Medieval India — (B) The Delhi Sultanate

Short Answer Questions

Question 1

Who was the founder of the Slave dynasty in India? Give the other name of this dynasty.

Answer

Qutubuddin Aibak was the founder of the Slave dynasty.

The rulers of this dynasty were also known as Mamluk sultans. Since these Sultans were
earlier either the slaves of Turks or were the sons of the slaves, they were called
'Mamluk' which means 'owned'.

Question 2

Why was Qutubuddin known as Lakhbaksh? List any two of his qualities.

Answer

Qutubuddin was known as Lakhbaksh because he was liberal in distributing money.

Two of his qualities were:

1. He was a brave and capable military general.

2. He was a man of letters. Scholars like Hasan Nizami and Fakhre Mudir adorned his
court.

Question 3

State any two architectural features of Qutub Minar.

Answer

Two architectural features of Qutub Minar are:

1. It has five stories tapering as they ascend. Each story is separated from the other
by a projecting balcony.
2. The Minar is a circular tower about 13.8 meters in diameter at the base and tapers
to a width of around 3 meters at the summit. It has a circular stairway of 379 steps
leading to the top.
Question 4

Mention any two military reforms introduced by Alauddin Khilji.

Answer

Two military reforms introduced by Alauddin Khilji were:

1. He imported quality horses and started the system of branding horses (dagh) so
that the soldiers could not replace them with inferior quality horses.
2. He introduced the system of chehra which meant giving a kind of identity card to
every soldier.

Question 5

How did Alauddin Khilji expand his empire?

Answer

After conquering the bulk of northern India, Alauddin Khilji sent an expedition to Deccan
under Malik Kafur. The kingdoms of Devagiri, Warangal, Dwarasamudra, and Madurai
were conquered but not annexed. Alauddin Khilji knew that it was difficult to control
these distant lands from Delhi and also he was only interested in acquiring the wealth of
these Deccan kingdoms for the maintenance of his huge army. That is why he forced the
rulers of Deccan to accept his overlordship and to pay annual tribute to him.

Question 6

Mention the two controversial steps taken by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.

Answer

The two controversial steps taken by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq were:

1. Shifting of Capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad) and back to Delhi caused
lots of hardships for the people.
2. The introduction of token currency or bronze tanka to replace the silver tanka but
the experiment failed due to the circulation of counterfeit or fake coins.

Question 7

Who was the commander-in-chief of the army during the Sultanate period? Name the
department which dealt with state correspondence during the Sultanate period.

Answer
 The Sultan himself was the commander-in-chief of the army during the Sultanate period.

The department which dealt with state correspondence during the Sultanate period was
the diwan-i-insha.

Question 8

What was the iqta system?

Answer

The practice of giving grants of revenue from a territory came to be known as the iqta
system. Those who were given iqtas were called iqtadars. Out of this grant, the iqtadars
had to maintain themselves, their families, and some soldiers for use by the Sultan
during the war.

Structured Questions

Question 1

With reference to the sources of information about the Delhi Sultanate, give the
significance of the following:

(a) Inscriptions

(b) Qutub Minar

Answer

(a) Inscriptions — Inscriptions are valuable supplements and not the sole sources of
information on the Delhi Sultanate. The inscriptions are found on coins, monuments,
milestones, and tombstones. Some of the inscriptions are in Sanskrit, some in Arabic
and some in both languages. The first coin issued by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji bears
both Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions.

(b) Qutub Minar — The Qutub Minar was started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak and was
dedicated to the Sufi saint, Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. It was completed by Iltutmish. It
is a circular tower about 13.8 meters in diameter at the base and tapers to a width of
around 3 meters at the summit. It has a circular stairway of 379 steps leading to the top. It
has five stories separated from each other by a projecting balcony. These balconies are
supported so that the whole structure carries the load of weight. Verses from Holy Quran
and some intricate carvings with floral motifs are inscribed on this tower. Thus it is a very
important architectural source of information about that period which reveals the cultural
trend of the period.
Question 2

With reference to the Khilji Dynasty, answer the following question:

(a) What were the steps taken by Alauddin Khilji to regulate prices?

(b) What were the methods adopted by Alauddin Khilji to crush the power of the nobility?

(c) What measures did Alauddin Khilji take to increase the revenue?

Answer

(a) The steps taken by Alauddin Khilji to regulate prices were:

1. He fixed the cost of all commodities such as food grains, sugar, and cooking oil.
2. He set up three different markets in Delhi — one market for food grains, the
second for costly cloth, and the third for horses, slaves, and cattle. Each market
was put under the charge of a controller of the market or Shahna.
3. There were strict punishments for cheating and under weighing goods.

(b) Alauddin Khilji had to face a series of rebellions from the nobles. That's why he took
steps to crush their power. The methods adopted by Alauddin Khilji to crush the power of
the nobility were:

1. The nobles were not allowed to hold functions or parties or to form marriage
alliances without the permission of the Sultan.
2. The use of wine and intoxicants was banned.
3. Gambling was forbidden and gamblers were severely punished.
4. He started paying soldiers in cash instead of land.
5. He established an efficient spy system to keep a check on the activities of the
nobles.

(c) The measures Alauddin Khilji took to increase the revenue were:

1. He brought all the land of the empire under his direct control.
2. He introduced the practice of measuring the land and fixed the state share
accordingly.
3. He increased the state revenue from one-third to one-half.
4. He demanded the revenue in cash and not in kind.
5. He appointed special officers for revenue collection.

Question 3

With reference to the reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, explain the following:

(a) His attempts to transfer the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad.

 (b) Introduction of token currency.

(c) Increased taxation in Doab and its consequences.

Answer

(a) Muhammad Bin Tughlaq shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri near Aurangabad
and renamed it Daulatabad. He did this for the following reasons:

1. He intended to control Deccan from there as Daulatabad was centrally located.

2. Delhi was in grip of severe famine.
3. Delhi was constantly threatened by Mongol invasions.

He ordered the people of Delhi including the religious heads to shift to Daulatabad. On
realizing the gravity of the threat from the northwest, he decided to shift the capital back
to Delhi. This caused lots of hardships for the people.

