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ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2021)

BHIC-107 HISTORY OF INDIA IV (c. 1206-1550)
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Assignment - I
Answer the following in about 500 words each.
Q1. Critically examine the Mongol policy of the Delhi Sultans.
Ans. Mongol policy of the Delhi Sultans: The Mongols were cruel tribes of Central Asia. They were
the natives of Mongolia. They were a very brave, fearless and uncivilized people who took pleasures
in plundering, burning and killing of the people. They were called by the name of Satan or Datiya.
They invaded India during the reign of deferent Sultans of Delhi. When the Mongols invaded India
and different rulers of India treated them. In 1221, they arrived at the borders of India for the first
time under the famous leader Changiz khan. He defeated the king of Khuarzim near the Indus River.
The king requested Iltutmish to provide him refuge for some time in India but the latter acted wisely
and cleverly. He put him off on the pretext that the climate of Delhi would not suit him. In this way,
he saved his country from Mongols’ invasion. On the other hand, Changiz Khan and his soldiers
could not bear the heat of Indian’s summer and returned towards the western parts of the river.
A number of Mongol families settled in the region across the Indus River which was a permanent
source of Trouble for India. They invaded India whenever Delhi was weak or confusion and disorder
prevailed in Delhi kingdom. In 1241 A.D., after twenty years of Changiz Khan’s invasion, the Mongol
swooped upon the Punjab and destroyed the beautiful city of Lahore. In 1245 AD, the Mongols under
Mangu, the grandson of Changiz Khan, during the reign of Masud once agian marched against India.
They invaded Sindh and beseeched the fort of ”Uch” The Sultan Ala-ud-Din Masud Shah sent troops
under the command of Balban to resist them. The Mongols suffered a disastrous defeat and they felt
from the battlefield with heavy losses.
In 1257 AD, they again fell upon India under their leader Nuyin Sari in the reign of Nasir-ud-Din. The
Sultan sent Balban who was now the Prime Minister to check their advance. The Mongols fled back to
their invasions and put the old ones in proper state of repairing. He checked the Mongols invasions
by filling these forts with armed soldiers. Halaku, the other grandson of Changiz Khan, sent his
representatives to the court of Nasir-ud-Din in 1259 A.D. Who accorded him a cordial welcome. This
gesture of friendship proved to be very useful because no more Mongols invasion occurred in his
reign.
When Balban himself became the Sultan, the Mongols once again invaded India in 1279 and 1285 A.D.
In order to check their invasion, Balban made an extensive plan and systemized his frontier policy.
The main items of his frontier policy are given below:
• Balban organized a strong and mighty army.

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• old and weak ones replaced by young and strong soldiers.

• Sultan vowed that he would not move out of Delhi for further conquest.
• Multan, Diapur, Samana etc., provinces were declared as frontier provinces.
• Special arrangements were made for the manufacture of war arms and weapons.
• A line of strong and durable forts was built between the capital and the Northwest frontier.
• Balban appointed very brave and trusty men to work in the frontier provinces. At that time,
provinces were put under the charge of Sher Khan Sunkar, a younger brother of Sultan and
so many.
In the reign of Ala-ud-Din Khilji, the Mongol attacked five times on Delhi. The most significant attack
was made in 1299 A.D., when twenty thousand troops in numbers marched against India to conquer
her. The leader was Qutlagh Khuawaja. Many ministers and nobles advised the Sultan to make peace
with them but he replied, “If I were to follow your advice, how could I show my face, how go into my
Harem. Now come what may, tomorrow I must march into the battle field,” and severely defeated the
Mongols. Alaud-Din adopted the Balban’s Mongol policy and took all those measure as taken by
Balban and devoted his personal attention to this side.
When Muhammad Tughlaq changed his capital from Delhi to Devigri in 1326 A.D, Mongol found
suitable opportunity for invading India. They began to lead forceful invasions against the Punjab. In
1328-29 A.D, they under their leader- Tarnashirin Khan over running Multan and Lahore, arrived in
the vicinity of Delhi. Muhammad Tughlaq realized his mistake of changing the capital. Frishta writes
that Sultan had to send away the Mongols with large amount of money and costly presents. Than
after 1330 A.D., the Mongol invasion almost stopped and the people heaved a sigh of relief. Again
after two thousand year in 1524 A.D., theses invasion under Babar were renewed in the reign of
Ibrahim Lodhi when as a result, the foundation of Mongol rule was laid in India.

Q2. Write a brief note on Chishti silsilah. What were the causes of Chishti sufis’ popularity in
north India?
Ans. The Chishti Silsilah: The growth of the Chishti order in India during the Sultanate period took
place in two phases. The first phase ended with the death of Shaikh Nasiruddin (Chiragh-i Delhi) in
1356. The second phase is marked by its initial decline during the later part of the 14th century
followed by revival and expansion in various parts of the country during the 15th and 16th centuries.
First Phase Bhakti and Sufi Traditions The Chishti order which later became the most influential and
popular sufi order in India, originated in Herat and was introduced in India by Khwaja Muinuddin
Chishti (d. 1236) who was born in Sijistan in c. 1141. He came to India at the time of the Ghori
conquest. He finally settled in Ajmer about 1206 and won the respect of both Muslims and non-
Muslims. No authentic record of his activities is available. During the later period, many legends
projected him as an ardent evangelist. However, he was not actively involved in conversions and his
attitude towards non-Muslims was one of tolerance. His tomb in Ajmer became a famous centre of
pilgrimage in later centuries. The successor of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Delhi was Khwaja
Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (d. 1235). Shaikh Hamidduddin Nagauri (d. 1274), another Khalifa of
Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti, made Nagaur in Rajasthan centre of his activity. Shaikh Hamiduddin
Nagauri established the silsilah in Nagaur where he lived like an ordinary Rajasthani peasant and
dissociated himself from those in authority. He was a strict vegetarian. He and his successors
translated many Persian sufi verses in the local language called Hindavi, these are earliest examples
of translations of this kind. Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was succeeded in Delhi by his Khalifa,
Khwaja Fariduddin Masud (1175-1265) known as Ganjshakar and more popularly as Baba Farid. Baba
Farid left Delhi for Ajodhan in Punjab and lived in his khanqah there. He despised association with
the ruling class and rich persons. Nathpanthi yogis also visited his khanqah and discussed with him
the nature of mysticism. His popularity in Punjab is clear from the fact that more than three hundred
years after his death, verses ascribed to him were included in the Adi Granth compiled by the fifth
Sikh Guru, Arjan, in 1604. His tomb at Pakpatan soon developed into a centre of pilgrimage.

