Arun F.

Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03

ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, UNIT-3: Chapter 7
Wireless Networks and Mobile IP
S-1) What are narrowband RF LANs?
Narrowband RF LANs
Narrowband radio frequency (RF) LANs use a very narrow bandwidth. Narrowband RF LANs can
be either licensed or unlicensed. In licensed narrowband RF, a licensed authority assigns the radio
frequency band. Most geographic areas are limited to a few licenses. Adjacent cells use different
frequency bands. The transmissions are encrypted to prevent attacks. The licensed narrowband
LANs guarantee communication without any interference. The unlicensed narrowband RF LANs
use the unlicensed spectrum and peer-to-peer LAN topology.

S-2) What is home RF and Bluetooth?

Home RF and Bluetooth
The home RF is a wireless networking standard that operates in the 2 GHz frequency band. Home
RF is used to interconnect the various home electronic devices, such as desktops, laptops, and
appliances. Home RF supports data rates of about 2 Mb/s and both voice and data and has a range
of about 50 meters. Bluetooth is a technology to replace the cables necessary for short-range
communication within 10 meters, such as between monitors and CPU, printer and personal
computers, and so on. Bluetooth technology also eliminates the need for cables in laptops and
printers. Bluetooth operates at 2.4 GHz frequency band and supports data rates of 700 Kb/s.

S-3) What is cellular network?

Cellular Networks
Cellular networks use a networked array of transceiver base stations, each located in a cell to cover
the networking services in a certain area. Each cell is assigned a small frequency band and is served
by a base station. Neighboring cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference.
However, the transmitted power is low, and frequencies can be reused over cells separated by large
distances.

S-4) List the four types of channels in CDMA-based mobile network?

Four types of channels in CDMA-based mobile network
1) Pilot channel (channel 0): This channel helps a mobile user to obtain timing information
and enables the mobile unit to track signal-strength levels to initiate handoffs.
2) Synchronization channel (channel 32): This channel operates at 1,200 b/s and helps a
mobile user to obtain information, system time and protocol version, from the cellular
system.
3) Paging channels (channels 17): These channels are used for monitoring paging requests.
4) Traffic channels (channels 831 and 3363): The forward link supports up to 55 traffic
channels supporting data rates of up to 9,600 b/s.

S-5) and 19) List any 4 major challenges with mobile IP.
The major challenges with mobile IP are
• Mobility. A quality connection is desired for a user while it is mobile with different speeds.
• Registration. A mobile user's address must be identified and registered in different areas.
• Interoperability. A mobile user must interact with other stationary and mobile users.
• Connection reliability. TCP connections must survive in mobility cases.
• Security. A connection must be secured, especially since a wireless connection is less immune
to intrusions

S-6) What is network routing?

Network routing is the ability to send a unit of information from source to destination by finding a
path through the network, and by doing efficiently and quickly.
SDM

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 Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03

ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, S-7) Name any two key factors for efficient delivery of packets in network routing?
For efficient delivery of packets, there are several key factors to consider:
1) Routers with a reasonable amount of buffer space,
2) Links with adequate bandwidth,
3) Actual transmission with minimal error, and
4) The routers’ efficiency in switching a packet to the appropriate outgoing link.

S-8) What is static routing algorithm and dynamic routing algorithm?

Static versus Dynamic Routing Algorithms
This category is based on how and when the routing tables are set-up and modified. Adaptive routing
is also called dynamic routing and non-adaptive is also called static routing.
Static routing algorithms do not base their routing decisions on measurements or estimates of the
current traffic and topology. The selection of the route from source to destination is computed in
advance (offline) and downloaded to the routers when the network is booted.
Static routing systems cannot react to network changes, they generally are considered unsuitable
for today’s large, constantly changing networks. Most of the dominant routing algorithms today are
dynamic routing algorithms.

Dynamic routing algorithms adjust to changing network circumstances by analyzing incoming

routing update messages. If the message indicates that a network change has occurred, the routing
software recalculates routes and sends out new routing update messages.

S-9) What is single-path routing and multi-path routing?

Single-path versus Multi-path
In a single-path routing, only a single path exists between any two networks. These protocols are
incapable of load balancing traffic. An example of a single-path protocol is standard Border
Gateway Protocol (BGP). Single-path routing is simple to configure. In single path algorithms, only
a single path is stored in the routing table.

In a multipath routing infrastructure, multiple paths exist between networks. These protocols are
better for performing load balancing. Multipath routing is more complex to configure. In multi-
path algorithms, multiple paths are stored in the routing table.