(b) Introduction of token currency was one of the controversial steps taken by
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. There was a shortage of silver, so Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
introduced bronze Tankas in place of silver Tankas. But this experiment failed due to the
circulation of counterfeit or fake coins on a very large scale, which caused chaos in trade
and commerce. Consequently, he withdrew the token currency.

(c) Muhammad Bin Tughlaq wanted to conquer territories not only in India but also in
Central Asia. For this he needed more money to maintain a big army, so he increased
taxes in fertile regions of Ganga-Yamuna Doab. At the same time, a severe famine broke
out in the area and people refused to pay the extra taxes and rose in rebellion. But the tax
collectors showed no mercy and took stern measures to collect the taxes. This made
some of the peasants abandon their lands and flee to jungles. Though Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq took effective actions to fight the famine it was too late and many people were
starved to death as agriculture suffered a heavy setback in the doab area.

Question 4

With reference to the administrative system of the Delhi Sultanate, give the functions of
each of the officials:

(a) Ariz-i-mumalik

(b) Wazir

(c) Diwan-i-risalat

Answer
 (a) Ariz-i-mumalik — He was the minister in charge of the army but not the
commander-in-chief since Sultan himself commanded all the armed forces. The
responsibility of the area's department was to recruit, equip and pay the army.

(b) Wazir — He was the key figure in the administration who acted as the Prime Minister.
The Wazir supervised the work of the other officials. The final decisions were always
taken by the Sultan.

(c) Diwan-i-risalat dealt with religious matters and was presided over by the chief Sadar,
who was generally a leading qazi.

Question 5

Study the picture and answer the following questions:

(a) Who began erecting this monument? Who completed it? Where is it located?

(b) Name the saint after whom the monument is named. What information do the
monuments of the Sultanate period provide about the Sultanate era?

(c) Mention any four architectural features of the monument.

Answer

(a) Qutub-ud-din Aibak began erecting this monument. It was completed by Iltutmish. It is
situated in Delhi.

(b) It is named after Sufi Saint Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki.

 The monuments of the Sultanate period reveal the cultural trends, living conditions,
faiths, and beliefs of the period. They also reveal the socio-cultural outlook of the rulers.

(c) Four architectural features of the Qutub Minar are:

1. When originally completed, it rose to a height of 71.4 meters with four stories. The
tower was damaged due to lightning in 1369. Feroz Shah Tughlaq repaired it and
rose its height further.
2. It has five stories tapering as they ascend. Each story is separated from the other
by a projecting balcony.
3. The base of the Minar has a diameter of 13.8 meters and the top of the Minar has a
diameter of 3 meters. It has a circular stairway of 379 steps leading to the top.
4. The projecting balconies are supported so that the whole structure carries the
load of the weight.

Medieval India — (C) The Mughal Empire

Short Answer Questions

Question 1

Name two important sources which provide information about the Mughals.

Answer

Two important sources which provide information about the Mughals are:

1. Ain-i-Akbari — A set of five books written by Abul Fazal during the reign of Akbar
which provides information about the administration and culture of that period.
2. The Taj Mahal — Mausoleum of Mumtaz Mahal at Agra provides information about
the architecture of the Mughal period.

Question 2

Name the author of Ain-i-Akbari. Name any two subjects of this book.

Answer

The author of Ain-i-Akbari was Abul Fazl.

Two subjects of this book are:

1. Imperial administration.
 2. Servants of the emperor, the military, and civil services.

Question 3

Who invited Babur to India? Why?

Answer

Babur was invited by Daulat Khan Lodhi who was the Governor of Punjab.

Daulat Khan Lodhi invited Babur to India to oust Ibrahim Lodhi from the throne. Babur
defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat and occupied Delhi and Agra.

Question 4

Between whom was the First Battle of Panipat fought? What was the outcome of the
battle?

Answer

The First Battle of Panipat (1526) was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodhi.

In this battle, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and occupied Delhi and Agra.

Question 5

Between whom was the Battle of Haldighati fought? Who was defeated by Akbar in this
Battle?

Answer

The Battle of Haldighati was fought between Maharana Pratap, the ruler of Mewar, and the
Mughal army led by Raja Man Singh.

Maharana Pratap was defeated by Akbar in this Battle.

Question 6

Mention any two steps taken by Akbar to promote better understanding between the
Hindus and the Muslims.

Answer

Two steps taken by Akbar to promote better understanding between the Hindus and the
Muslims were:
 1. Akbar abolished the poll tax or jizyah, which the non-muslims were required to
pay. He also abolished the pilgrim tax on bathing at holy places such as Prayag
and Benaras. Further, he abolished the practice of forcibly converting prisoners of
war to Islam.
2. To strengthen liberal principles, Akbar enrolled several Hindus into the nobility.
While most of these were Rajput Rajas, many of whom entered into matrimonial
alliances with Akbar, mansabs (position or rank) were given to others based on
their competence.

Question 7

Name the two taxes abolished by Akbar.

Answer

The two taxes abolished by Akbar were:

1. Poll tax (Jizyah).

2. Pilgrim tax.

Question 8

What principles did Akbar's Din-i-Illahi promote?

Answer

Akbar's Din-i-Illahi promotes the principle of the oneness of God. The new religion
stressed virtues like courage, loyalty, and justice. It also demanded loyalty to the
Emperor. The basic purpose of forming Din-i-Illahi was Sulh-kul or universal harmony
which governed all public policies of Akbar.

Question 9

Why did Akbar build the Ibadat Khana?

Answer

Akbar builds the Ibadat Khana or the Hall of Prayer at Fatehpur Sikri to discuss religious
and spiritual matters. He used to call selected theologians of all religions, mystics, and
intellectuals at Ibadat khana.

Question 10

Name the title given to the heads of the revenue department and the military department
respectively in the Mughal Empire.
 Answer

The title given to the head of the revenue department was 'diwan' or 'diwan-i-ala' and the
title given to the head of the military department was 'mir Bakshi.

Question 11

Who were mansabdars? How were they paid?