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Decline of the Chishti Order in Delhi During the Later Tughlaq and Saiyyid Periods: Some scholars
hold the view that the decline of Delhi as a centre of the Chishti order was due to the attitudes and
policies of Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq. However, it must be pointed out that the Sultan was not
opposed to the sufis per se. Some sufis, including Shaikh Nasiruddin Chirag-i Delhi, remained in
Delhi though they were compelled by the Sultan to accept state service. Moreover, sufi activities in
many khanqahs were restored after the death of Muhammad Tughluq when his successor Firuz Shah
Tughlaq showered gifts on them. However, Delhi was left with no commanding Chishti figure after
the death of Shaikh Nasiruddin in 1356. He died without appointing a spiritual successor. One of his
chief disciples, Gesudaraz left Delhi for a safer place in the Deccan at the time of Timur’s invasion
(1398). As the Delhi Sultanate began to decline and disintegrate, the Sufis dispersed to the more stable
provincial kingdoms and established their khanqahs there. This dispersal of the Chishti order in
different parts of the country during the later 14th and 15th centuries was accompanied by significant
changes in the attitudes and practices of the Chishti Sufis.
Second Phase: The second phase in the history of the Chishti silsilah during the Sultanate period
began with its decline in Delhi following the death of Shaikh Nasiruddin and its subsequent dispersal
in various regional kingdoms. Though the sufis had begun to arrive in the Deccan from the late 13th
century, it was Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib who introduced the Chishti order there during the reign
of Muhammad Tughlaq. Later, several Chishti sufis migrated to Gulbarga, the capital of the Bahmani
kingdom (1347-1538). In Gulbarga, these sufis developed close relations with the court and accepted
state patronage, thus causing a change in the attitude of the Chishti order towards the state. The
Bahmani kings, on their part, purchased the political loyalty of these sufis and gave land grants to
them. The most prominent of these Chishtis was Muhammad Banda Nawaz, Gesudaraz (c. 1321-
1422). He left for the Deccan and received land grant of four villages from Bahmani Sultan, Firuz Shah
Bahmani (1397-1422). He was an orthodox sufi and declared the supremacy of Islamic law (Shariat)
over all sufi stages. Gisudaraz discontinued many practices of early Chishtis which clashed with the
attitudes of orthodox ulama. Unlike the early Chishti masters, he was a voluminous writer on
tasawwuf. After his death, the Bahmani Sultans continued the land grants in favour of his family
descendants. His tomb or dargah in Gulbarga later developed into a popular place of pilgrimage in
the Deccan. But the transformation of his descendants into a landed elite and their indifference
towards Chishti teachings led to the decline of living Chishti tradition in Gulbarga. The change of
Bahmani capital from Gulbarga to Bidar in 1422 also contributed to the decline of the Chishti order in
Gulbarga.
In Northern India, the resurgence of the Chishti order took place during the later 15th and early 16th
century. The Chisthi sufis belonged to three different branches of the Chishti orders – Nagauriya
(after the name of Shaikh Hamiduddin Nagauri), Sabiriya (after the name of Shaikh Alauddin
Kaliyari) and Nizamiya rafter the name of Shaikh Nizammuddin Auliya). Another important Chishti
centre in Northern India during the later half of the 15th century and in the beginning of the 16th
century was Jaunpur – the capital of the Sharqi Sultans. From the beginning of the 15th century, a
Chishti centre flourished in Rudauli near Lucknow. Later, Bahraich (in modern Uttar Pradesh)
emerged as another centre during the Lodi period. Gangoh in Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh
became an important centre of the silsilah under Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi (1456-1537). During
the second phase, the Chishti centres also flourished in Malwa and Bengal. Many Chishti saints of the
second phase wrote commentaries on Arabic and Persian classics and also translated Sanskrit works
on mysticism into Persian. Like the early sufis of Delhi, the later Chishti sufis made followers from all
classes of society but, unlike their spiritual predecessors, most of them accepted state patronage.
The causes of Chishti sufis popularity in north India:
i) Many practices of early Chishtis bore close resemblance to the attributes of some of the already
existing non-conformist religious orders in India such as asceticism, bowing before the master,
shaving the head of a new entrant into the order and organizing spiritual musical recital. In this
sense, the Chishtis came to be regarded as part of an established tradition in India.