S-10) What is intra-domain and inter-domain routing protocols?

Intra-domain routing protocols work only within domains.
Examples: RIP (Routing Information Protocol) and OSPF (Open Shortest Path First).
Inter-domain routing protocols work within and between domains.
Example: BGP (Border Gateway Protocol).

S-11) What is EGP and BGP?

EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is a Routing Protocol which is used to find network path
information between different networks. It is commonly used in the Internet to exchange routing
table information between two neighbor gateway hosts (each with its own router) in a network of
autonomous systems.

BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) refers to a gateway protocol that enables the internet to exchange
routing information between autonomous systems (AS).
It makes it possible for ISPs to connect to each other and for the end-users to connect to more than
one ISP. BGP is the only protocol that is designed to deal with a network of the Internet’s size.
As networks interact with each other, they need a way to communicate. This is accomplished
through peering. BGP makes peering possible.
SDM

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 Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03

ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, S-12) What is OSPF?
Open Shortest Path First [OSPF]
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol. OSPF is another Interior Gateway
Protocol. It is designed to be run as an Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) to a single Autonomous
System (AS).

S-13) What are ports and sockets?

Ports
The TCP and UDP protocols use ports to map incoming data to a particular process running on a
computer.
Sockets
A socket is a communications connection point (endpoint) that we can name and address in a
network. The processes that use a socket can reside on the same system or on different systems on
different networks. Sockets are useful for both stand-alone and network applications. Sockets
commonly are used for client/server interaction.

S-14) Write any 2 characteristics of UDP.

Following are the characteristics of UDP:
• Connectionless
• Unreliable
• Transmit messages (called user datagrams)
• Provides no software checking for message delivery (unreliable)
• Does not reassemble incoming messages
• Uses no acknowledgments
• Provides no flow control

S-15) Write any 2 characteristics of TCP.

Following are the characteristics of TCP:
• Connection-oriented
• Reliable
• Divides outgoing messages into segments
• Reassembles messages at the destination station
• Re-sends anything not received
• Reassembles messages from incoming segments

S-16) Name the protocols which are operated through VoIP network?
Protocols which are operated through VoIP network are:
Signalling protocol and real-time packet-transport protocols

S-17) Mention four types of IEEE 802.11 physical layers

The IEEE 802.11 physical layer is of four types. They are:
1) Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
2) Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
3) Infrared
4) Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)

S-18) What is Mobile IP?

The mobile IP scheme is a protocol responsible for handling the mobility of users attached to the
Internet.

S-20) Name any four routing algorithm metrics

Routing Algorithm Metrics are:
• Path length
• Delay
SDM

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 Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03

ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, • Bandwidth
• Load
• Communication cost
• Reliability

Long answer questions

L-1) Write a note on i) Infrared LAN ii) Spread-Spectrum LAN (4/5/6)
Infrared LANs
Each signal-covering cell in an infrared LAN is limited to one room. The coverage is small, since
the infrared rays cannot penetrate through walls and other opaque obstacles. Infrared
communication technology is used in several home devices, such as television remote controls.
Three alternative transmission techniques are used for infrared data transmission: directed beam,
omnidirectional configuration, and diffused configuration.
The directed beam involves point-to-point connections. The range of communications is limited by
the transmitted power and the direction of focus. With proper focusing, ranges up to a kilometer can
be achieved. This technology can be used in token-ring LANs and interconnections between
buildings.
The omnidirectional configuration consists of a single base station that is normally used on
ceilings. The base station sends an omnidirectional signal, which can be picked up by all
transceivers. The transceivers in turn use a directional beam focused directly at the base-station unit.
In the diffused-configuration method, the infrared transmitters direct the transmitted signal to a
diffused reflecting ceiling. The signal is reflected in all directions from this ceiling. The receivers
can then pick up the transmitted signal.

Advantages of Infrared:
• For example, the bandwidth for infrared communication is large and can therefore achieve high
data rates.
• Also, because infrared rays are reflected by lightly colored objects, it is possible to cover the
entire area of the room with reflections from objects.
• Since infrared cannot penetrate through walls and other opaque obstacles, it becomes very
difficult for any adversary to carry out a passive attack or to eavesdrop. Hence, communication
with infrared technology is more secure.
• Also, separate infrared networks can be used in adjacent rooms without any interference effects.
• Finally, equipment for infrared communication is much cheaper than microwave
communication.