Answer

The term 'mansab' means rank or position and the term mansabdar refers to an
individual who holds a mansab. The mansabdars formed the ruling group in the Mughal
empire. Almost the whole nobility, the bureaucracy as well as the military hierarchy, had
mansabs. The lowest rank in the system was 10, and the highest was 5000 for nobles. It
was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary, and military
responsibilities.

Mansabdars were paid salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs. They had rights to
the revenue of their assignments which was collected from their jagirs by their servants.

Question 12

List any two social reforms that were introduced by Akbar.

Answer

Two social reforms that were introduced by Akbar were:

1. Akbar raised the age of marriage to 14 for girls and 16 for boys.
2. Akbar legalized widow remarriage.

Structured Questions

Question 1

With reference to the Mughal Empire, explain briefly the significance of the following:

(a) Ain-i-Akbari

(b) Taj Mahal

(c) Red Fort

Answer
 (a) Ain-i-Akbari — Ain-i-Akbari was part of a large project of history writing
commissioned by Akbar. Written by Abul Fazl, it is regarded as precious source material
for knowing the administration and culture during the reign of Akbar. The Ain-i-Akbari is
divided into five books. The first book deals with the imperial household. The second
book deals with the servants of the emperor, military and civil services. The third book
deals with the imperial administration. It consists of the regulations for the judicial and
executive departments, and the division of the empire. The fourth book contains
information about Hindu philosophy, science, social customs, and literature. The fifth
book contains the wise sayings of Akbar. It also contains an account of the ancestry and
biography of the author, Abul Fazl.

(b) Taj Mahal — It was built by Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.
It is mausoleum of both of them. It is built at Agra on the banks of the river Yamuna. It
was designed by Ustad Isha Khan. It is made up of pure white marble. The main structure
is constructed on a high platform. On each corner of this platform, there is a minaret. The
central dome rises to a height of 56.1 meters. The interior has an octagonal chamber with
an inverted lotus ceiling. The actual graves are in the lower chamber, underground. The
walls of the entire structure are decorated with floral designs. The Taj Mahal brought
together all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals like massive domes of
marble, pietra dura (method of decoration), and kiosks (chhatris).

(c) Red Fort — The Red Fort was built by Shah Jahan on the bank of the river Yamuna.
Red sandstone and marble was used in its construction. The fort has massive walls and
two gateways. The Western Gateway is known as the Lahori Gate. This gate was used for
the emperor's ceremonial purposes. The campus has some impressive buildings like
Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, and Moti Masjid. The Diwan-i-Khas is a lavishly ornamented
hall where the Peacock Throne was placed. The hall was used by the emperor to give an
audience to the princes of the royal family, nobles, and other important dignitaries. The
red fort is an important historical monument.

Question 2

With reference to the Mughal rule, state briefly:

(a) Akbar's policy towards the Rajputs.

(b) Akbar's policy of religious tolerance.

(c) Social reforms introduced by Akbar.

Answer

(a) Akbar's policy towards the Rajputs — The Rajput policy of Akbar proved to be one of
his greatest achievements. He entered into marriage alliances with Rajputs. Bhara Mal,
the ruler of Amber, married his younger daughter, Harkha Bai to Akbar. Akbar not only
 gave complete freedom to his wives who followed Hinduism but also gave an honored
place to their parents and relations in the nobility. The Rajputs were also made equal
partners in the Mughal government, it considerably affected the public policies of the
Mughals and greatly helped in the growth of a composite culture. Thus, the Rajput policy
of Akbar ended the centuries-old animosity between the Muslim rulers and the Rajputs.

(b) Akbar's policy of religious tolerance — Akbar took several measures to promote
greater understanding between the Hindus and the Muslims. The major steps taken by
him were:

1. He abolished the poll tax or jizyah as well as the pilgrim tax, which the
non-muslims were required to pay.
2. He abolished the practice of forcible conversion of prisoners of war to Islam.
3. Akbar enrolled several Hindus into the nobility.
4. He built a hall called Ibadat Khana or the hall of prayer at Fatehpur Sikri. At this
hall, he used to call selected theologians of all religions, mystics, and intellectuals
and discuss religious and spiritual matters with them.
5. Akbar issued a declaration or mahzar, making him the supreme or final arbiter in
religious matters, and replaced the power of Ulema with the power of the Emperor.
6. He promulgated a new faith called Din-i-Illahi. The basic purpose of forming it was
universal harmony or Sulh-kul.
7. Akbar set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic,
and Greek into Persian. The books taken for translation were the Singhasan
Battisi, the Atharva Veda, the Bible, the Quran, the Mahabharata, the Gita, and the
Ramayana.

(c) Social reforms introduced by Akbar — Akbar introduced several social and
educational reforms which were pivotal in the upliftment of women. Some of his reforms
were:

1. He abolished the practice of forcible Sati. However, the women who committed
Sati of their own free will were allowed to do so.
2. Akbar legalized widow remarriage.
3. Akbar was against anyone having more than one wife unless the first wife could
not bear children.
4. He raised the age of marriage to 14 for girls and 16 for boys.
5. He revised the educational syllabus giving more importance to moral education,
mathematics, and secular subjects like agriculture, geometry, astronomy, logic,
and history.

Question 3

With reference to the administrative system in the Mughal period, answer the following
questions:
 (a) What was the position of the monarch?

(b) Who were the three important ministers?

(c) How was the provincial government organized?

Answer

(a) According to Abul Fazl, the office of a true ruler was a very responsible one that
depended on divine illumination. Thus, the Mughal Emperor endowed with divine light
was regarded as the vice-regent of God on earth. He ruled the empire with paternal love
towards his subjects without distinction of sect or creed. The emperor was the head of
the Executive, Legislature, Judiciary, and Army. He was the supreme commander of the
armed forces and all other commanders were appointed and removed by him. He made
laws and issued administrative ordinances. The royal uzuk (small singet ring) was affixed
to farmans granting appointments, titles, jagirs, etc.

(b) The three ministers in the Mughal empire were:

1. Vakil or Prime Minister — was entrusted with great powers in civil and military
affairs.
2. Diwan or Diwan-i-ala — He was head of the revenue department. He was
responsible for all income and expenditures.
3. Mir Bakshi — He was the head of the military department and intelligence and
information agencies of the empire.

