MUHAMMAD-BIN-TUGHLUQ [A. D.

1325 TO 1351]
Three days after the assassination of his father Ghiasuddin Tughluq, Juna Khan alias Ulugh
Khan ascended the throne of Delhi Tughluqabad in February-March A. D. 1325 as it would
have be dangerous to keep the throne vacant. He assumed the title d Muhammad-bin-
Tuchlug. After forty days of mourning and performing all the religious rites, he proceeded to
Delhi and his coronation ceremony was performed in the Red Palace of Balban which was
fully decorated for this very purpose. Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughluq distributed gold and
silver amongst his nobles and people on this occasion.

SCHEMES / REFORMS OF MUHAMMAD-BIN-TUGHLUQ

Revenue Reforms
First of all, the Sultan intended to make some reforms in revenue system and made several
declarations and issued ordinances. He also ordered the royal officials to prepare the accounts
of the provinces and to send them immediately to the centre. Most of the governors obeyed
the orders of the Sultan and despatched their accounts forthwith. In fact, the Sultan wanted to
introduce a uniform policy of revenue in the entire kingdom.
Increase of Tax in Doab (A. D. 1326-27) -
Among the schemes of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq the increase of tax in the Doab is considered
as one of the significant ones. Being motivated by different reasons, Muhammad-bin-
Tughluq took a decision to increase taxes in the Doab region. However, the increase in taxes
harmed the peasantry very much and they opposed it vehemently as the corrupt officers
realized the taxes beyond the limit of increase. It generated rebellious feelings among the
people. The Sultan was a great well-wisher of his people. He was ignorant of the condition of
the people of the Doab but as soon as he was acquainted with the famine and drought, he
withdrew the ordinance and adopted relief measures for the good of peasantry. But all these
relief measures of the Sultan failed disastrously as they were started quite late. Agriculture
was devastated and villages ruined. Thus, the policy of the Sultan proved fatal and what to
speak of increased taxes, even the taxes at the ordinary rate could not be realized. A new
department called Diwan--Kohi (Agriculture Department) was created. The main purpose of
this department was to improve the agriculture produce by providing facilities to the peasants.
The government spent a lot of money on it but no result could be achieved as the piece of
land selected for experiment was infertile and needed the special attention of the Sultan
which he could not give

Transfer of Capital (A. D. 1326-27)

The scheme of the transfer of capital from Delhi to Deogiri was another significant plan of
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq. Deogiri was renamed as Daulatabad. The contemporary sources do
not indicate clearly the reasons for the exodus to Daulatabad.
Causes of Transfer of Capital
1. By now the territory of Delhi had increased much and it was not possible to control the
entire region from Delhi. Since Daulatabad was situated in the middle of the Sultanate, the
issue of transfer was taken up by the Sultan.
2. The tributary rulers of the Deccan were rebellious and they often not only revolted against
the Delhi Sultanate but also refused to pay annual tributes, hence the question of transfer of
capital to Deccan arose in the mind of the Sultan.
3. Ibn Batuta mentions that the people of Delhi used to write condemnatory letters to the
Sultan for which the Sultan felt much offended and in order to penalize them he ordered for
the transfer of the capital
4. The people of Doab had turned rebellious due to increase of revenue and the Sultan being
annoyed with them asked for exodus.
Nature of Transfer - Having decided for the transfer of capital, the Sultan ordered all
the people to migrate to Daulatabad. The distance between the old and new capital was about
950 kilometres. The Sultan tried to provide all possible facilities to the people. He got the
roads repaired and constructed rest-houses on both sides of the road, every two or three miles.
The Sultan spent a lot of money in the execution of this plan. The Imperial Court and
establishment was shifted to Daulatabad along with the nobles, scholars and saints, so that
Muslim culture could flourish there. But in spite of all the facilities provided by the Sultan,
the people of Delhi had so much attachment with the capital, that they did not want to leave
Delhi, hence the Sultan has to treat them harshly as he wanted to execute his scheme fully.
The long journey from Delhi to Daulatabad proved very painful and a large number of people
died during the journey. Realizing this mental strain and tremendous sufferings of the people,
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq realized his fault and ordered the public to return to Delhi, their
home town. Thus, the capital which had grown in prosperity and rivalled Baghdad and Cairo
in splendour was ruined and reinhabited by the beloveds of Delhi. It is correct to say that the
scheme of transfer of capital failed and the Sultan was held responsible for its failure.
Results of Transfer of Capital - The effects of Muhammad-bin- Tughluq's scheme of
transfer of capital proved disastrous. The Sultan spent a lot of wealth for the implementation
of this scheme. It affected the royal treasury otherwise, and later on, the Sultan had to face
various economic and financial problems.
1. The prestige and prosperity of Delhi was devastated for a while.
2. The people of Delhi had to suffer untold miseries and they sustained lots of
inconveniences as a result of this scheme. Many perished during the long journey.
3. Comparatively, the Muslims suffered much because they had to live in the South
in an atmosphere entirely different from that of Delhi as the South was mostly
Hindu-inhabited region.
4. The Sultan was roundly condemned and criticized for the failure of this project.
They not only called him names but also named him as cruel, short-sighted and
oppressor of the people.
5. But it is a fact that whatever control could be established in the South was because
of making Daulatabad the capital. It added to the prestige of Daulatabad.