Disadvantage of infrared technology:

• Background radiation from sunlight and indoor lighting can cause interference at the infrared
receivers.

Spread-Spectrum LANs
Spread-spectrum LANs operate in industrial, scientific, and medical applications, making use of
multiple adjacent cells, each having a different center frequency within a single band to avoid any
interference. Within each of these cells, a star or peer-to-peer topology can be deployed. If a star
topology is used, a hub as the network center is mounted on the ceiling. This hub, serving as an
interface between the wired and wireless LANs, can be connected to other wired LANs. All users
in the wireless LAN transmit and receive signals from the hub. Thus, the traffic flowing among
users moves through the central hub. Each cell can also deploy a peer-to-peer topology. The spread-
spectrum techniques use three different frequency bands: 902-928 MHz, 2.4 GHz-2.4835 GHz, and
5.725 GHz-5.825 GHz. Higher-frequency ranges offer greater bandwidth capability. However, the
higher-frequency equipment is more expensive.
SDM

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SDM
Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03
L-2) Explain 802.11 physical layer types. (4)
The IEEE 802.11 physical layer is of four types. They are:
5) Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) uses seven channels, each supporting data rates of 1
Mb/s to 2 Mb/s. The operating frequency range is 2.4 GHz ISM band. DSSS uses three
nonoverlapping channels in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. The 2.4 GHz frequency band used by 802.11
results in interference by certain home appliances, such as microwave ovens and cordless
telephones, which operate in the same band.
6) Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) uses a pseudonoise sequence and signal hopping
from one channel to another. This technique makes use of 79 channels. FHSS operates in the
2.4 GHz ISM band and supports data rates of 1 Mb/s to 2 Mb/s.
7) Infrared with an operating range of about 20 meters operates on a broadcast communication
paradigm. A pulse position modulation (PPM) scheme is used.
8) Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), is a multicarrier modulation scheme
whereby the carrier spacing is carefully selected so that each subcarrier is orthogonal to the
other subcarriers. Two signals are orthogonal if they are multiplied together and their integral
over an interval is 0. Orthogonality can be achieved by letting the carrier spacing be equal to the
reciprocal of the useful symbol period. As the subcarriers are orthogonal, the spectrum of each
carrier has a null at the center frequency of each of the other carriers in the system. This results
in no interference between the carriers, allowing them to be spaced as close as possible
L-3) Explain 802.11 MAC frame format. (6)
The frame format for the 802.11 MAC is:
Bytes:2 2 6 6 6 2 6 4
FC D/I Address Address Address SC Address Frame Body CRC
• The frame control (FC) field provides information on the type of frame: control frame, data
frame, or management frame.
• Duration/connection ID (D/I) refers to the time allotted for the successful transmission of
the frame.
• The addresses field denotes the 6-byte source and destination address fields. The sequence
control (SC) field consists of 4 bits reserved for fragmentation and reassembly and 12 bits
for a sequence number of frames between a particular transmitter and receiver.
• The frame body field contains a MAC service data unit or control information.
• The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) field is used for error detection.
L-4) Briefly explain the steps involved in establishing a call between two mobile users in a
cellular network. (6)
The steps involved in establishing a call between two mobile users in a cellular network are as
follows:
1) Mobile unit setup. When the mobile unit is switched on, it searches for the strongest control
channel. The mobile user is assigned a base station with which it operates. A handshake of
messages takes place between the associated MSC (Mobile Switching Center) and the mobile
user through the base station. The MSC registers and authenticates the user through the base
station. If the user moves to a new cell, this step repeats in the new cell.
2) Originated call. When a mobile originates a call, the called number is sent to the base station,
from where it is forwarded to the MSC.
3) Paging. MSC pages specific base stations, based on the called number. The base stations in turn
send a paging message on their set-up channel to locate the called user.
4) Call accepting. When the base station pages all users in its cell, the called user recognizes its
number and responds. The base station then notifies the MSC, which sets up a connection
between the called and calling base-station units.
5) Ongoing call. Once the connection is established, exchange of data and voice occur between
the two communicating mobile units through the base stations and the MSC.
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SDM
Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03
6) Handoff. A handoff occurs when a mobile unit moves from one cell to another. The traffic