(c) The Empire was divided into twelve provinces or subahs, which were further
subdivided into sarkars, and each sarkar into Parganas or mahals. Each subah was
headed by one governor who was called the subahdar or sipah salar or Nazim. He was
usually a mansabdar of high rank. His functions included the maintenance of law and
order, enforcement of imperial decrees, administration of criminal justice, and the
smooth collection of revenue. The provincial diwan was in charge of the revenue
administration of the province. Besides them, the other important officials in the province
were faujdar, kotwal, Bakshi, sadr qazi, and muhtasib. The center appointed the officials
of the provinces, sarkars, and the Parganas. Hence, these divisions were directly
responsible to the center.

Question 4

With reference to the Mansabdari system, answer the following questions:

(a) What was the Mansabdari system?

(b) What was meant by zat and sawar rank?

(c) Trace the changes in the system from the rule of Jahangir to Aurangzeb.
 Answer

(a) The Mansabdari system introduced by Akbar was a unique feature of the
administrative system of the Mughal Empire. It was a grading system used by the
Mughals to fix rank, salary, and military responsibilities. Under this system, every officer
was assigned a rank (mansab). Thus, the term Mansabdar refers to an individual who
holds a mansab, meaning a position or rank. The Mansabdars formed the ruling group in
the Mughal empire. Almost the whole nobility, the bureaucracy as well as the military
hierarchy, had mansabs. The lowest rank in the system was 10 and the highest was 5000
for nobles. The mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs.
However, they only had rights to the revenue of their assignments, they didn't actually
reside in or administer their jagirs.

(b) The Mansabdari system was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary,
and military responsibilities. These ranks were divided into two, namely Zat and Sawar.
Zat fixed the personal status of a person and the salary due to him. The higher the Zat,
the more prestigious the noble's position in court and the larger his salary. The Sawar
rank indicated the number of cavalrymen or salwar a mansabdar was required to
maintain.

(c) Jahangir maintained the Mansabdari system developed by Akbar. But he reduced the
average rate of Zat's salary from Rs. 240 per annum to Rs. 200 per annum. Shah Jahan
reduced the number of sawars a noble was required to maintain. Thus, a noble was
expected to maintain a quota of only one-third of his sawar rank and in some cases,
one-fourth. During the reign of Aurangzeb, there was a huge increase in the number of
mansabdars. These and other factors created a shortage in the number of jagirs.

Question 5

Study the picture and answer the following questions:

(a) Who built this fort? Where is it located? State its ceremonial importance in the
present.
 (b) Mention three important buildings within the fort.

(c) Mention two architectural features of the fort.

Answer

(a) This fort was built by Shah Jahan. It is located in Delhi.

Its ceremonial importance in the present lies in the fact that the Prime Minister of India
every year unfurls the national flag from its ramparts on Independence day (August 15).

(b) Three important buildings within the fort are:

1. Diwan-i-Aam
2. Diwan-i-Khas
3. Moti Masjid

(c) Two architectural features of the fort are:

1. The fort has massive walls and two gateways. The Western Gateway is known as
the Lahori Gate.
2. Red sandstone and marble were used in its construction.

Question 6

Study the picture and answer the following questions:

(a) Who built this monument? Where is it located? Of which material is this monument
built?

(b) Name the person who designed this monument. Why was the monument erected?
What is the method of decoration of this monument called?

(c) State the four features of this monument which reflect the Mughal style of
architecture.
 Answer

(a) This monument was built by Shah Jahan. It is located on the bank of river Yamuna in
Agra. This monument is built of pure white marble.

(b) Ustad Isha Khan designed this monument.

Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal as her
mausoleum.

The method of decoration of this monument is called pietra dura.

(c) The four features of this monument that reflect the Mughal style of architecture are:

1. The massive central dome of Marble.

2. Pietra dura inlay work.
3. Presence of kiosks (chhatris).
4. Presence of Minar.

The Modern Age in Europe — (B) Reformation

Short Answer Questions

Question 1

What is known as the Reformation?

Answer

The Reformation is the name given to a group of religious movements of the sixteenth
century launched by the christians against the various drawbacks of the Church and the
objectionable practices of the clergymen. The main target of these movements was the
Pope, the highest authority in Church hierarchy.

Question 2

What was known as a Letter of Indulgence?

Answer

A Letter of Indulgence was a pardon certificate issued to those, who paid money to the
Church, for remitting punishments for their sins both in this life and after their death. It
was issued by Pope Leo x, who needed money to build St. Peter's Church. Normally, the
 priest imposed a penance or punishment on a person who had sinned and he was
required to perform a special service or make a pilgrimage to a holy place. But now they
could be freed from doing penance for their sins by buying a Letter of Indulgence.

Question 3

What is known as the Protestant Movement?

Answer

The Protestant Movement was a movement against the Church and their objectionable
practices. The protestant movement started in different countries with different names
but were collectively termed as Reformation.

Question 4

Why did kings support the Reformation Movement?

Answer

The kings supported the Reformation Movement in order to weaken the Church. There
was Pope's interference in political affairs which was apposed by the kings. As early as
the 13th century, the rulers of Europe had quarrelled with the Popes over the royal right
to tax the Church property. The rivalry ended in the defeat of the Papacy.

Question 5

Who was Erasmus? Name the book he wrote.

Answer

Desiderius Erasmus was a Dutch philosopher and humanist, who is said to have
prepared the ground for the Reformation by exposing the Church for their objectionable
practices like charging fees for salvation. The book he wrote was 'In Praise of Folly'.

Question 6

What role did Henry VIII play in curbing the power of the Pope?

Answer

King Henry VIII of England got the Church lands and in 1536 passed an Act for
dissolution of monasteries, whereby small monasteries with an income of less than £200
a year were closed and their buildings, land and money taken by the crown. By another
Act of 1539, larger monasteries were closed. These monasteries were a reminder of
power of Catholic Church and were the wealthiest institution in the country. By
 destroying the monastic system, Henry acquired all its wealth and property while at the
same time removed the influence of Pope.