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ii) The Chishtis adopted an attitude of religious tolerance towards the non muslim population of
India and adjusted themselves to the needs of a predominantly non-Muslim Environment. They made
use of popular imagery and popular idiom to convey their ideas to their Indian followers and
adopted many of their customs and rituals. Many of the Chishti saints made Hindawi the vehicle for
spreading their teachings.
iii) The egalitarian atmosphere of the Chishti khanqahs attracted large number of people from lower
sections of Indian society. The Chishti attitude towards religion was characterized by sympathy
towards the deprived sections of the society. Caste distinctions of the Brahmanical social order were
meaningless in the Chishti khanqahs. Merchants, artisans, peasants and even sweepers became the
followers of the Chishti order. Nor did they accept the two-fold racial division of the people by the
Turkish ruling class into noble-born and low-born.
iv) The inspired leadership of the early Chishti masters, their aloofness from the court and their
unwillingness to accept state patronage, their rejection of the orthodoxy and externalist attitudes of
the ulama, and, finally, the combining of the simple precepts of Islam with the sufi teachings
contributed to the popularity of the Chishti order.
v) The popularity of the early Chishtis rose after their life time as the cult of saints, began to develop
in the later centuries around their shrines (dargahs). Later, legend-makers and writers of
hagiographic literature sometimes attributed the popularity of the early Chishti sufis to their ability to
perform miracles. In the subsequent centuries, traditions were invented to represent the early Chishtis
as being actively involved in the conversion of the nonMuslims who were believed to have been
drawn to them due to their alleged miracle-performing powers. However, the early Chishti sufis
disapproved of the display of miraculous powers, though they did believe in the possibility of
miracles. They did not consider the miracles of primary importance in sufi teaching and practice.
Nevertheless, the miracle stories about the early Chishtis played an important role in enhancing the
popularity of the Chishti shrines and the posthumous popularity of the sufis themselves.
Decline of the sultanate
By 1388, when Fīrūz Tughluq died, the decline of the sultanate was imminent; subsequent succession
disputes and palace intrigues only accelerated its pace. The sons and grandsons of Fīrūz, supported
by various groups of nobles, began a struggle for the throne that rapidly diminished the authority of
Delhi and provided opportunities for Muslim nobles and Hindu chiefs to enhance their autonomy. By
1390 the governor of Gujarat had declared his independence, and between 1391 and 1394 the
important Rajput chiefs of Etawah rebelled and were defeated four times. By 1394 there were two
sultans, both residing in or near Delhi. The result was bitter civil war for three years; meanwhile, the
disastrous invasion of Timur (the Tamerlane of Western literature) drew nearer.
Timur invaded India in 1398, when he was in possession of a vast empire in the Middle East and
Central Asia, and dealt the final blow to the effective power and prestige of the Delhi sultanate. In a
well-executed campaign of four months—during which many of the disunited Muslim and Hindu
forces of northern India either were bypassed or submitted peacefully while Rajputs and Muslims
fighting together were slaughtered at Bhatnagar—Timur reached Delhi and, in mid-December,
defeated the army of Sultan Maḥmūd Tughluq and sacked the city. It is said that Timur ordered the
execution of at least 50,000 captives before the battle for Delhi and that the sack of the city was so
devastating that practically everything of value was removed—including those inhabitants who were
not killed.
Timur’s invasion further drained the wealth of the Delhi sultanate. Billon tanga then replaced the
relatively pure silver coins as the standard currency of trade in almost the entire northern part of
India. Bengal, which imported silver from Myanmar (Burma) and China, was, however, an obvious
exception. The silver and gold coins struck in the period of the last Tughluqs and their successors in
Delhi in the 15th and early 16th centuries were mainly commemorative issues.

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The rise of regional states: During the 15th and early 16th centuries, no paramount power enjoyed
effective control over most of north India and Bengal. Delhi became merely one of the regional
principalities of north India, competing with the emerging Rajput and Muslim states. Gujarat, Malwa,
and Jaunpur soon became powerful independent states; old and new Rajput states rapidly emerged;
and Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan, and parts of Sind were held by Khizr Khan Sayyid for Timur (and
later for himself). Khizr Khan also took over Delhi and a small area surrounding it after the last of the
Tughluqs died in 1413, and he founded the dynasty known as the Sayyid. The Sayyids ruled the
territory of Delhi until 1451, trying to obtain tribute and recognition of suzerainty from the nearby
Rajput rulers and fighting almost continuously against neighbouring states to preserve their kingdom
intact. The last Sayyid ruler, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿĀlam Shah (reigned 1445–51), peacefully surrendered Delhi
to his nominal vassal, the Afghan Bahlūl Lodī (reigned 1451–89), and retired to the Badaun district,
which he retained until his death in 1478. Before he moved to Delhi, Bahlūl Lodī had already carved
out a kingdom in the Punjab that was larger than that of the Sayyid sultans. (See Lodī dynasty.)
Meanwhile, the neighbouring kingdom of Jaunpur developed into a power equal to Delhi during the
reign (1402–40) of Ibrāhīm Sharqī. Ibrāhīm’s successor, Maḥmūd, conducted expansionist campaigns
against Bengal and Orissa and, in 1452, initiated a conflict with the Lodī sultans of Delhi that lasted at
least until the defeat and partial annexation of Jaunpur by Bahlūl Lodī in 1479.
The lack of unified rule has led some historians to describe the period as one of political anarchy and
confusion, in which the inhabitants suffered because there was no strong guiding hand. Such a
conclusion is far from certain, however, even for the central areas of the Gangetic Plain, where many
battles were fought. In areas where effective regional rule was either restored or developed—as in
Rajasthan, Orissa, Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa, Jaunpur, and various smaller states in the north, as well as
in the large and small states of the Deccan—the quality of life may well have been comparable or
superior to that of earlier centuries for cultivators, townspeople, landholders, and nobles. Although
contemporary sources are scarce, the information available does not indicate a significant decline in
total cultivation or trade (despite some alteration of trade routes). To the contrary, Gujarat and
Bengal, in addition to their fertile tracts and rich handicrafts, carried on a brisk overseas trade. The
Gujarati traders had a big role in the trade of the Middle East and Africa; Chittagong in Bengal was a
flourishing port for trade with China and for the reexport of Chinese goods to other parts of the
world.