channel switches to the new base station, using the MSC, as shown in Figure 6.9. This switch
appears seamless to the user, without any interruption of the traffic.
7) Call blocking. When a mobile user originates a call, a busy tone is returned to the user if all the
traffic channels to the base station are busy.
8) Call termination. When one of the users in a mobile conversation hang up, the MSC is informed
of the call termination, and the traffic channels are deallotted at both base stations.
9) Call drop. When a base station cannot maintain a minimum signal level during a call, the call is
dropped. Weak signals may occur because of interference or channel distortions.
L-5) Explain the benefits of mesh network. (4)
The benefits of a mesh network are as follows:
• Scalability. The WMN infrastructure is designed to be scalable as the need for network access
increases.
• Ad hoc networking support. WMNs have the capability to self-organize and be connected to
certain points of ad hoc networks for a short period of time.
• Mobility support of end nodes. End nodes are supported through the wireless infrastructure.
Connectivity to wired infrastructure.
• Gateway mesh routers may integrate heterogeneous networks in both wired and wireless
fashions.
L-6) What are the various metrics used for routing algorithm? Explain. (6)
Routing Algorithm Metrics
Routing tables contain information used by switching software to select the best route. Routing
algorithms have used many different metrics to determine the best route. Efficient routing
algorithms select route based on multiple metrics. All the following metrics have been used:
• Path length: Path length is the most common routing metric. Some routing protocols allow
network administrators to assign arbitrary costs to each network link. In this case, path length is
the sum of the costs associated with each link traversed. Other routing protocols define hop
count. Hop-count is a metric that specifies the number of passes through internetworking
products, such as routers, that a packet must pass through in a route from a source to a
destination.
• Delay: Routing delay is the time required to move a packet from source to destination. Delay
depends on many factors, including the bandwidth of intermediate network links, the port
queues (receive and transmit queues that are there in the routers) at each router along the way,
network congestion on all intermediate network links, and the physical distance to be travelled.
• Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the available traffic capacity of a link. Although bandwidth is a rating
of the maximum attainable throughput on a link, routes through links with greater bandwidth do
not necessarily provide better routes than routes through slower links. For example, if a faster
link is busier, the actual time required to send a packet to the destination could be greater.
• Load: Load refers to the degree to which a network resource, such as a router, is busy. Load
can be calculated in a variety of ways, including CPU utilization and packets processed per
second.
• Communication cost: Communication cost is another important metric, especially because
some companies may not care about performance as much as they care about operating
expenditures. Although line delay may be longer, they will send packets over their own lines
rather than through the public lines that cost money for usage time.
• Reliability: Reliability in routing algorithms is the dependability (usually described in terms of
the bit-error rate) of each network link. Some network links might go down more often than
others. After a network fails, certain network links might be repaired more easily or more
quickly than other links. Any reliability factor can be taken into account in the assignment of
the reliability ratings, which are arbitrary numeric values, usually assigned to network links by
network administrators.
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SDM
Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03
L-7) Write a short note on i) IGP ii) RIP (6)
IGP (Interior gateway Protocols)
In small and slowly changing network the network administrator can establish or modify routes
manually. Administrator keeps a table of networks and updates the table whenever a network is
added or deleted from the autonomous system. The disadvantage of the manual system is obvious;
such systems are neither scalable nor adaptable to changes.
Automated methods must be used to improve reliability and response to failure. To automate the
task this task, interior router (within an autonomous system) usually communicates with one
another, exchanging network routing information from which reachability can be deduced. These
routing methods are called Interior gateway Protocols (IGP) [also called Intra-Domain Routing
Protocols].
Routing Information Protocol [RIP]
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a distance-vector routing protocol. Routers running the
distance-vector protocol send all or a portion of their routing tables in routing-update messages to
their neighbors. It uses hop count as a metric to determine the best path to the destination.
RIP is not good when we have an alternative path with the same number of routers, but with a faster
