration: Toleration is another form of accommodation in which the conflicts are
avoided rather than settled or resolved. Toleration or tolerant participation is an
outgrowth of the ‘live and let live’ policy. It is a form of accommodation without formal
agreement
Conversion: This form of accommodation involves a sudden rejection of one’s beliefs,
convictions, and loyalties and the adaptation of others .As a result, the party which has
been convinced is likely to accept the view point of other party.
Rationalization: This involves the excuses or explanations for one’s behavior instead
of acknowledging the real defect in one’s own self.
Arbitration and Conciliation: Accommodation is also achieved by means of
arbitration and conciliation which involves attempts of the third party to resolve the
conflict between the contending parties.

5. ASSIMILATION:
Assimilation is the process by which a person or a group coming into contact with another
cultural group acquires its ways of life in the long run. It is a form of adjusting to the society.
When an individual or a group is exposed to new circumstances, they begin to absorb these
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circumstances slowly and gradually, somewhat unconsciously. As a result, social attitudes get
modified.
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Assimilation is a cultural process. When one culture comes into contact with another, we get
to see a dominant sentiment of mutual conflict in the beginning. With the passage of time, this
sentiment subsides. The two cultures then synthesize with and assimilate many elements from
each other. They begin to take each other more tolerantly. This is the process of assimilation.
This process of assimilation can be seen in the relations between individual and society,
husband and wife, members of the family, social institutions, associations and communities,
and so on.

Ogburn and Nimkoff “Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups once
dissimilar become similar, that it become identified in the interests and outlook”.

E.S. Bogardus “Assimilation is a process whereby attitudes of many persons are united, and
thus, develop into a united group”.

Characteristics of Assimilation:
✓ Associative process.
✓ Universal process. It is found in every place and at all times.
✓ Slow and gradual process. It is gradual as the individual comes to share the expectations
of another group and slowly acquires a new set of values.
✓ Unconscious process. Individuals are not conscious that the discard their own values
and acquire new set of values.
✓ Two-way process. It is based on the principle of give and take. Assimilation takes place
when groups of individuals borrow cultural elements from each other and incorporates
them to their own culture

Assimilation
• Assimilation is a slow and gradual •
process. It takes time. For example,
immigrants take time to get assimilated
with the majority group.
• It normally provides a permanent •
solution to inter-group disputes and
differences.
• It is mostly an unconscious process. •
Individuals and groups involved in it are
often not aware of what actually happens
within themselves or in their group
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Accommodation
Accommodation may take place
suddenly and in a radical manner. For
example, talks with the management may
lead workers to decide to stop their
month long strike all of a sudden.
It may or may not provide permanent
solution to group differences and
disputes. It may only provide a temporary
solution.
It may be both a conscious and an
unconscious process. In most of the
instances, it takes place consciously. For
example, the labour leaders who come
for talks are sufficiently aware of the fact

that they are purposefully seeking out a

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6. ISOLATION:
Human is a social being.no men can live alone, needs society to live. There is always a social
contact among people in society. This is required to have full development. For example, child
needs parental care for overall development i.e. he has to undergo the process of socialization
through parental care. An isolated individual or isolated group gets frustrated, and they may
develop psychological and emotional defects. Individual don’t prefer isolation. When
interaction ceases, human personality tends to decay. An adult who can take care of own, can
be kept in isolation which is sometimes necessary in case of antisocial behavior and organic
disease.
Social isolation can be defined structurally as the absence of social interactions, contacts, and
relationships with family and friends, with neighbors on an individual level, and with society
on a broader level.
Types of Isolation
There are two main types of isolation: spatial isolation and organic isolation.

Type Description
Spatial Spatial isolation is external. It is an enforced deprivation of contacts as for
isolation criminals. The individual in such cases is deprived of the protection of his or her
group.
Drawback-The individual becomes aggressive and shows a greater tendency for
anti-social behaviour and may have unhealthy mental conditions.
Organic Organic isolation means isolation caused by certain organic defects of the
isolation individual such as deafness or blindness. It is not imposed by an external authority
but is organic having less chance to choose friends. They give up the hope of a
normal position and may even become a broken personality.
Drawback- individual become suspicious, distrustful and irritable.

Merits of isolation-
Complete isolation is harmful but partial isolation is useful because of-
- Partial isolation is a useful aid to social solidarity.
- Adjunct of ethnographic attitude.
- Integrity of group is maintained by keeping the partic7ular group at social distance.
Demerits of isolation-
- Slow to change and progress
- No cultural cross fertilisation.
- Untouched by cultural development of others.

CONCLUSION-
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Social process is continuous and universal one. The elements of the society i.e. human beings
interact with each other in a co-ordinated manner. The co-ordinated and systemic way results
in achieving standards and satisfactory life.

BIBLIOGRAPHY-
• Gowda Krishne (2017) Essentials of sociology for BSc nursing students, CBS nursing
publisher, page no-198-204.

• Indrani T K (2017) Textbook of sociology for nurses, 2nd edition, Jaypee publishers, page
no-176-182.

• Kaur Varinder (2022) Textbook of Applied Sociology for BSc nursing students, 1st edition,
VHS publication, page no- 113-117.

• Kumara Neelam(2017) A Textbook of sociology,1st edition, Pee Vee publication, page

no-87-94.
• Neeraja KP( 2010)Sociology for nursing students,1st edition, Jaypee publisher, page no-
68-72.
• Sreevani R (2022) Applied sociology for nurses, 1st edition, Jaypee publishers, page no-
230-237.
• Sreevani R (2022) Applied psychology for nurses, 1st edition, Jaypee brothers medical
publishers pvt. Ltd. Page no-128-130
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