Question 7

What was Counter Reformation?

Answer

The Reformation Movement was against the Roman Catholic Church and brought about
the birth of the Protestant Church. In order to restore the credibility of the Catholic
Church, a large number of dedicated Christians including some popes introduced certain
reforms within the Church. This movement is known as the Counter Reformation.

Question 8

What was the role of the Council of Trent in Counter Reformation?

Answer

The council of Trent was a Church council convened at Trent in North Italy in 1545 by
Pope Paul III. This council made a number of changes in Catholic Church. The role of
council of Trent in Counter Reformation can be summarised as follows:

1. It expanded its doctrines in light of the changed attitudes of the times.

2. It condemned leading an irresponsible religious life by the clergy.
3. Books with anti-catholic teachings were banned.
4. Pope was regarded as the head of Catholic church and the final interpreter of
Christian doctrine.
5. It established centres known as seminaries to educate and train priests.
6. It forbade the Church to charge fees for conducting religious services.
7. It advocated the use of the local language for preaching in the Church.

Structured Questions

Question 1

With reference to the Reformation, answer the following:

(a) Mention any three Church practices that caused dissatisfaction among the people?

(b) How did New Learning become a factor that led to the Reformation?

(c) Who were the Protestants? By what other names was Protestantism known?

Answer
 (a) Three Church practice — that caused dissatisfaction among the people were:

1. Economic Factors — In the middle ages, the Church had vast properties, which
gave ample income to the Church. Besides, one-tenth of the income of a person
was given to the Church. This was called the tithe. In addition to this, the clergy
collected another sum called the 'Peter's Pence' from the people. The Church also
started selling 'Letter of Indulgence'. These were pardon certificates remitting
punishments of the sinners who bought them, both in this life and after their
death.
2. Corruption in the Church — With passage of time, moral decay crept into some
areas in the functioning of the Church. Some of the clergymen lacked proper
education and lived a life of luxury neglecting their religious duties. They could
pronounce a marriage lawful or unlawful. There were fees for every transaction in
life, from birth to death.
3. Rulers' Resentment — Pope's interference in the political affairs was naturally
opposed by the kings. They strongly supported the Reformation Movement in
order to weaken the Church.

(b) The spread of new learning and spirit of enquiry was developed by Renaissance
scholars. The invention of printing press and the printing of the Bible in vernacular
languages brought a new outlook among laymen. The Renaissance encouraged spirit of
enquiry, developed critical attitude space and broadened the mental outlook of man.
People then began to question everything including the authority of the Pope. They
criticised the Church practices, rituals and the lifestyles of some of the clergymen. The
changed attitude of people finally led to outbreak of Reformation movement.

(c) The Reformation movements created a split in the Christian Church between those
who continued to remain loyal to the Pope at Rome (known as Roman Catholics) and
those who broke away from the Church at Rome. The latter were known as Protestants.

The Reformation broke out in number of countries like England, France, Germany,
Czechoslovakia, Switzerland and Scotland. However all the Protestants did not share the
same religious beliefs and Rituals. The different names of Protestantism were Calvinism,
Presbyterianism (Scotland) and Puritanism (England).

Question 2

Study the picture given below and answer the following questions.
(a) Identify the person in the picture. How did he challenge the Church?

(b) What is known as the Diet of Worms? Who supported him when he was outlawed?

(c) State the contribution of this person in reforming the church in Europe?

Answer

(a) The person in the picture is Martin Luther, a German clergyman and professor of
Theology at University of Wittenburg.

He openly criticised papacy. He accused the Church for the sale of indulgences. In 1517,
Luther wrote 'Ninety-five theses' or statements dealing with the difference between the
beliefs and practices of the Church and nailed them on the Church door at Wittenburg.

(b) The holy Roman Emperor Charles V, upon request by Pope, asked Luther to defend
his case before a Grand Diet held at Worms known as the Diet of Worms consisting of
Council of Princes and high dignitaries in 1521.

The Diet ordered that Luther's writings be burnt and Luther be outlawed but Luther had
support of German rulers and so no harm was done to him.

(c) The contribution of Martin Luther in reforming the church in Europe were following:

1. Luther translated the Bible into German and set up an independent church.
2. He travelled extensively to different parts of Europe, Germany, Norway, Sweden
and Denmark. The Protestant movement found wide acceptance.
3. Lutheranism was recognised as a legal form of Christianity by a treaty known as
'The Peace of Augsburg' in 1555.
 Elections
Short Answer Questions

Question 1

What is meant by the term election?

Answer

Election is a procedure whereby persons are chosen, by voting, to represent the voters
for running the government.

Question 2

Under which method of elections are the elections to Lok Sabha held?

Answer

The Lok Sabha elections are held by Direct election method. People of India directly elect
their representatives to the Lok Sabha.

Question 3

Name the system of election to the office of the President of India.

Answer

Indirect Elections.

Question 4

What is meant by a by-election?

Answer

When a seat held by any member of the Legislative Assembly in the Centre or State falls
vacant on account of death or resignation of the member before completion of his/her
term, to fill up this vacancy the election which is held is called By-Election.

Question 5

Who allots the symbols to political parties?

Answer
 The Election Commission allots symbols to political parties.

Question 6

When is a mid-term election held?

Answer

This type of election is held when a State Legislative Assembly or the Lok Sabha is
dissolved before the completion of its full term (5 years).

Question 7

Who appoints the Election Commissioners?

Answer

The Election Commissioners are appointed by the President of India. This is done at the
behest of the Prime Minister as per Article 74.

Question 8

What is the normal term of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners?

Answer

The normal term of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners is six
years. During this tenure if they attain the age of 65 years, they shall vacate office on the
day of attaining this age.

Question 9

Name two important powers and functions of the Election Commission.

Answer

Two important powers and functions of the Election Commission are:

1. Preparation of Electoral Rolls and Photo Identity Cards.

2. Registration and Recognition of Political Parties.

Question 10

Name one advisory function of the Election Commission.

Answer
 The Election Commission advises the President or the Governors of the State in respect
of elecoral matters, disqualification of members, election disputes, petitions etc.

