LIVING THINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Handouts for the 1st grading Science 9

Prepared by: Stiffany Rose N. Tinambunan

NAME: _____________________________________________________ SECTION: _______________________________

Parts and Functions of Human Respiratory System

The following are the functions of each part of the respiratory system:
Nose - the entrance of air into the body
Nasal cavity - it is where the air is filtered, moistened and warmed
Pharynx - controls the passage of air to the lungs and food (from digestion) to the esophagus
Larynx - connects the pharynx to the trachea and contains the vocal cord. It prevents the
passage of food into the lungs. It controls the flow of air to the lungs
Trachea - main passageway of air into the lungs
Bronchi(bronchus) - carry air into each lung
Lungs - They help oxygen we breathe enter the red blood cells and get rid of carbon dioxide
when we breathe out.
Bronchioles - tiny tubes that connect the bronchi to the alveoli.
Alveoli (alveolus) - the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
Diaphragm - controls the breathing process epiglottis which is a flap of tissue located at the upper end of the larynx.
A. nose B. larynx C. lungs D. alveoli E. nasal cavity F. pharynx G. trachea H. bronchi I. diaphragm

Breathing Mechanism in Humans

When you inhale or breathe in, your diaphragm muscle moves down and your chest cavity expands. During inhalation, your ribs
also move outward increasing the size of the chest cavity. At this time your lungs have more space and less air pressure. So air from
the outside where there is higher air pressure rushes into the lungs. When you breathe out or exhale, your diaphragm muscle moves
up and the ribs move inward. Your chest cavity returns to its original size. Your lungs now have less space and greater air pressure
so the air rushes outside where there is lower air pressure.

Parts and Functions of the Human Circulatory System

Aorta – largest artery
Blood – carries oxygen, nutrients and other materials throughout
the body
Capillaries – smallest blood vessels in the body
Oxygen – one of the materials delivered by blood in the body
Valves – they are located between each of the atrium and
ventricle to prevent blood from flowing backwards.
Circulatory – a system made up of heart, blood vessels and
blood.
Systemic – movement of blood from the heart to the rest of the body excluding the lungs.
Heart – it pumps blood throughout the body
Veins – carry deoxygenated blood to the heart
The three major parts of the circulatory system include the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
1. The heart - made of specialized cardiac muscle tissue that allows it to act as a pump within the circulatory system.
2. The Blood Vessels - vessel in the human body in which blood circulates.
3. Blood – essential to life. There are four basic components that comprise human blood: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells
and platelets.
Types of Circulation
1. Pulmonary circulation is a circuit that provides blood flow from the heart to the lungs; and back to the heart.
2. Systemic circulation is a circuit that allows blood to flow from the heart to the rest of the body; excluding the lungs.
3. Coronary circulation is a circuit that strictly provides blood to the tissues of the heart.
The circulatory and respiratory systems work together to circulate blood and oxygen throughout the body. Air moves in and out of the
lungs through the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Blood moves in and out of the lungs through the pulmonary arteries and veins
that connect to the heart.

Effects of Lifestyle on the Functioning of Respiratory and Circulatory System

Respiratory diseases affect your airways and lungs caused by infection, smoking cigarettes or by breathing in second hand cigarette
smoke, or other forces of air pollution.
The following are some ways to prevent respiratory and circulatory diseases:
1. Good nutrition, good sleep and rest enhances your immune system that helps the body to resist infections. And avoid eating high
cholesterol and fatty foods.
2. Do not smoke. Cigarettes contain harmful substances that can be fatal to your body.
3. Exercise regularly. It improves the health of your lungs and heart.
4. Observe strict personal hygiene. Always keep your body clean because it will reduce the risk of catching any diseases.
5. Avoid crowds. Avoid direct contact with person suffering from respiratory diseases. To avoid contamination it is very important to
take all the necessary precautions
Location of Genes in Chromosomes
Genes are functional unit of heredity found in the chromosomes, which are in the
nucleus of a cell]
Genes are sections of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that are in charge of different
functions like making one of the proteins called histones.
Histones provide support to a chromosome to be packed in the nucleus of the
cell.
Trait - An observable characteristic determined by genes.
Chromosomes - These are structures within the cells that contain a person’s gene.
Gene - A unit of heredity responsible for determining some characteristics which
is transferred from a parent to offspring.
Nucleus - A membrane-bound organelle in the cell that contains chromosomes.
Locus - The position or location of a gene on a chromosome.
Alleles - These are different forms of the same gene which are located on the same part of the chromosome.
DNA - It contains the genetic code of the organisms.
Centromere - It is a structure in a chromosome that joins together the sister chromatids.
Heredity - The passing on of a characteristic/ trait genetically from one generation to the next.
Histone - It is a protein which provides support to a chromosome.