Token Currency (A. D. 1329-30)

The age of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq is considered a very significant epoch in the history of
Indian coinage. He introduced various reforms and improvements in manufacturing,
valuation and types of coinage. Edward Thomas has aptly called him the "Prince of
Moneyers” because of his advanced measures in the field of coinage. The introduction of
token currency was a most significant innovation of Muhammad-bin- Tughluq in the history
of Medieval Indian coinage. Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughluq, therefore, issued bronze
Tankas and declared their value at par with the silver Tankas

Causes of Issue of Token Currency :

 1. From the very date of his accession Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughluq spent a lot of
money for giving rewards, grants, charity and gifts. Besides, he devised some
significant schemes and spent a huge amount on their execution. He also emptied his
treasury in suppressing the rebels, conducting military campaigns and in facing
famines and droughts. It shook the very foundation of the financial structure and the
Sultan was forced to issue a token currency.
2. The descriptions of Barani and Nizamuddin Ahmad indicate that the Sultan was in
need of immense wealth for the conquest of the entire world, hence he issued token
currency.
3. The Sultan needed extra wealth for the execution of his other projects and for
suppressing the revolts in future; hence, it became inevitable for him to issue token
currency.
4. Haji Uddabir thinks that the Sultan wanted to confiscate the costly metals and issue of
token currency was one of his tricks to collect the costly metals, i.e, gold and silver
but this opinion does not hold against the fact that the Sultan later changed all the
copper coins into silver ones from the royal treasury.
5. Ishwar Topa and others are of the opinion that the shortage of silver was the root
cause of the issue of token currency.
6. Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughluq who was a man of fertile mind was fond of devising
new schemes and introducing them. The scheme of token currency was also a product
of his fertile mind. Taking inspiration from the paper currency prevalent in China and
Persia, he thought ofBing bronze coins in India. Though the scheme was introduced
with all the best intention, yet its wrong execution led to its failure.

Execution of Scheme and its Consequence : In A. D. 1330 bronze coins were struck and it
was declared that they should be treated at par, in value with the silver coins. For some time
the scheme of token currency continued properly but soon people began to feel the difference
between the bronze coins and the silver coins. They doubted that the Sultan intended to store
the entire silver in his treasury. So, everybody stored away the silver and gold coins and the
market was flooded with the bronze coins. The number of counterfeit coins was even greater
than the original ones issued from the royal mint. Barani writes, "The houses of Hindus were
turned into mints. This remark of Barani is not impartial. There seems to be no reason as to
why the contemporary Muslims were deprived of the greed of making counterfeit coins.
Every person began to hoard the gold and silver coms. The excess of counterfeit coins
devalued the bronze coins, and it affected the trade and commerce adversely. The feeling of
revolt and dissatisfaction began to develop in the hearts of the people against the Sultan. Now
the Sultan felt his intervention to be essential as his beloved scheme of token currency was
also leading towards failure. He declared the bronze coins illegal and ordered the people to
exchange their bronze coins with silver coins from the royal treasury. Such a number of coins
were exchanged that there was a huge heap of bronze coins in Tughlagabad. Thus, the royal
treasury had to suffer heavily as a result of this scheme of token currency.