bandwidth. RIP doesn’t understand that as it’s a distance vector and not a link state protocol. A link
state can calculate the fastest link not depending on the hop count, and its limit is 15 hops.
RIP was designed for exchanging information within a limited size network, such as a network of
250 routes or a maximum of 15 hops. A RIP router maintains a routing table and periodically sends
announcements to inform other RIP routers of the networks it can reach.
RIP also announces when it can no longer reach previously reachable networks. RIP version 1 uses
IP broadcast packets for its announcements. A later enhancement, RIP version 2, also allows IP
multicast packets for its announcements.
L-8) Explain the features of OSPF. (5/6)
OSPF has the following features:
• This protocol is open, which means that its specification is in the public domain. That means,
anyone can implement it without paying license fees.
• OSPF is based on the SPF algorithm (also called Dijkstra’s algorithm, named after the person
credited with its creation).
• Fast Convergence: OSPF can detect and propagate topology changes faster than RIP. Count-
to-infinity does not occur with OSPF.
• OSPF is a link-state routing protocol that calls for the sending of link-state advertisements
(LSAs) to all other routers within the same hierarchical area. Information on attached interfaces,
metrics used, and other variables are included in OSPF LSAs. As a linkstate routing protocol,
OSPF contrasts with RIP, which are distance-vector routing protocols. Routers running the
distancevector algorithm send all or a portion of their routing tables in routing-update messages
only to their neighbors.
• Support for Authentication: OSPF specifies that all the exchanges between routers must be
authenticated. It allows a number of authentication methods. Different areas can choose
different authentication methods. The idea behind authentication is that only authorized router
are allowed to advertise routing information.
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Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03
• OSPF include Type of Service routing. It can calculate separate routes for each Type of Service
(TOS), for example it can maintain separate routes to a single destination based on hop-count
and high throughput.
• OSPF provides load balancing. When several equal-cost routes to a destination exist, traffic is
distributed equally among them.
• OSPF uses different message formats to distinguish the information acquired from within the
network (internal sources) with that which is acquired from a router outside (external sources).
• Loop-Free routes: OSPF-calculated routes are always loop-free.
• Scalability: With OSPF, an AS can be subdivided into contiguous groups of networks called
areas. Routes within areas can be summarized to minimize route table entries. Areas can be
configured with a default route summarizing all routes outside the AS or outside the area.
L-9) Explain the various BGP message types. (4)
BGP Message Types
There are four possible message types used with BGP:
1) OPEN: It is the first message to open a BGP session, transmitted when a link to a BGP
neighbour comes up. It contains AS number (ASN) and IP address of the router who has sent
the message.
2) UPDATE: Message contains routing information, including path attributes. It contains Network
Layer Reachability Information (NLRI), listing IP addresses of new usable routes as well as
routes that are no longer active or viable and including both the lengths and attributes of the
corresponding paths.
3) NOTIFICATION: It is the final message transmitted on a link to a BGP neighbour before
disconnecting. It usually describes atypical conditions prior to terminating the TCP connection,
and provides a mechanism to gracefully close a connection between BGP peers.
4) KEEP – ALIVE: It is a periodic message between BGP peers to inform neighbour that the
connection is still viable by guaranteeing that the transmitter is still alive. It is an application
type of message that is independent of the TCP keep-alive option.
L-10) Explain the opening and confirming a BGP connection with a neighbour router. (6)
Opening and Confirming a BGP Connection with a Neighbour Router
After two BGP peers establish a TCP connection, each one sends an OPEN message to the other.
When the TCP connection is established, BGP peers immediately identify themselves to each other
by simultaneously sending open messages, and move into the OpenSent state. The open messages
let the peers agree on various protocol parameters, such as timers, and negotiate shared capabilities.
When each switch receives an open message, it checks all the fields. If it disagrees with the contents
of the open message, it sends a notification message, closes the connection and goes into the Idle
state. If it finds no errors, it moves into the OpenConfirm state and sends back a keep-alive message.
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When both switches have received a keep alive message they move into the Establishd state. The
BGP session is now open. BGP sessions typically stay in the Established state most of the time.
They only leave the Established state if an error occurs, or the hold time expires with no contact
from the far end.