Question 11

What is known as the Voters List?

Answer

The Commission identifies eligible voters in each constituency and prepares the list of all
eligible voters. This is called voters list.

Question 12

Who prepares the voters list?

Answer

The Election Commission prepares the voters list.

Structured Questions

Question 1

With reference to Democracy and Elections, answer the following questions:

(a) Distinguish between two types of elections.

(b) What type of elections are direct and what type are indirect in a Parliamentary
Democracy?

(c) How are the elections of the President and Vice-President of India held?

Answer

(a) Below are the differences between the two types of elections:

Sl. Direct Election Indirect Election

No
.

1 People vote directly for their People elect their representatives

representatives. indirectly through their elected
representatives.
 2 Law regulates the qualifications, All elected representatives are treated at
age, etc. of voters and par. There are no further qualifications.
establishes eligibility
requirements for State officials.

3 Every adult person holds the right Every elected representative holds the
to vote. right to vote.

4 There is a very large body of There is a very small body of voters.

voters called the Electorate.

5 Members of Legislative The Members of State Legislative

Assemblies and Members of Lok Councils, Members of Rajya Sabha, the
Sabha are elected directly. President of India and the Vice President
are elected indirectly.

(b) Election of Legislative Assemblies and Lok Sabha are direct and the election of State
Legislative Councils, Rajya Sabha, the President of India and the Vice President are
indirect in a Parliamentary Democracy.

(c) The President of India is elected indirectly by the members of an Electoral college
consisting of the elected members of both the houses of Parliament and the elected
members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States including National Capital Territory
of Delhi and Union Territory of Pondicherry. The election takes place in accordance with
the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. Like
the President, the election of the Vice-President is also indirect but in this election the
State Legislatures do not take part.

Question 2

With reference to types of elections, answer the following:

(a) What is known as General Elections?

(b) State two points of difference between a by-election and mid-term election.

(c) When were the last General Elections held in India? What do you understand by the
term 'electorate'?

Answer

(a) The Elections held to elect the members of the Lok Sabha after expiry of the normal
term of five years are called the General Elections.
 (b) Two points of difference between a by-election and mid-term election are:

Sl. Mid-Term Election By-elections

No
.

1 This type of election is held when a This type of election is held when a
State Legislative Assembly or Lok seat falls vacant due to death or
Sabha is dissolved before the resignation of the member before
completion of its full term (5 years) completion of his/her term.

2 The new house has a full five year The member so elected remains the
term. member for the unexpired term of
the house.

(c) The last General Elections were held in 2019 in India.

An electorate can be defined as all the people who are eligible to vote. Alternatively, a
very large body of voters is called the electorate.

Question 3

With reference to terms of office and conditions of service of the Election Commission,
answer the following questions:

(a) Who constitute the Election Commission? Who is the head of the Election
Commission? Who appoints him?

(b) What is the term of the Election Commissioners? What happens in case there is a
difference in opinion between the Election Commissioners?

(c) State any four functions of the Election Commission.

Answer

(a) The Election Commission consists of three members — a chief Election

Commissioner and two other Election Commissioners.

The chief election commissioner is the head of the Election commission. He is appointed
by the President of India

(b) The term of the Election Commissioners is six years. During this tenure if they attain
the age of 65 years, they shall vacate office on the day of attaining this age.
 In case there is a difference in opinion between the Election Commissioners, decision is
taken in favour of the majority opinion.

(c) Following are the four functions of the Election Commission:

1. Preparation of electoral rolls and photo identity cards.

2. Registration and recognition of political parties.
3. Fixing dates and conducting elections.
4. Ensuring free and fair elections.

Supreme court
Short Answer Questions

Question 1

Who determines the strength of the Supreme Court?

Answer

The Parliament determines the strength of the Supreme Court.

Question 2

By whom are the Judges of the Supreme Court-appointed and how?

Answer

A group of senior Supreme Court judges headed by the CJI would make
recommendations to the President on who should be appointed as a judge of the
Supreme Court. The CJI is required to consult the four senior judges of the Supreme
Court before making any recommendation to the President of India in this regard. This
came to be known as the Collegium System which allows a college of persons (judges) to
appoint judges.

Question 3

What is the term of office of a Judge of the Supreme Court?

Answer

A Judge of the Supreme Court shall hold office until he attains the age of 65 years. A
Judge may resign his office, by submitting his resignation letter to the President.

Question 4
 On what grounds can a judge of the Supreme Court be removed from office?

Answer

A Judge of the Supreme Court cannot be removed from office except by an order of the
President on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity.

Question 5

With reference to the judiciary, what is meant by the term 'impeachment'?

Answer

A Judge of the Supreme Court cannot be removed from office except by an order of the
President on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity. This charge needs to be
proved only by a joint address by both houses of Parliament and supported by a
two-third majority of members present and voting. The word 'proved' is very important. It
means that an allegation has been thoroughly examined by some impartial tribunal. This
procedure is known as impeachment.

Question 6

Who decides the salaries and other emoluments of the Judges of the Supreme Court?

Answer

The salaries and other emoluments of the Judges of Supreme Court are decided by the
President of India according to Article 125 of the Constitution of India. The salaries of
judges cannot be reduced except during the period of financial emergency. Their salaries
and allowances are charged to the Consolidated Fund of India and so are not subject to
vote of Parliament.

Question 7

Who is the protector and final interpreter of the Constitution?

Answer

The Supreme Court is the protector and final interpreter of the Constitution.

Question 8

Under what circumstances can the salaries and allowances of the Judges of the Supreme
Court be reduced?

Answer
 The salaries of the Judges cannot be reduced except during periods of financial
emergency.

Question 9

Name the three types of jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.

Answer

The three types of jurisdiction of the Supreme Court are-

1. Original Jurisdiction
2. Appellate Jurisdiction
3. Advisory Jurisdiction

Question 10

In case of violation of the Fundamental Rights of individuals, which type of jurisdiction of

the Supreme Court is applicable?

Answer

In case of violation of the Fundamental Rights of individuals, the Original jurisdiction of

the Supreme Court is applicable.