Causes of Failure of the Scheme :

1. The people of the fourteenth century failed to understand the utility of token
currency which scheme was much in advance of their times. Hence, they did not cooperate
with their Sultan.
 2. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq failed to take steps to make the mint the monopoly of the
State nor could he be successful in getting standard coins struck. Hence everybody made
artificial coins and thus led the scheme towards failure.
3. Elphinstone writes that unstable government and bankruptcy of the Sultan was also
a significant cause of the failure of his scheme of token currency. But this view does not seem
worthwhile.
4. The Sultan had no patience at all. He wanted immediate positive results and the
failures disturbed him so much that he rejected the schemes altogether. Thus, haste and
impatience of the Sultan was also the root cause of the failure of his various projects.

FIROZ SHAH TUGHLUQ [A. D. 1351 TO 1388]

Firoz was born in A. D. 1309. He was the son of Sultan Ghiasuddin Tughluq's younger
brother Rajjab.
Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughluq breathed his last on 20th March A. D. 1351 at Thatta in
Sindh at a long distance from Delhi. Firoz was present in his camp. After the death of
Muhammad Tughluq chaos and confusion prevailed in the royal camp as well as in the
adjacent areas. Taghi and Mongol soldiers started plundering the royal camp. As a result
thereof, the condition of the royal officers became very critical and their retreat to capital
looked almost impossible. The flames of revolt were already burning in the country, so it was
essential to seat somebody on the throne who could handle the situation successfully and had
the capacity to bear the responsibilities of state affairs. The person should be present near the
camp so that the responsibility of the State may be handed over to him immediately. By that
time it was decided that the Sultan should be one of the members of the royal family. Thus,
there were two heirs of the throne, First, Firoz and the other, Dabar Malik. Although Dabar
Malik was a close relative of the Sultan, he had no experience of administration. Hence, the
counsellors decided in a meeting that Firoz should be installed on the throne. On 22nd March
A. D. 1351, Firoz's coronation ceremony was performed in the royal camp of Thatta.
Administrative Reforms of Firoz Tughluq
Firoz Tughluq is very famous for his administrative reforms in the history of early medieval
period. Elphinstone has remarked, "Firoz Shah, whatever his defects or weaknesses, deserves
much credit for having mitigated in some respects, the horrible practice of his predecessors
and for having introduced some tincture of human feeling into the administration." He was a
peace-loving Sultan, so he paid his attention towards administrative reforms and works of
public welfare in placed of military expeditions.
He always consulted the Ulema on even trifle matters which turned the empire into an
Islamic state (Theocracy) Hence his reforms for which he was praised, proved of no use. The
Hindus could not be benefited by them and sometimes they proved even harmful for the
Hindu population.

Economic Policy and Revenue Reforms of Firoz Tughluq

At the time of coronation of Firoz Tughluq the economic condition of India was very
deplorable. People were hard pressed due to heavy taxation. Failures of the Utopian schemes
of Muhammad Tughluq also made the situation grave. People had to suffer a lot due to
plundering. maladministration and famines. Firoz in order to heal the wounds of the public
gave up the realization of Taccavi loans. He also restored the property of those who were
deprived of it during the regime of Muhammad Tughlug. Thus, Firoz got the cooperation and
support of the people. He imparted religious touch to his taxation policy by abolishing as
many as twentythree taxes which were not permitted by Muslim law. Firoz imposed only four
taxes sanctioned by Islamic law. These were Kharaj (and revenue), Jaziva (Religious tax
imposed on Hindus), Khams (15 th of the plundered and Zakar (2 per cent of the income of
Muslims which was spent for the welfare of the Muslim community).
Firoz enhanced the scope of Jaziya and even Brahmans were no exempted from it during his
reign. He also imposed irrigation tax on the peasants with the approval of the Ulema. Those
who used water from the Stage canals for irrigation, had to pay 1/10 of their produce as
irrigation tax. The State demand was fixed from 1/5 to 1/3 of the total produce. It helped him
ensuring steady flow of revenue into the royal exchequer and in regulating the expenditure of
the state in accordance with the income Firoz also realized the other three taxes just
according to Islamic injunctions. He also adopted measures for the improvement of the
quality of cultivation and for better crops and thus helped the peasants. Firoz planted 1200
fruit gardens in order to enhance the income of the Sultanate
Firoz tried to safeguard the interests of peasants. He increased the salaries of his officials and
granted Jagies to them so that they might not oppress the peasants. He also freed the farmers
from the refund of Taccavi loams. Firoz also took steps to make internal trade free by
abolishing a number of duties that had hampered the progress of trade.