If a router disagrees with the contents of the OPEN message, it sends a notification message, closes
the connection and moves into the Idle state.
If both nodes accept the OPEN message they send each other a Keep-alive message, move into the
Established state and start sending Update messages to each other.

L-11) Write the characteristics of TCP and UDP. (6)

Refer S-14 and S-15

L-12) Briefly explain TCP connection establishment- Three-way handshake. (5/6)

TCP Connection Establishment: Three-Way Handshake
Internet Protocol (IP) handles the delivery of messages (called packets) from one computer to
another over a network. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) abstracts the details of IP and makes
sure these packets are properly constructed on one end and also make sense on the other end. TCP
uses some metadata headers to describe what travels in each packet. SYN and ACK are types of
metadata that comes with the packets.
SYN (sequence number) is used to identify packets so they can be reassembled, because the network
is a strange place with traffic jams and sometimes packets may arrive out of order, if at all. ACK
means “Acknowledged” and is a way for one of the computes to say “OK, got that” to the other.
To understand the TCP connection process, let us look at this simple example

1. The Firefox browser sends a SYN, which is a new sequence ID

2. The server acknowledges with an ACK and also sends a SYN
3. The Firefox browser acknowledges with ACK and at this point the two have been properly
introduced and are ready to start talking
These handshake packets are small and regardless of the available bandwidth, they travel at the
same speed. A user may have a fast connection, but at this stage it will not be used.
Once a connection is established, then the actual transfer of a file (say, an image) can start. The file
is usually sent in several packets, depending on its size. The server sends one packet and waits for
acknowledgement ACK from the browser.
The application data is broken into what TCP considers the best sized chunks to send. This is totally
different from UDP, where each write by the application generates a UDP datagram of that size.
The unit of information passed by TCP to IP is called a segment.
SDM

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ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, What this basically means is that a connection is established between the two nodes before any data
is transferred. When the term connection is established is used; this means that both nodes know
about each other and have agreed on the exchange of data. The following diagram explains the
procedure of the 3- way handshake:

STEP–1: Node A sends the initial packet to Node B. This packet has the SYN bit enabled. Node B
receives the packet and sees the SYN bit which has a value of “1” (in binary, this means ON) so it
knows that Node A is trying to establish a connection with it.
STEP–2: Assuming Node B has enough resources, it sends a packet back to Node A and with the
SYN and ACK bits enabled. The SYN that Node B sends, at this step, means ‘I want to synchronise
with you’ and the ACK means ‘I acknowledge your previous SYN request’.
STEP–3: Node A sends another packet to Node B and with the ACK bit set (with binary 1); it
effectively tells Node B ‘Yes, I acknowledge your previous request’.

Once the 3-way handshake is complete, the connection is established (virtual circuit) and the data
transfer begins.

L-13) Write the differences between TCP and UDP. (5)

Comparison of TCP and UDP
Property TCP UDP
General TCP is connection-oriented protocol. UDP is connectionless protocol.
Description
When a file or message send it will get When we send a data or message, we
delivered unless connection fails. If don’t know if it will get there, it could
Reliability connection lost, the server will request get lost on the way. There may be
the lost part. There is no corruption corruption while transferring a
while transferring a message. message.
If we send two messages along a If we send two messages out, we
connection, one after the other, we know don’t know what order they will
Ordered the first message will get there first, we arrive in. i.e. nor ordered.
don’t have to worry about data arriving
in the wrong order.
When the low level parts of the TCP No ordering of messages, no tracking
stream arrive in the wrong order, resend connections, etc. Its just fire and
requests have to be sent, and all the out forget. This means its faster.
Overhead
of sequence parts have to be put back
together, so requires a bit of work to
piece together.
Data is read as a stream, with nothing Packets are sent individually and are
distinguishing where one packet ends guaranteed to be whole if they arrive.
Transmission
and another begins. There may be One packet per one read call.
multiple packets per read call.
Transmission Less than UDP High
Speed
Features for TCP provides these features with Sliding None
managing Windows, Error Control, and
data flow. Congestion Control Algorithms.
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ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, WWW (TCP port 80), E-Mail (SMTP DNS (UDP port 53), Streaming
TCP port 25), FTP (FTP port 21) and applications such as IPTV or movies,
Examples
Secure Shell (OpenSSH port 22) etc. Voice over IP(VoIP), Trivial File
Transfer Protocol (TFTP) etc.

L-14) Explain the components of session Initiation Protocol. (5)

SIP Components

Figure shows an overview of SIP. A call is initiated from a user agent: the user's IP telephone
system, which is similar to a conventional phone. A user agent assists in initiating or terminating a
phone call in VoIP networks. A user agent can be implemented in a standard telephone or in a laptop
with a microphone that runs some software. A user agent is identified using its associated domain.
For example, user1@domain1.com refers to user 1, who is associated with the domain1.com
network.
SIP consists of the following five servers:
1) DNS server. The Domain Name System (DNS) server maps the domain name to an IP address
in the user information database (UID). The UID database contains such user information as
preferences and the services to which it has subscribed. The UID also stores information on the
related IP addresses. Each user is normally configured with more than one DNS server.
2) Location server. This server is responsible for UID management. The location server interacts
with the database during call setup. Each proxy server is normally configured with more than
one location server.
3) Proxy server. The proxy server forwards requests from a user agent to a different location and
handles authorizations by checking whether the caller is authorized to make a particular call.
4) Redirect server. This server performs call forwarding and provides alternative paths for the user
agent.
5) Registrar server. This server is responsible for registering users in the system and updating the
UID that the location server consults. Requests for registration must be authenticated before the
registration is granted.