Question 11

Mention any one power of the Supreme Court which is not enjoyed by other courts.

Answer

One power of the Supreme Court, which is not enjoyed by other Courts, is that only
Supreme Court has the right to revise its earlier decisions.

Question 12

What happens if either the Parliament or a State Legislature passes any law that is
against the Constitution?

Answer

The Supreme Court has the power to review laws passed by the Union or State
legislatures. If either the Parliament or a State Legislature passes any law that is against
the Constitution, the Supreme Court can declare the law 'ultra vires' or null and void. This
power is referred to as the power of judicial review.
Question 13

What is meant by the term 'Writ'?

Answer

A writ is an order from a judicial authority asking a person to perform some act or refrain
from performing an act.

Question 14

Name any two writs issued by the Supreme Court.

Answer

Two writs issued by the Supreme Court are-

1. Writ of Prohibition
2. Writ of Certiorari

Structured Questions

Question 1

The Supreme Court is the apex court in the entire judicial set up in India. In this context
answer the following questions:

(a) What is meant by the term Single Integrated Judicial System?

(b) Explain briefly the impeachment procedure for the removal of judges.

(c) State the difference between the Original jurisdiction and the Appellate jurisdiction.
Mention two functions that come under Original jurisdiction.

Answer

(a) Under our Constitution the judiciary is a single integrated system of courts for the Union and
the states with the Supreme Court at the apex. By the single integrated system we mean-

1. The Supreme Court is the head of the entire system and not only supervises but also
exercises control over the functioning of other courts.
2. There are no separate sets of laws and a single civil and criminal system operates
throughout the country.
3. All cases coming from the Lower Courts can be taken to the High Court and ultimately to
the Supreme Court, by way of appeal.
 Below the Supreme Court stand the High Courts of different States and under each High Court
there is a hierarchy of other subordinate courts.

(b) A Judge of the Supreme Court cannot be removed from office except by an order of the
President on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity. This charge needs to be proved
only by a joint address by both houses of Parliament and supported by a two-third majority of
members present and voting. The word 'proved' is very important. It means that an allegation
has been thoroughly examined by some impartial tribunal.

(c) The differences between the Original jurisdiction and the Appellate jurisdiction are as follows-

Original jurisdiction Appellate jurisdiction

Original Jurisdiction means the power to Appellate Jurisdiction means the

hear and determine a dispute in the first powers to grant special leave to
instance; i.e., those cases which cannot be appeal against the judgement
moved in any court other than the Supreme delivered by any court in the
Court. country.

It deals with Centre-State or Inter-State The appellate jurisdiction extends to

disputes, protection of fundamental rights, Constitutional, civil and criminal
transfer of cases from lower courts and cases.
interpretation of Constitution.

Two functions that come under Original jurisdiction are-

1. The Supreme Court has the original jurisdiction to settle disputes between the
Central government and one or more States and Union Territories as well as
between different States and Union Territories.
2. It has original jurisdiction with regard to the enforcement of Fundamental Rights,
transfer of cases from High Courts and interpretation of the Constitution.

Question 2

With regard to the Supreme Court of India, answer the following questions:

(a) State three qualifications required to be a Judge of the Supreme Court.

(b) Mention three ways in which the Constitution ensures the independence of the
Judges of the Supreme Court.

(c) Mention two types under which an appeal in a criminal case lies to the Supreme
Court.
 Answer

(a) A person is not qualified for appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court unless he is a
citizen of India, and

1. has been for at least five years a Judge of a High Court or of two or more such courts in
succession; or
2. has been for at least ten years an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such
courts in succession; or
3. is, in the opinion of the President, a distinguished jurist.

(b) Three ways in which the Constitution ensures the independence of the Judges of the
Supreme Court are-

1. Appointment of Judges — Every Judge of the Supreme Court is appointed by the

President after consultation with the Cabinet as well as the Judges of Supreme Court
and High Court. Thus, the judiciary and the executive are involved in the appointment of
Judges.
2. Security of Tenure — A Judge can remain in office till he has attained the age of 65
years. He can be removed by the President on the ground of "proved misbehaviour or
incapacity."
3. Punishment for Contempt of Court — The Supreme Court can punish for the contempt of
court if a person or authority makes an attempt to lower its authority.

(c) Two types under which an appeal in a criminal case lies to the Supreme Court are-

1. Cases without the certificate of the High Court.

2. Cases with the certificate of the High Court.

The certificate of the High Court is not required in a case:

1. Where the High Court has reversed the judgement of acquittal given by the Lower Court
and punished the accused with a death sentence.
2. A case which is withdrawn by the High Court from a Subordinate Court and sentenced
the accused to death.

Question 3

The independence of the judiciary is necessary in a federal democratic set-up. In this

context, describe the part played by the following:

(a) Security of Tenure of Office.

(b) Security of Salary and Allowances of the Judges.

(c) Power to punish for Contempt of itself.

 Answer

(a) A Judge can remain in office till he has attained the age of 65 years. He can be removed by
the President on the ground of "proved misbehaviour or incapacity."

(b) Judges' salaries, allowances, etc., shall not be changed to their disadvantage during their
term of office. The salaries of the Judges cannot be reduced except during periods of financial
emergency. Their salaries and allowances are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India and
so are not subject to vote of Parliament.

(c) The Supreme Court can punish for the contempt of court if a person or authority makes an
attempt to lower its authority.

Question 4

The Supreme Court has extensive jurisdiction. In this context answer the following:

(a) What is meant by 'Appellate Jurisdiction'? Name two types of cases in which an
appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court.

(b) What do you understand by advisory functions of the Supreme Court? State the types
of cases where the Supreme Court may be required to express its opinion.

(c) What is meant by Revisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court?

Answer

(a) Appellate Jurisdiction means the powers to grant special leave to appeal against the
judgement delivered by any court in the country. The appellate jurisdiction extends to
Constitutional, civil and criminal cases.

Two types of cases in which an Appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court are-

1. Constitutional cases
2. Civil cases

(b) The Supreme Court has advisory jurisdiction (to give its opinion) on any question of law or
fact of public importance as may be referred to it for consideration by the President of India.