Irrigation
Sultan Firoz Tughluq took some effective steps in the sphere of irrigation for the
improvement of agriculture. He constructed five canals for this purpose. Firoz also got 150
wells dug for the purpose of irrigation and for the of travellers, Ferishta also made reference
to the construction of 50 dams, 30 tanks or lakes to store water. He appointed efficient staff
for the inspection of these means of irrigation. Through irrigation, even the infertile land
began to produce crops after crops. It also contributed to the increase of revenue which the
Sultan made use of for the works of public welfare

Public Works
Firoz was a great builder. He exerted himself for the well-being of his subjects. Sir Wolseley
Haig has compared his passion for buildings with the Roman Emperor, Augustus. He paid
great attention to the uplift of the poor and the downtrodden as his religious and moral duty.
He founded many significant cities of which Fatehabad, Hissar, Firozepur and
Jaunpur are very famous. Firoz Shah Kotla near the Red Fort in Delhi was the favourite city
of Firoz where he lived for a long time. According to Ferishta he constructed 40 mosques, 20
palaces, 30 caravan- serais, 200 reservoirs, 100 hospitals, 5 mausoleums, 100 public baths, 10
monumental pillars, 150 bridges. Two pillars of Ashoka were brought to Delhi, one from
Khizrabad and another from Meerut. Besides the construction of various buildings, he paid
attention to the repairs of the old buildings. V. A. Smith has remarked about it, "Asiatic kings
as a rule show no interest in buildings erected by their predecessors, which usually are
allowed to decay uncared for. Firoz Shah was particular in devoting much attention to the
repair and rebuilding of the structures of former kings and ancient nobles giving the
restoration of those buildings the priority over his new constructions."
Firoz set up a separate department known as Diwan-i-Khairat for the help of the poor
and the needy. It had two sections:
 (1) the Marriage Bureau-It made arrangements for the marriage of the poor Muslim
girls at the expense of the stato.
(2) the Employment Bureau-It provided jobs to the unemployed.
Sometimes jobs were created to help the unemployed. One thing is to be noted here
that only the Muslims could be benefited by his charitable works as he was a fanatic Sultan.
Sultan Firoz also opened a magnificent free (charitable) hospital in Delhi called Darul
Shafa for the use of all sick persons. Qualified physicians were appointed here for the
treatment of patients free of charge. Free food was also given to the poor patients. Firoz also
granted liberal endowments for the benefit of pilgrims. He ran charitable kitchens to provide
free food to the poor, and constructed sarais for the rest of the pilgrims, merchants and

Slave System
Firoz was very fond of slaves. Slave system received great impetus during his reign. Firoz
felt that this system was helpful in the expansion of Islam because all the purchased slaves
were converted to the fold of Islam. Moreover, this system solved the problem of livelihood
of the unemployed Muslims. He got a list of such unemployed and recruited them as his
personal slaves.
A separate department was established for handling these slaves. A separate officer
and some officials were also appointed for looking after the welfare of the slaves, Firoz
issued instructions to his subordinates to treat their slaves as their own sons. The slave
department looked after the education, health, boarding and lodging arrangements of the
slaves from the humanitarian point of view. The motive of the Sultan was of all praise but the
Sultan's too much fondness for slaves, ultimately, proved very harmful and affected the royal
treasury unnecessarily. In fact, the number of slaves was so large that no Sultan could be able
to satisfy them all. The dissatisfied slaves began to work against the interests of the kingdom
and ultimately, they contributed to the decline of Tughluq dynasty.