L-15) Explain different terminologies in OSPF (5)

Terminologies in OSPF
Neighbour
A neighbour is an adjacent router that is running a process with the adjacent interface assigned to
the same area.

Adjacency
It is a logical connection between a router and the Designated Router (DR) and Backup Designated
Router (BDR).

Link
A network or router interface assigned to any network. In algorithm, OSPF Link is the same as the
interface.

Interface
An interface is a physical interface on a router. If the link is up the interface is up.
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State
It is the functional level of an interface that determines whether or not full adjacencies are allowed
to form over the interface.

Link State (LS)

It is the description of router interface (= link). It contains the following data.
• A single IP interface address and interface mask (unless the network is an unnumbered point-
to-point network)
• Output cost(s): cost of sending data packet on the interface, expressed in the link state metric
(advertised as the interface link cost). The cost of an interface must be greater than zero.
• List of neighbouring routers: other routers attached through this link.

Link State Advertisement [LSA]

The LSA is an OSPF data packet containing link-state and routing information which is shared with
the other routers.

Link State PDU

• It is a unit of data describing the local state of router’s interfaces and adjacencies.
• Each LS PDU is flooded throughout the routing domain.
• The collected LS advertisements of all routers and networks forms the LSDB.

Link State Database (LSDB)

• Each router will have a logically separated LSDB for each area the router is connected to.
• Two routers interfacing the same area must have (for that area) identical LSDBs.
• LSDB is a collection of all LS PDUs originated from the area’s routers. Each router advertises
directly connected networks via LS PDU. Every router has its own view of the network – it
builds topologic database.

Shortest Path Computation

It is performed on the link state database in order to produce a router’s routing table. Each router
has an identical LSDB, leading to an identical representation of the network topology graph. Each
router generates its routing table from this graph by computing a tree of shortest paths with the local
router as root of this tree.

Shortest Path Tree (SPT)

Shortest Path Tree is derived from the collected LS PDUs using the Dijkstra algorithm. Shortest
path tree with local router as root, gives the shortest path to any IP destination network or host (only
the next hop to the destination is used in the forwarding process).

Routing table
Routing table is derived from the Shortest Path Tree. Each entry of this table is indexed by a
destination, and contains the destination’s cost and a set of paths (described by its type and next
hop) to use in forwarding packets to the destination.

Designated Router [DR]

The Designated Router (DR) is used only when the OSPF router is connected to a broadcast (Multi-
Access) domain. It is used to minimize the number of adjacencies formed. The DR is chosen to
push / receive routing information to / from the other routers.

Backup Designated Router [BDR]

The Backup Designated Router (BDR) is used as a hot standby for the DR. The BDR still receives
all of the routing updates but does not flood LSAs. OSPF Areas These are similar to EIGRP
Autonomous Systems (ASes). OSPF areas are used to establish a hierarchical network.
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An Area Border Router (ABR) is a router that has interfaces assigned to more than one area. An
interface can only be assigned to one area but a router may have multiple interfaces. If the interfaces
are assigned to different are as then the router is considered an ABR.

Autonomous System Boundary Router

An Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) is a router with interface(s) connected to an
external network or different AS. An example would be an interface connected to an EIGRP
Autonomous Network. The ASBR is responsible for taking the routes learned from the EIGRP
network and injecting them into the OSPF routing Protocol.

Non-Broadcast Multi-Access
NBMA are networks like Frame Relay, X.25 and ATM. While these networks allow for multiple-
access they do not have any broadcast capabilities like Ethernet. Special consideration is required
when configuring an NBMA network with OSPF.

Broadcast (multi-access)
Ethernet allows for broadcast and multi-access. It requires the election of a Designated Router and
a Backup Designated Router.

Point to Point
This configuration eliminates the need for DR and BDR.

Router ID
The Router ID is the highest IP address of all configured Loopback interfaces. It is then used to
represent the router. If there are no loopback interfaces configured the Router ID will use the highest
IP address of any of its configured interfaces.