Assignment - II
Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.
Q3. What role did the group of ‘Forty’ play in the consolidation as well as decline of the Delhi
Sultanate?
Ans. Shams-ud-din Iltutmish or Altamash (1167-1236) after ascending to the throne, realised that
Turkish nobles were not trustworthy and could conspire against him to overthrow his rule. Therefore,
he had a group of faithful slaves to protect him. This group was known as Amir-i-Chahalgani, or The
Forty.
They were assigned important posts and became very influential and powerful as time passed.
During Iltutmish's rule, they served him quite faithfully but, after his death, they became notorious
and intrigued against nearly all his successors. They wanted to keep every new ruler under their
thumb in order to keep on enjoying the full taste of power.
Their intrigues, lust for power and greed for wealth led to disorder and complete chaos in the
country. The forty had become so powerful that no ruler could defy them; and if any ruler failed to
fulfil their demands, they overthrew his rule and placed their own candidate on the throne.
Historian Ziauddin Barani writes that since the forty were slaves of Iltutmish and were posted on
high ranks at the same time, they considered themselves important and were not ready to recognise
any of their colleagues as superior. The members also competed with other members of the group in
control of the army, possessing property and wealth. As a result, there was strong rivalry and conflict
among them too.

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When Balban, one of the forty, assumed power, he fully realised that he could not become the real
ruler in presence of other members of the group. Himself being one of them, he was fully mindful of
their strengths as well as weaknesses, besides being aware of their intrigues which he understood
how to encounter. He carefully made a plan and started to eliminate them one by one, not sparing
even his cousin.
With the elimination of the forty, the role of the Turkish slaves in the Indian politics came to an end.
Though the institution of slavery continued; a majority of slaves were non-Turks, and, since the rulers
relied heavily on the support of slaves, these non-Turks also played an active role in history.
During the Khilji period, Malik Kafur gained the confidence of Aluddin Khilji and conquered some
parts of South India. Khusrau Malik was the slave of Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Khilji, who became his
favourite and, subsequently, assassinated him and occupied the throne for a brief period.
Later on, Firuz Shah Tughlaq renewed the institution of slavery which was under the department of
Diwan-i-Bandagi. It was headed by a high-ranking officer. Though they were the favourites of the
Sultan, they did not play any role in politics of the time.
Decline of the sultanate
By 1388, when Fīrūz Tughluq died, the decline of the sultanate was imminent; subsequent succession
disputes and palace intrigues only accelerated its pace. The sons and grandsons of Fīrūz, supported
by various groups of nobles, began a struggle for the throne that rapidly diminished the authority of
Delhi and provided opportunities for Muslim nobles and Hindu chiefs to enhance their autonomy. By
1390 the governor of Gujarat had declared his independence, and between 1391 and 1394 the
important Rajput chiefs of Etawah rebelled and were defeated four times. By 1394 there were two
sultans, both residing in or near Delhi. The result was bitter civil war for three years; meanwhile, the
disastrous invasion of Timur (the Tamerlane of Western literature) drew nearer.
Timur invaded India in 1398, when he was in possession of a vast empire in the Middle East and
Central Asia, and dealt the final blow to the effective power and prestige of the Delhi sultanate. In a
well-executed campaign of four months—during which many of the disunited Muslim and Hindu
forces of northern India either were bypassed or submitted peacefully while Rajputs and Muslims
fighting together were slaughtered at Bhatnagar—Timur reached Delhi and, in mid-December,
defeated the army of Sultan Maḥmūd Tughluq and sacked the city. It is said that Timur ordered the
execution of at least 50,000 captives before the battle for Delhi and that the sack of the city was so
devastating that practically everything of value was removed—including those inhabitants who were
not killed.
Timur’s invasion further drained the wealth of the Delhi sultanate. Billon tanga then replaced the
relatively pure silver coins as the standard currency of trade in almost the entire northern part of
India. Bengal, which imported silver from Myanmar (Burma) and China, was, however, an obvious
exception. The silver and gold coins struck in the period of the last Tughluqs and their successors in
Delhi in the 15th and early 16th centuries were mainly commemorative issues.
The rise of regional states: During the 15th and early 16th centuries, no paramount power enjoyed
effective control over most of north India and Bengal. Delhi became merely one of the regional
principalities of north India, competing with the emerging Rajput and Muslim states. Gujarat, Malwa,
and Jaunpur soon became powerful independent states; old and new Rajput states rapidly emerged;
and Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan, and parts of Sind were held by Khizr Khan Sayyid for Timur (and
later for himself). Khizr Khan also took over Delhi and a small area surrounding it after the last of the
Tughluqs died in 1413, and he founded the dynasty known as the Sayyid. The Sayyids ruled the
territory of Delhi until 1451, trying to obtain tribute and recognition of suzerainty from the nearby
Rajput rulers and fighting almost continuously against neighbouring states to preserve their kingdom
intact. The last Sayyid ruler, ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿĀlam Shah (reigned 1445–51), peacefully surrendered Delhi
to his nominal vassal, the Afghan Bahlūl Lodī (reigned 1451–89), and retired to the Badaun district,
which he retained until his death in 1478. Before he moved to Delhi, Bahlūl Lodī had already carved
out a kingdom in the Punjab that was larger than that of the Sayyid sultans. (See Lodī dynasty.)