The Supreme Court may be required to express its opinion in two classes of matters, in an
advisory capacity:

1. Any question of law may be referred to the Supreme Court if the President considers that
the question is of public importance and it is necessary to obtain the opinion of the
Supreme Court. Such opinion of the Supreme Court is advisory and not binding on the
Government nor is it executable as a judgement of the Supreme Court.
 2. Disputes arising out of pre-Constitution treaties and agreements which are excluded
from original jurisdiction by Article 131.

(c) The Supreme Court under Article 137 is empowered to review any judgement or order made
by it with a view to removing any mistake or error that might have crept in the judgement or
order. This is because the Supreme Court is a court of record and its decisions are of
evidentiary value and cannot be questioned in any court.

Question 5

Discuss how the Constitution has ensured that the Supreme Court acts as:

(a) Custodian of the Constitution.

(b) Guardian of the Fundamental Rights.

(c) A Court of Records.

Answer

(a) All cases where interpretation of the Constitution is required can be directly filed in the
Supreme Court.

1. The Supreme Court has the power of exclusive jurisdiction in regard to questions as to
Constitutional validity of central laws.
2. The Supreme Court is the interpreter of the Constitution and its decision is final.
3. It has the power to review laws passed by the Union or State legislatures.
4. The Supreme Court can declare a law 'ultra vires' or null and void, if it is against the
letter and spirit of the Constitution or contravenes any provision of the Constitution. This
power is referred to as the power of judicial review.
5. The minimum number of Judges to hear and decide a case involving interpretation of the
Constitution shall be five.
6. The Supreme Court has the power to review all National and State laws and executive
orders and declare them null and void, if they go against the provisions of the
Constitution.

(b) The original jurisdiction of Supreme Court extends to cases of violation of the Fundamental
Rights of individuals and the court can issue several writs for the enforcement of these rights.

1. Any citizen whose rights are violated may move the Supreme Court for the enforcement
of the rights.
2. The Supreme Court has power to issue orders or writs, in the nature of habeas corpus,
mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari for the enforcement of any of the
Fundamental Rights.
3. The Constitution prohibits the State from making any law which takes away or abridges
the Fundamental Rights.
 4. If it does so, the law shall be declared null and void by the Supreme Court.

(c) A Court of Record is a court whose judgements are recorded for evidence and testimony.

1. The judgements are in the nature of 'precedents', i.e., the High Courts and other Courts
are bound to give a similar decision in a similar case. They are not to be questioned
when they are produced before any subordinate court.
2. The Supreme Court shall be a "Court of Record" and shall have all the powers of such a
court including the power to punish for contempt of itself.
3. The Court of Record has two implications:
(i) Its judgements and orders are preserved as record. These can be produced in any
court as precedents.
(ii) If a person commits a contempt of court,. the court has the authority to punish him.
No authority can deprive the court of this right.

Question 6

Supreme Court has many functions to protect the interests of all citizens. In this context,
answer the following questions:

(a) What is meant by Judicial Review?

(b) What is the scope of Judicial Review?

(c) What is the significance of the power of Judicial Review?

Answer

(a) The Supreme Court is the interpreter of the Constitution and its decision is final.

1. It has the power to review laws passed by the Union or State legislatures.
2. The Supreme Court can declare a law 'ultra vires' or null and void, if it is against the
letter and spirit of the Constitution or contravenes any provision of the Constitution. This
power is referred to as the power of judicial review.

(b) The Supreme Court has the power of exclusive jurisdiction in regard to questions as to
Constitutional validity of central laws.

1. The Supreme Court is the interpreter of the Constitution and its decision is final.
2. It has the power to review laws passed by the Union or State legislatures.
3. The Supreme Court can declare a law 'ultra vires' or null and void, if it is against the
letter and spirit of the Constitution or contravenes any provision of the Constitution. This
power is referred to as the power of judicial review.
4. The minimum number of Judges to hear and decide a case involving interpretation of the
Constitution shall be five.
 5. The Supreme Court has the power to review all National and State laws and executive
orders and declare them null and void, if they go against the provisions of the
Constitution.

(c) The Constitution has provided for a balance of powers between the Centre and the States. If
the Union government or the State go beyond their limits, the Supreme Court can settle the
dispute.

1. In a written Constitution a law may be ambiguously worked. The question of

interpretation of the Constitution is bound to arise and the Supreme Court only has the
power of original jurisdiction.
2. The legislature may not possess the wisdom, experience and impartiality which are
needed to explain what the law means.

This function can be best performed by the Supreme Court.

Picture Study

Question 1

Study the figure and answer the following questions:

(a) Identify the building in the picture. Where is it located? What is the position of this
court in the entire judicial set up in India?

(b) State three qualifications required to be the judge of this court.

(c) How does this court maintain the sanctity of the Constitution of India
Answer

(a) The figure shows the Supreme Court of India. It is located in New Delhi.

Under our Constitution, the judiciary is a single integrated system of courts for the Union and the
states with the Supreme Court at the apex. The Supreme Court is the head of the entire system
and not only supervises but also exercises control over the functioning of other courts.

(b) A person is not qualified for appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court unless he is a
citizen of India, and

1. has been for at least five years a Judge of a High Court or of two or more such courts in
succession; or
2. has been for at least ten years an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such
courts in succession; or
3. is, in the opinion of the President, a distinguished jurist.

(c) All cases where interpretation of the Constitution is required can be directly filed in the
Supreme Court.

1. The Supreme Court has the power of exclusive jurisdiction in regard to questions as to
the Constitutional validity of central laws.
2. The Supreme Court is the interpreter of the Constitution and its decision is final.
3. It has the power to review laws passed by the Union or State legislatures.
4. The Supreme Court can declare a law 'ultra vires' or null and void, if it is against the
letter and spirit of the Constitution or contravenes any provision of the Constitution. This
power is referred to as the power of judicial review.
5. The minimum number of Judges to hear and decide a case involving interpretation of the
Constitution shall be five.
6. The Supreme Court has the power to review all National and State laws and executive
orders and declare them null and void, if they go against the provisions of the
Constitution.