2.

1 The Nature of Matter

 Atoms are made up of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.

o Protons – positive (p+)
o Neutrons – neutral (n0)
o Electrons – negative (e-)
 Strong forces bind protons and neutrons together, forming the nucleus.
 Electrons are in constant motion in the space surrounding the nucleus, which are arranged in a
series of shells, or orbitals.
o The first shell can hold no more than 2 electrons
o The second shell can hold no more than 8 electrons
 In an atom, electrons = proton ∴ neutral charge
 Elements are represented by one- or two-letter symbols.
 The number of protons in the nucleus of an element is called its atomic number.
 The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called its mass number.
o Atoms of an element may have different numbers of neutrons.
o Isotopes are identified by their mass numbers.
 The weighted average of the masses of an element’s isotopes are called its
atomic mass.
 When two atoms interact, their shells overlap and may even swap electrons with each other.
This affects how they interact with other atoms, whether they give or steal electrons.
 Isotopes have different masses, but their chemical properties are the same.
 Isotopes could be radioactive, meaning that their nuclei are unstable and break down
constantly over time.
o Radiation from these isotopes is dangerous, but have many important scientific uses
 Used to detect cancer
 Kill bacteria that causes food to spoil
 Used as labels or tracers
 Most elements are found combined with other elements in compounds.
 The physical and chemical properties of a compound are usually very different from those of
the elements from which it is formed.
 The atoms in compounds are held together by chemical bonds.
o Bond formations involves the electrons that surround each atomic nucleus.
o The main and strongest types of chemical bonds are ionic bonds and covalent bonds.
 An ionic bond is formed when one of more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
o These oppositely charged ions have a strong attraction for each other, forming an ionic
bond.
 A covalent bond is formed when one of more electrons are shared by atoms.
o When atoms are joined together by covalent bonds, molecules are formed.
 Weak interactions are when forces produce a slight attraction between molecules when they
are close very together. If 2 molecules have shapes that match like puzzle pieces, they can hold
molecules together.
o These interactions happen when the molecules within a living cell interact briefly to:
 Send signals
 Carry out chemical reactions
 Copy information from one molecule to another.
2.2 Properties of Water

 Different kinds of chemical bonds

o Ionic bonds
o Covalent bonds

 Weak Interactions
o Hydrogen bonds
o Van der Waals forces
 Water is one of the few compounds found in a liquid state over most of Earth’s surface
 A molecule in which the charges are unevenly distributed is said to be polar because the
molecule is a bit like a magnet with two poles.
o For example, water is a polar molecule because it has a partial negative charge on one
end and a partial positive charge on the other.
 The attraction between a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge and another atom with a
partial negative charge is known as a hydrogen bond.
 Because water is a polar molecule, it is able to form multiple hydrogen bonds, which account for
many of water’s special properties.
 Cohesion causes water molecules to be drawn together, which is why drops of water form beads
on smooth surfaces. Cohesion also produces surface tension, explaining why some insects and
spiders can walk on a pond’s surface.
 Adhesion between water molecules and glass is stronger than the cohesion between the water
molecules. Thus, suspension is caused in the graduated cylinder.
 The chemical reactions that occur within living things do so in a water environment.
 Water is often part of a mixture, where two or more elements or compounds are physically
mixed together.
o Water’s polarity gives it the ability to dissolve ionic compounds and other polar
molecules.
o Water can separate materials into pieces so small that they cannot be dissolved, and the
movement of the water molecules keeps those small particles suspended.
 Water molecules sometime split apart to form ions.
 pH scale goes from 0-14
o pure solutions with a pH of below 7 are acidic because they have more H + ions that OH-
ions. The lower the pH, the greater the acidity.
o pure solutions with a pH of above 7 are basic because they have more OH - ions than H+
ions. The higher the pH, the more basic the solution.
 Buffers help prevent drastic changes in pH. Buffers dissolved in life’s fluids play an important
role in maintaining homeostasis.
2.3 Carbon Compounds

 Carbon can bond with many elements – including H, O, P, S, N – to form compounds with many
different chemical properties.
o Carbon-carbon bonds can be single, double, or triple covalent bonds.
 Monomers join together to form polymers. (aka macromolecules)
o Four major groups are:
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Nucleic acids
 Proteins
 Carbohydrates
o Sugar, starch, and cellulose
o Made up of C, H, O – in a 1 : 2 : 1
o Organisms use carbohydrates to store and release energy, as well as for structural
support and protection.
 Lipids
o Fats, oils, waxes
o Made up of mostly C and H
o Lipids can be used to store energy, and they form important parts of biological
membranes and waterproof coverings.
o Function as chemical messengers
o Can be saturated, unsaturated, and polysaturated
 Nucleic Acids
o Made up of nucleotides (monomers)
 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
o Capture and transfer chemical energy.
o Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information
 Proteins
o Made up of amino acids, N, C, H, O
 Amino group on one end and carboxyl group on the other
o Some proteins function to control the rate of reactions and regulate cell processes.
Others form important cellular structures, while still others transport substances into or
out of cells or help fight disease.

 Chemical reactions involve changes in the chemical bonds that join atoms in compounds.
 Chemical reactions that release energy often occur on their own, or spontaneously. However,
chemical reactions that absorb energy require a source of energy.
 Chemical reactions that release energy don’t always occur spontaneously. Otherwise, the pages
of a book might burst into flames without warning. The activation energy is involved in chemical
reactions regardless of whether the overall chemical reaction releases energy or absorbs energy.
 The role of enzymes is to speed up chemical reactions that take place in cells.
 Enzymes are specific, generally catalyzing only one chemical reaction.