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Meanwhile, the neighbouring kingdom of Jaunpur developed into a power equal to Delhi during the
reign (1402–40) of Ibrāhīm Sharqī. Ibrāhīm’s successor, Maḥmūd, conducted expansionist campaigns
against Bengal and Orissa and, in 1452, initiated a conflict with the Lodī sultans of Delhi that lasted at
least until the defeat and partial annexation of Jaunpur by Bahlūl Lodī in 1479.
The lack of unified rule has led some historians to describe the period as one of political anarchy and
confusion, in which the inhabitants suffered because there was no strong guiding hand. Such a
conclusion is far from certain, however, even for the central areas of the Gangetic Plain, where many
battles were fought. In areas where effective regional rule was either restored or developed—as in
Rajasthan, Orissa, Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa, Jaunpur, and various smaller states in the north, as well as
in the large and small states of the Deccan—the quality of life may well have been comparable or
superior to that of earlier centuries for cultivators, townspeople, landholders, and nobles. Although
contemporary sources are scarce, the information available does not indicate a significant decline in
total cultivation or trade (despite some alteration of trade routes). To the contrary, Gujarat and
Bengal, in addition to their fertile tracts and rich handicrafts, carried on a brisk overseas trade. The
Gujarati traders had a big role in the trade of the Middle East and Africa; Chittagong in Bengal was a
flourishing port for trade with China and for the reexport of Chinese goods to other parts of the
world.

Q4. Critically analyse the role of Brahmans in the religion and politics of the Vijaynagar Empire.
Ans. Political Role of the Brahmans: A distinct feature of the Vijaynagar state was the importance of
the Brahmans as political and secular personnel rather than ritual leaders. Most of the durga dannaiks
(in-charge of forts) were Brahmans. Literary sources substantiate the theory that fortresses were
significant during this period and were placed under the control of the Brahmans, especially of
Telugu origins.
During this period, the majority of educated Brahmans desired to become government servants as
administrators and accountants which offered them good career prospects. The Imperial Secretariat
was totally manned by the Brahmans. These Brahmans were different from the other Brahmans: they
belonged to a sub-caste called the Telugu Niyogis. They were not very orthodox in performing
religious rites. They also worked as potential legitimizers. The Brahman Vidyaranya and his kinsmen
were the ministers of the Sangama brothers: they provided legitimacy to their rule by accepting them
back into the Hindu fold.
The Brahmans also played an important role as military commanders in the Vijaynagar army. For
example, under Krishnadeva Raya Brahman Timma received economic support as he was an integral
part of the political system. Thus, Brahmans constructed and commanded fortresses in different parts
of the empire for which they were assigned revenue of some crown villages, bhandaravada.
Differentiation was made between crown villages and amaram villages (whose income was under the
charge of the local military chiefs).
Religion Role of the Brahmans: To establish an effective control over the distant Tamil region, the
Vijaynagar ruler sought the help of the Vaishnava sectarian leaders who hailed from the Tamil
Country. For legitimizing their power in this region, it was necessary for the rulers, who were aliens
in the Tamil region, to establish contacts with the basic Tamil religious organization – the temples.
The relationship between kings, sects and temples can be explained in terms of four assertions: 1)
Temples were basic for sustaining kingship. 2) Sectarian leaders were the connecting links between
kings and temples. 3) Though the routine supervision of the temples was done by local sectarian
groups, the task of solving disputes concerning temples was in the hands of the king. 4) The
intervention of the king in the above matter was administrative, not legislative.
During 1350-1650, numerous temples sprang up in south India. Through grants or gifts to the temples
in the form of material resources (a part of the agricultural produce of specified villages), a particular
type of agrarian economy evolved under the Vijaynagar rule. The rulers of the early Sangama
dynasty were Saivas who made additions to the Sri Virupaksha (Pampapati) temple of Vijaynagar.
The Saluvas were basically Vaishnavas who gave patronage to both the Siva and Vishnu temples.

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Krishnadeva Raya (the Tuluva ruler) constructed the Krishnaswami temple (Vaishnava shrine) and
also gave grants to Siva temples. The Aravidu kings also gave gifts to the Vaishnava temples.

Q5. What were the architectural features of mosques and dargahs?

Ans. The Architectural Features of a Mosque: The architecture of a mosque is shaped most strongly
by the regional traditions of the time and place where it was built. As a result, style, layout, and
decoration can vary greatly.
Nevertheless, because of the common function of the mosque as a place of congregational prayer,
certain architectural features appear in mosques all over the world which are mentioned Prayer Hall ,
Sahn , Mihareb , Minaret and Qubba.
Prayer Hall The large central area for prayer is called a musalla. No furniture is needed, as
worshippers sit, kneel, and bow directly on the floor,a few chairs or benches to assist elderly or
disabled worshippers.
Sahn (courtyard) The most fundamental necessity of congregational mosque architecture is that it be
able to hold the entire male population of a city or town. In many mosques prayer hall is adjoined to
an open courtyard, called a sahn. Within the courtyard one often finds a fountain, its waters both a
welcome respite in hot lands, and important for the ablutions (ritual cleansing) done before prayer.
Fountain Open Courtyard
Mihrab (niche) Another essential element of a mosque is a mihrab—a niche in the wall that indicates
the direction of Mecca, towards which all Muslims pray. The direction of Mecca is called the qibla,and
so the wall in which the mihrab is set is called the qibla wall. No matter where a mosque is, its mihrab
indicates the direction of Mecca (or as near that direction as science and geography were able to place
it). Therefore, a mihrab in India will be to the west.
Minaret (tower) One of the most visible aspects of mosque architecture is the minaret, a tower
adjacent or attached to a mosque, from which the call to prayer is announced. The Mosque of Jama
Masjid in Delhi having Minarets.
Minarets take many different forms—from the famous spiral minaret of Samarra, to the tall, pencil
minarets of Ottoman Turkey. Not solely functional in nature, the minaret serves as a powerful visual
reminder of the presence of Islam. The Sultan Ahmed Mosque or Blue Mosque in Turkey.
Qubba (dome) Most mosques also feature one or more domes, called qubba in Arabic. While not a
ritual requirement like the mihrab, a dome does possess significance within the mosque as a symbolic
representation of the vault of heaven. Some mosque types incorporate multiple domes. The Sultan
Ahmed Mosque showing multiple domes.
The architectural features of dargahs
The 700-year old dargah is a brilliant example of Indo-Islamic architectural style. Situated on an islet
500 meters from the main coast, it remains connected to the mainland through a narrow causeway
that is about a kilometer long. This causeway gets submerged in water during the high ride,
rendering the dargah inaccessible.
The sprawling edifice covers an area of 4,500 sq. meters and has a height of 85 feet. The main
structure and the courtyard are made of pure white marble. The building also features a massive
central dome and four small spires in the four corners. The tomb of the saint rests inside this shrine
and remains covered with a green and red brocade sheet or chaddar. Colored glasses adorn the
marble pillars inside the main hall of the shrine, on which ninety-nine names of Allah are carved.
The current structure of the dargah has two stories and features separate praying rooms for men and
women. You can also find a dedicated Qawwal Khana (a hall) and ladies restrooms within the dargah
complex.