L-16) Explain different routing algorithm metrics (5)

Repeated question. Refer L-6

L-17) Explain different terminologies in TCP/IP (5)

Client It is a computer or process that accesses the data, services, or resources of another
computer or process on the network.
Host A computer that is attached to an Internet network and can communicate with
other Internet hosts. The local host for a particular user is the computer at which
that user is working. A foreign host is any other host name on the network. From
the point of view of the communications network, hosts are both the source and
destination of packets. Any host can be a client, a server, or both.
Network The combination of two or more hosts and the connecting links between them. A
physical network is the hardware that makes up the network. A logical network
is the abstract organization overlaid on all or part of one or more physical
networks. The Internet network is an example of a logical network. The interface
program handles translation of logical network operations into physical network
operations.
Packet Packet is the block of control information and data for one transaction between a
host and its network. Packets are the exchange medium used by processes to send
and receive data through Internet networks. A packet is sent from a source to a
destination.
Port It is a logical connecting point for a process. Data is transmitted between
processes through ports (or sockets). Each port provides queues for sending and
receiving data. In an interface program network, each port has an Internet port
number based on how it is being used. A particular port is identified with an
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ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM COLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, Internet socket address, which is the combination of an Internet host address and
a port number.
Process A process is a program that is running. A process is the active element in a
computer. Terminals, files, and other I/O devices communicate with each other
through processes. Thus, network communications is inter-process
communications (that is, communication between processes).
Protocol A protocol is a set of rules for governing communications at the physical or
logical level. Protocols often use other protocols to provide services. For
example, a connectionlevel protocol uses a transport-level protocol to transport
packets that maintain a connection between two hosts.
Server Server is a computer or process that provides data, services, or resources that can
be accessed by other computers or processes on the network

L-18) Briefly explain IEEE 802.11 wireless standard (5)

IEEE 802.11 Wireless Standard
Each wireless LAN user in Figure 6.2 (b) has a wireless LAN adapter for communication over the
wireless medium. This adapter is responsible for authentication, confidentiality, and data delivery.
To send data to a user in the wired LAN, a user in the wireless LAN first sends the data packet to
the access point. The access point recognizes the wireless user through a unique ID called the
service-set identification (SSID). SSID is like a password-protection system that enables any
wireless client to join the wireless LAN. Once the wireless user is authenticated, the access point
forwards data packets to the desired wired user through the switch or hub.
Access points build a table of association that contains the MAC addresses of all users in the
wireless network. The access point uses this information for forwarding data packets in the wireless
network. Figure (a) shows a setup whereby the LANs in two buildings are interconnected by
wireless bridges. A wireless bridge is basically the same as a regular bridge but is equipped with a
wireless transceiver. The most common medium for wireless networks is radio waves at a frequency
of 2.4 GHz band. Wireless bridges are also used to interconnect LANs in different buildings. The
access range of wireless LANs can be extended by deploying a greater number of access points.

Figure (a): Connecting two LANs through wireless bridges

Figure (b) shows multiple access points being used to extend the connectivity range of the wireless
network. The area of coverage of each access point can be overlapped to adjacent ones to provide
seamless user mobility without interruption. Radio signal levels in a wireless LAN must be
maintained at an optimum value. Normally, a site survey must be conducted for these requirements.
Site surveys can include both indoor and outdoor sites. The surveys are normally needed for power
requirements, placement of access points, RF coverage range, and available bandwidth.
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Figure (b): Use of multiple access points to extend the range of wireless access

L-19) Briefly explain major challenges with Mobile IP (5)

The major challenges with mobile IP are
• Mobility. A quality connection is desired for a user while it is mobile with different speeds.
• Registration. A mobile user's address must be identified and registered in different areas.
• Interoperability. A mobile user must interact with other stationary and mobile users.
• Connection reliability. TCP connections must survive in mobility cases.
• Security. A connection must be secured, especially since a wireless connection is less immune
to intrusions

L-20) Briefly explain Mobile IP registration steps (5)

Mobile IP Registration Steps
1) Use UDP (a transport layer protocol) and register with an agent on the new network
2) On the home network, register with an agent to request call forwarding
3) If any registration is about to expire, renew it
4) When returning to the home network, cancel the registration with the new network.

A registration phase involves an exchange of two messages between the mobile host and its home
agent: registration request and registration response. Once a mobile host enters a foreign network,
it listens for agent advertisements and then obtains a foreign address from the foreign network it
has moved to. The host's home-network agent then adds the foreign network address agent to its
home-location database. This is done after the agent authenticates the host through the host's home-
network agent. The host's home-network agent now forwards all calls to the host in the foreign
network. On the Internet, the location management and routing are done through mobile IP.

A mobile host can also register using a collocated foreign address. A collocated foreign address is
a local IP address temporarily assigned to a mobile host without using a foreign agent. In a
collocated foreign addressing, a mobile host receives an assigned temporary foreign address through
its own home network. In the meanwhile, as soon as the mobile host leaves the foreign network, it
also requires to deregister.

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