Who figured out that genes are on chromosomes?

Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri. Generally, became popular for this insight.
They found the best evidencethat an inherited trait is determined by
chromosomes. Boveri and Sutton’s chromosome theory of inheritancestates that
genes are found at specific locations on chromosomes, and that the behavior of
chromosomes during meiosis can explain GregorMendel’s laws of inheritance.
Observations that support the chromosome theory of inheritance are the
following:

matched
e member of the pair of genes and chromosomes

homologous pair separate in meiosis, so each sperm or egg receives just one member. This
process is just like the segregation of alleles into gametes in Mendel's law of segregation.

another in meiosis, just like the alleles of different genes in Mendel's law of independent
assortment.
A chromosome contains hundreds to thousands of genes.Each chromosome has a centromere
that joins together the two chromatids anddivides also the chromosome into 2 sections or
“arms”. The short arm of chromosome is labelled the “p arm”. The long arm of chromosome is
labelled the “q arm”.
James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick found out that DNA is
composed of building units known as nucleotides. It isbuilt on a
deoxyribosesugar and phosphate group that supports the four
nitrogenous bases: guanine pairs with cytosine and vice-versa while
adenine pairs with thymine and vice versa. The bases are
complementary, always appearing opposite to each other on the helix.

NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE

Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a
specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele. This results in a third
phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the dominant
and recessive phenotypes

In codominance both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote. For
example, red cows crossed with white cows will have offspring that are roan cows. Roan refers to
cows with red hair and white blotches.

Multiple alleles
In humans, there are four blood types (phenotypes): A, B, AB, O.
Blood type Genotypes
Blood type is controlled by three alleles: A, B, O. (Phenotypes)
O is recessive, two O alleles must be present for a person to have type O blood. A IA IA IA i
A and B are codominant. If a person receives an A allele and a B allele, their blood
type is type AB. B IB IB IB i
AB IA IB
23rd pair of chromosomes is called “Sex chromosomes” are XX (female) and XY O ii
(male)
 23 pairs of chromosomes in human, 46 chromosomes in total. 23 comes from the mother and another 23 from the father.

Sex-linked traits
Sex-linked traits are inherited through the X chromosomes.
Males have only one X chromosome. Thus, if they inherit the affected X, they will have the disorder. Females have two X
chromosomes. Therefore, they can inherit/carry the trait without being affected if it acts in a recessive manner.

Sex-limited traits
Sex-limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex.

Sex-influenced traits
Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one than in the other sex.

The Physical environment and population in an ecosystem.

The population pertains to the number of organisms of the same species living in a certain place.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life in an area.
than
communities with only a few species (a low index of diversity).
Population sizes vary among organisms. They change with the number of births and when they move into an ecosystem. They
also change when members die or move out of an ecosystem.
Population density formula: number of organisms/size of area.
asing in size and help balance ecosystems.

threatened species.

cological imbalance. Examples of these are pollution, deforestation, wildlife depletion, and destruction of
coastal resources. All of these results in ecological imbalance.

Environmental Issues and Problems

vironment. The major types of pollution are air and
water pollution.

agricultural activities are some of the

man-made activities which contribute to air pollution. Wildfires and volcanic activities are also sources of air pollutants.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emitted by coal plants, factories, electric power generators, and vehicles contribute
to acid rain. These substances react with water molecules, oxygen, and other chemicals in the atmosphere which produces acid.
tes are the main causes of water pollution.
rown
into the bodies of water which stimulates the growth of algae and in turn, lessens the available oxygen for other aquatic animals.
When oxygen is no longer available, aquatic organisms will die.

by Filipino farmers for crop production wherein the forest is set on fire to clear the
area for cultivation.
letion.
ing, the use of explosives and chemicals, and the conversion of coastal areas into resorts and residential areas greatly
affect marine organisms and their habitats.
anisms in a large quantity.
-ami fishing are the known illegal fishing methods used in the Philippines that kill plenty
of marine animals and destroy coral reefs.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the food making process that occurs in plants, algae and some photosynthetic bacteria.
Autotrophs referred to organisms that can make their own food while heterotrophs feed on other organisms to survive.
Chemical equation for photosynthesis:

Internal structure of leaf

Internal structure of chloroplast Structure of stomata

 Photosynthesis is a process of food making done by plants and other autotrophic organisms. The presence of chlorophyll enables
these organisms to make their own food. Autotrophic organisms require light energy, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to make
food (sugar).
In plants, photosynthesis mainly takes place in the leaves and little or none in stems, depending on the presence of chlorophyll.
The typical parts of the leaves include the upper and lower epidermis, mesophyll spongy layer, vascular bundles, and stomata. The
upper and lower epidermis protects the leaves and has nothing to do with photosynthetic processes. The mesophyll has the most
number of chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll. They are important in trapping light energy from the sun. Vascular bundles (phloem
and xylem) serve as transporting vessels of manufactured food and water. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are collected in the spongy
layer and enter and exit the leaf through the stomata.

The parts of a chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes, intermembrane space, stroma and thylakoids stacked in grana.
The chlorophyll is built into the membranes of the thylakoids. Chlorophyll absorbs white light, but it looks green because white light
consists of three primary colors: red blue and green. Only red and blue light are absorbed, thus making these colors unavailable to
our eyes while the green light is reflected which makes the chlorophyll looks green. However, it is the energy from red and blue light
that is absorbed will be used in photosynthesis. The green light that we can see is not absorbed by the plant and thus, cannot be
used to do photosynthesis

There are two stages of photosynthesis: (a) light-dependent PHOTOSYNTHESIS (2 types of reaction)
reaction and (b) Calvin Cycle (dark reaction). 1. Light dependent reaction 2. Light independent reaction
The light-dependent reaction happens in the presence of Location: Location:
light. It occurs in the thylakoid membrane and converts light 1. granum/thylakoid 1. stroma
energy to chemical energy. Water–one of the raw materials of Raw materials/Requirements: Raw materials/Requirements:
photosynthesis is utilized during this stage and facilitates the 1. water 1. Carbon dioxide
formation of free electrons and oxygen. The energy harvested 2. sunlight 2. ATP
during this stage is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine 3. NADPH
End products: End products:
TriPhosphate) and NADPH. These products will be needed by
1. oxygen 1. Glucose
the next stage to complete the photosynthetic process.
2. ATP
The Calvin cycle (dark reaction) is a light-independent phase 3. NADPH
that takes place in the stroma and converts carbon dioxide (CO2)
into sugar. This stage does not directly need light but needs the products of the light reaction, thus it occurs immediately after the
light-dependent phase.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration – a complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is
released from food molecules.
Internal structure of a mitochondria.------------------------------------------------>

2 Types: Aerobic Respiration (requires oxygen) and Anaerobic Respiration

(don’t require oxygen)
3 Major steps: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and Electron Transport Chain

Glycolysis don’t require oxygen, it occurs in the cytoplasm. Glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvate molecule, the 2 pyruvate
molecules generates 2 ATP and 2 NADH, Total ATP produced is 2.

Krebs cycle/Citric acid cycle requires oxygen, it occurs in the Inner matrix of mitochondria. 2 pyruvate molecules leaves cytoplasm
and enters mitochondria, Pyruvate loses CO2 (undergoes oxidation) forming Acetyl CoA, Coenzyme NADH and FADH2 interacts with
Acetyl CoA, Acetyl CoA produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2 FADH2. Total ATP produced is 2.

Electron transport chain requires oxygen, it occurs on the inner membrane of the mitochondria. Electrons from NADH and FADH2
are transfer to the receptors in the protein complex. ATP synthase combines phosphate group and ADP to generate ATP. ATP are
released together with water; 3 ATP/1 NADH; 2 ATP/3FADH2. Total ATP produced is 34.

Photosynthesis Aspect Cellular Respiration

Releases energy process Absorbs energy
Light energy from the sun Energy requirements Chemical energy from food
chloroplast Location mitochondria
Sunlight, water and carbon dioxide Raw materials Glucose and oxygen
Glucose and oxygen End products Water, carbon dioxide and ATP
Plants Organisms Plants and animals
Glucose is produced Role of glucose Glucose is broken down
Light dependent and Light Types of reactions Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
independent

The beautiful thing about learning is that no one can take it away from you.
God bless on your exams, I know you can do it! 
- Ma’am Stiffany T.