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Assignment - III
Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.
Q6. Ziauddin Barani
Ans. Ziauddin Barani’s detail account on prices throws valuable light on Alauddin’s price control
measures. Barani also throws interesting light on the construction activities of Alauddin – fortification
of Siri wall, Jami Mosque, several cities and towns, Hauz Khas, etc. Barani showed his clear dislike for
Alauddin for showing disregard for Sharia in dealing with punishments, though he praises in general
the progress of the Sultanate under Alauddin and particularly that of Delhi, its bazaars, trade,
craftsmen and artisans. Barani’s account of Afghanpura tragedy is of importance where unlike the
general blame that Muhammad Tughlaq was responsible for his father’s death; he conspired against
him; he emphasizes upon his innocence and calls it an accidental death. He served as nadim for
seventeen years under Muhammad bin Tughlaq is full of praise for his benefactor, calls him ‘Sultan-i
Sa’id’ (pious ruler) and a shahid (martyr). Barani informs us that he attempted to combine both
spiritual and temporal powers (Caliph of the Prophet and those of the Sultan). He praises him as a
genius in military leadership, learning and generosity. Barani also emphasizes upon his great literary
pursuits, his interest in the rational sciences (ilm-i m‘aqul) and his fondness for philosophers and
rationalists and he disregarded traditional sciences (manqul), particularly under the influence of
Ubaid Sha‘ir (poet) and S‘ād Mantaqi (logician). Barani informs that Muhammad Tughlaq was a great
supporter of reason. Thus he did not hesitate killing pious and religious minded/ orthodox Muslims,
ulama, mashaikhs and Saiyyids, nonetheless he was a pious Muslim performing five times prayers.
Barani’s comment with regard to failure of his policies is also very important to understand the
personality of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He says that failures of his projects were not on account of
his lack of faith in Islam instead because the people were not willing to cooperate for the
implementation of his progressive policies. Barani rather portays him an ‘intellectual follower of
Islam, anxious to lead his people on the path of progress through the new laws and regulations
formulated by him . Ikhtisan, the dabir-i khas of the Sultan calls him Numan-i Sani (Abu Hanifa of
the age) for his command over Islamic law.
Barani’s detailed account of the appointment of various low born to high offices is invaluable.
Similarly, the details pertaining to the network of canals built by Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq is
noteworthy, no other contemporarys analysis on the theme is so insightful and detailed. He argues
that it would be valuable for posterity and the over-all socio-economic development of the region.

Q7. Caliphate and the Delhi Sultans

Ans. Caliphate And The Delhi Sultanate: The institution of the Caliphate came into existerne
after'the death of Prophet . Muhammad when Abu Bakr became the new head (Khalifa) of the
Muslim community (Umma or Ummat). Originally, there existed some elements of elective principle
in the matter of succession, a practice not much different from the previous tribal traditions.
In the Islamic world, the Caliph was regarded as the guardian of religion and the period of the first
four "pious Caliphs" (Abu Bakr, Umar, Usman and Afij dynastic rule ' became the norm when the
Umayyads took over the Caliphate in 661 A.D. from their base at Damascus in Syria. After the fall of
the Umayyad Caliphate the Abbasids came to power in the mid-eighth century as Caliphs at
Baghdad. However, with the decline of central authority, the centralised institution of Caliphate
(Khifajat) broke into thrw centres of power based in Spain (under the rule of a branch of the Umayyad
Caliphs), Egypt (under the Fatimids) and the older one at Baghdad - each claiming theexclusive
loyalty of the Muslims. Nearer home, towards the north-west, many minor dynashes carved out small
states, one of which was based at Ghazna (Ghazni). The significant print to remember .is that,
theoretically, no Muslim could have set up an "independent" state, big or small, without procuring
tpe permission from the Caliph, else its legitimacy could become suspect amongst the Muslims. And,
yet, all this 'was nothing more than a Gmality which could be dispensed with impunity.
The recognition of a Caliph by the Delhi Sultans seen in the granting of robes of honour, letter of
investiture, bestowing of titles, having the name of inscribed on coins and reading of khutba in Friday

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prayer in his name symbolized an acceptance and a link with the Islamic world, though in reality it
only-mdant an acceptance of a situation whereby a ruler. had already plaad himself in power. The
Sultans of Delhi maintained the fiction of the acceptance of the position of the Caliph. Under the
Saiyyids (1414-1451) and the Lodis the legends on the coins continued in the sense of being
maintained but it was purely a nominal allegiance. In actual effect, the Caliphate, weakened and far
removed as it was, had little direct role to play in the Delhi Sultanate.
Q8. Medieval Kashmir
Ans. Earliest Neolithic sites in the flood plains of Kashmir valley are dated to c. 3000 BCE. Most
important of these sites are the settlements at Burzahom, which had two Neolithic and
one Megalithic phases. First phase at Burzahom is marked by mud plastered pit dwellings, coarse
pottery and stone tools. In the second phase, which lasted till, houses were constructed on ground
level and the dead were buried, sometimes with domesticated and wild animals. Hunting and fishing
were the primary modes of subsistence though evidence of cultivation of wheat, barley, and lentils
has also been found in both the phases. In the megalithic phase, massive circles were constructed and
grey or black burnish replaced coarse red ware in pottery. During the later Vedic period, as kingdoms
of the Vedic tribes expanded, the Uttara–Kurus settled in Kashmir. In 326 BCE, Porus asked Abisares,
the king of Kashmi to aid him against Alexander the Great in the Battle of Hydaspes. After Porus lost
the battle, Abhisares submitted to Alexander by sending him treasure and elephants. During the reign
of Ashoka Kashmir became a part of the Maurya Empire and Buddhism was introduced in Kashmir.
During this period, many stupas, some shrines dedicated to Shiva, and the city of Srinagari (Srinagar)
were built Kanishka , an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, conquered Kashmir and established the
new city of Kanishkapur. Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held the Fourth Buddhist council in
Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such as Ashvagosha, Nagarjuna and Vasumitra took part By
the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri
Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century ,
pilgrims from these countries started visiting Kashmir Kumārajīva was among the renowned
Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor Yao Xing and
spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the Chang an monastery.
Hepthalites (White Huns) under Toramana crossed over the Hindu Kush mountains and conquered
large parts of western India including Kashmir His son Mihirakula led a military campaign to
conquer all of North India. He was opposed by Baladitya in Magadha and eventually defeated
by Yasodharman in Malwa. After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on
the king. He then conquered of Gandhara where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and
destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakula's death. After seventh century,
significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir
produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and Hindu
religion. Among notable scholars of this period was Vasugupta who wrote the Shiva Sutras which laid
the foundation for a monistic Shaiva system called Kashmir Shaivism. Dualistic interpretation of
Shaiva scripture was defeated by Abhinavagupta who wrote many philosophical works on Kashmir
Shaivism Kashmir Shaivism was adopted by the common masses of Kashmir and strongly influenced
Shaivism in Southern India.
In the eighth century, the Karkota Empire established themselves as rulers of Kashmir. Kashmir grew
as an imperial power under the Karkotas. Chandrapida of this dynasty was recognized by an imperial
order of the Chinese emperor as the king of Kashmir. His successor Lalitaditya Muktapida lead a
successful military campaign against the Tibetans. He then defeated Yashovarman of Kanyakubja and
subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa, Gauda, and Kalinga. Lalitaditya
extended his influence of Malwa and Gujarat and defeated Arabs at Sindh After his demise,
Kashmir's influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty ended in. Utpala dynasty
founded by Avantivarman followed the Kakrotas. His successor Shankaravarman led a successful
military campaign against Gurjaras in Punjab. Political instability in the 10th century made the royal
body guards (Tantrins) very powerful in Kashmir. Under the Tantrins, civil administration collapsed

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and chaos reigned in Kashmir till they were defeated by Chakravarman. Queen Didda, who
descended from the Hindu Shahis of Kabul on her mother's side, took over as the ruler in second half
of the 10th century. After her death , the throne passed to Lohara dynasty During the 11th
century, Mahmud of Ghazni made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns
failed because he could not siege the fortress at Lohkot.
Q9. Textile technology
Ans. The most common and known textile fabrics are cotton, silk and wool. After the cotton balls are
picked from the fields, it has to pass through various stages before cotton could be used for weaving -
i) ginning or seed extraction, ii) carding or fiber loosening done by dhunia (cotton carder), and iii)
spinning or making yarn. Spinning was traditionally done with the to which a whorl was attached to
stabilize it. Later, during the Medieval period spinning wheel was introduced resulting in the six-fold
increase in the yarn production. Credit for silk production goes to the Turks. It were they who
introduced technique of hatching silkworms (cocoons) on the mulberry trees in India. India is the
only country which produces all the four known varieties of silk known in the world namely -
mulberry, tasar, munga. The Indian loom is horizontal loom of throw-shuttle type and is said to
resemble of ancient Egypt. In the famous picture of Kabir spinning the yarn one can clearly make out
the use of pit loom with treadles. In the most crude form of pit-loom four bamboo posts are firmly
formed on the ground for making the loom 'over which warp and wefts are framed. Sometimes loom
is raised high on the ground and treadles are placed below the loom instead of a pit. Other
instruments used for weaving are - lay or batten; treadles, shuttle, temple or instrument for keeping
cloth on the stretch during the process of weaving. The weaver sits, - with right leg bent, upon a
board or mat placed close to the edge of the pit, depressing one Horizontal Loom: Orissa of the
treadles with the great toe of the left foot.
The loom used for wool weaving is the same used by other weavers across the country. For carpet
weaving the loom is a huge embroidery frame. The frame is set upright on the ground against a wall
or laid flat on the earth with movable horizontal timbers. The warps run vertically and the wefts
horizontally. The knots are tied in rows. The knots used in carpet weaving are the Persian or Sehna,
and the Turkish or Ghiordes . In the ghiordes the two ends of the thread are twisted, each round a
warp thread, whereas in the sehna knot only one end circle a warp thread completely. The average
knots per inch vary from 64 to 400. On a big carpet 20 to 30 persons can work simultaneously.
Q10. Main popular monotheistic movements and their characteristics
Ans. Monotheistic Movements Kabir was the earliest and undoubtedly the most powerful figure of
the monotheistic movements that began in the 15th century. He belonged to a family of weavers
(Julaha – who were indigenous converts to Islam). He spent greater part of his life in Banaras (Kashi).
The monotheistic saints who succeeded him either claimed to be his disciples or respectfully mention
him. His verses were included in the Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth in large numbers than those of
other monotheists. All this indicates his pre-eminent position among the monotheists. Raidas (or
Ravidas) most probably belonged to the generation next to Kabir’s. He was a tanner by caste. He also
lived in Banaras and was influenced by Kabir’s ideas. Dhanna was a 15th century Jat peasant from
Rajasthan. Other prominent saints of the same period were Sen (a barber) and Pipa. Dadu was also
inspired by Kabir’s doctrine. In his Bani, a collection of his hymns and poems, he regards Allah, Ram
and Govind as his spiritual teachers. Dadu’s cosmology and the stages of the soul's pilgrimage carry
sufi influence. In the 18th century, with the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Dadu Panth got
transformed into Nagas or professional fighters.
Guru Nanak preached his ideas much in the same way as Kabir and other monotheists, but due to
various developments later his teachings led to the emergence of a mass religion, Sikhism. The basic
similarity of his teachings with those of Kabir and other saints and the basic ideological agreement
between them makes him an integral part of the monotheistic movement. He belonged to a caste of
traders called Khatri and was born in a village in Punjab now known as Nankana Sahib. In his later
life he travelled widely to preach his ideas. Eventually he settled in a place in Punjab now known as

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Dera Baba Nanak. There he attracted large number of disciples. The hymns composed by him were
incorporated in the Adi Granth by the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan, in 1604. The teachings and
philosophy of Guru Nanak constitute an important component of Indian philosophy and thought.
His philosophy comprised three basic elements: a leading charismatic personality (the Guru),
ideology (Shabad) and organization (Sangat). Nanak evaluated and criticized the prevailing religious
beliefs and attempted to establish a true religion which could lead to salvation. He repudiated idol
worship and did not favour pilgrimage nor accepted the theory of incarnation. He condemned
formalism and ritualism. He believed in the unity of God and laid emphasis on having a true Guru
for revelation. He advised people to follow the principles of conduct and worship: sach (truth), halal
(lawful earning), Khair (wishing well of others), niyat (right intention) and service of the lord.
Monotheistic Characteristic
i) Most of the monotheists belonged to the ‘low’ castes and were aware that there existed a unity of
ideas among themselves. Most of them were aware of each other’s teachings and influences. In their
verses they mention each other and their predecessors in such a way as to suggest a harmonious
ideological affinity among them. Thus, Kabir speaks of Raidas as ‘saint among saints’. Raidas, in his
turn, respectfully mentions the names of Kabir, Namdev, Trilochan, Dhanna, Sen and Pipa. Dhanna
takes pride in speaking of the fame and popularity of Namdev, Kabir, Raidas and Sen and admits that
he devoted himself to bhakti after hearing their fame. Kabir’s influence on Nanak is also beyond
dispute. It is, therefore, not surprising that the later traditions link Kabir, Raidas, Dhanna, Pipa, Sen,
etc. together as disciples of Ramananda. The ideological affinity among the monotheists is also clear
from the inclusion of the hymns of Kabir, Raidas, etc. along with those of Nanak by the fifth Sikh
Guru Arjan in the Adi Granth.
ii) All the monotheists were influenced in one way or another and in varying degrees by the
Vaishnava concept of bhakti, the Nathpanthi movement and sufism. The monotheistic movement
represents the synthesis of elements from these three traditions. But more often than not they did not
accept the element of these traditions in their original form and made many innovations and
adaptations which gave new meanings to old concepts.
iii) For the monotheists, there was only one way of establishing communion with God: it was the way
of personally experienced bhakti. This was also the way of the Vaishnava bhakti saints, but there was
one fundamental difference of perceptions: they all have been called monotheists because they
uncompromisingly believed in only one God. Then, God of Nanak was non-incarnate and formless
(nirankar Bhakti and Sufi Traditions ), eternal (akal) and ineffable (alakh). The monotheistic bhakti,
therefore, was nirguna bhakti and not saguna – which was the case with the Vaishnavites who
believed in various human incarnations of God. The monotheists adopted the notion of bhakti from
the Vaishnava bhakti tradition but gave it a nirguna orientation. Quite often Kabir called God by the
name, Ram. For this reason, he has been called Rambhakta. But Kabir himself made it clear in his
utterances that the Ram he was devoted to was not the one who was born as an incarnation in the
house of king Dashratha of Ayodhya or who had killed Ravana, but a formless, nonincarnate God. In
addition to the oneness of God and nirguna bhakti, the monotheists also emphasized the crucial
importance of repetition of divine name, spiritual guru, community singing of devotional songs
(kirtan) and companionship of saints.
iv) The monotheists followed a path which was independent of both dominant religions of the time –
Hinduism and Islam. They denied their allegiance to either of them and criticized the superstitions
and orthodox elements of both the religions. They launched a vigorous ideological assault on the
caste system and idolatry. They rejected the authority of the Brahmans and their religious scriptures.

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Kabir, in his harsh and abrasive style, uses ridicule as a powerful method for denouncing orthodox
Brahmanism.
v) The monotheists composed their poems in popular languages. Some of them used a language
which was a mixture of different dialects spoken in various parts of North India. The monotheistic
saints preferred this common language to their own native dialects because they considered it fit for
the propagation of their non-conformist ideas among the masses in various regions. The use of
common language is a striking feature of the movement considering that the saints belonged to
different parts of North India and spoke different dialects. The monotheists also made use of popular
symbols and images to propagate their teachings. Their utterances are expressed in short verses
which could be easily remembered. Thus, for instance, Kabir’s poetry is unpolished and has a rustic,
colloquial quality but it is essentially a poetry of the people.

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