CCN Unit 1

Computer and communication Networks
Unit-1
Computer Network:
Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that
can exchange data and share resources with each other.
Elements of Computer Networks
1. Network Hardware: It refers to physical devices such as laptops,

hubs, repeaters, switches, file servers, web servers, printers, VoIP phones,
etc.
2. Network Software: It refers to the software or set of instructions that
used to define rules, connect, control and coordinate all the activities of
hardware within a network in computer code.
3. Protocols: It refers to the set of rules that govern the connection
among system and secure transmission of data within a network.
The protocol defines the rules, syntax, semantics and synchronization of
communication and possible error recovery methods.
4. Connection Medium: The two types of connection medium include
1. Wired or guided connection: In this method communication is
carried out via physical cables.
2. Wireless or Unguided connection: In this method communication is

carried out via, wireless signals, eg., Bluetooth, WiFi, etc.
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Communication begins when a message is to be sent from one

device to another.
The 3 main elements that are involved in communication are

1. Message source: It refers to the sender/electronic device that wishes
to send a message to other user or devices.
2. Destination: It refers to the destination of the message. It receives the
message and interprets it.
3. Channel: It refers to the medium that provides a pathway to send
data from source to destination.
What is an Internet?
Interconnection of two or more networks together is called an internet.
It's a network of networks.
The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other
electronic devices. With the Internet, it's possible to access almost any
information, communicate with anyone else in the world, and do much
more.
Fundamentals of Digital signals.

Data and signals are 2 basic elements of any computer network.
Data is defined as information that's stored in or used by a
computer. They convey a meaning to computer. It includes text,
graphics, audio, video and animation.
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Data is information that has been translated into a form that is efficient
for movement or processing.
Signal: A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is used

for carrying data from one device or network to another.
4 possible combinations of Data transmission:
1. Transmitting Digital data using Digital signal
2. Transmitting Analog data using Digital signal
3. Transmitting Digital data using Analog signal
4. Transmitting Analog data using Analog signal
Analog data:
Analog data is a type of data that can represented physically. It takes
continues values
Example for analog data are video and voice. Systems such as
microphones, sensors, headphones collect analog data. This is the data
that’s collected in the real world.
Digital data:
Digital data is the electronic representation of information in a format of

language that machines can read and understand. It’s data stored in
binary format. It’s used to store information within the internet.
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Analog and Digital Signal:
Fig. Analog Signal and Digital Signal
Analog refers to physical quantities.

 The data is encoded in continuous values.
 Example: Speed, voltage, temperature, etc.
 To say a signal is Analog means the signal is continuous in time
and amplitude.
 Mercury Thermometer is analogue because the signal is
continuous and it’s constantly changing. The value if observed
after a few seconds would be completely different than what it was
before.
 System of transmitting Analog signal is broadband signal.
Digital Signals:
 Digital signal consists of patterns of bits of information.
 Digital signal is used to represent discrete values.
 Computers store and process data in this pattern.
 The data is encoded in discrete values represented in 0s and 1s.
 A system of transmitting digital signals is ball baseband system.
 They are called binary signal or logical signal.
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Converting data into signal:

The choice of using Analog or digital device often depends on the
transmission equipment that is used and the environment in which the
signals must travel.
Data codes:
 The set of all textual characters or symbols and their corresponding
binary patterns is called a data code.
 Computer are represented in form of 0s and 1s.
 It’s important to have a universal standard to represent the textual
and numerical and other symbols in binary format.
 There are various defined standards to data codes.
Important data codes:
EBCDIC, ASCII and UNICODE
eg.,
ASCII
Character - A
Binary value - 0100 0001
Decimal equivalent – 65
Frequency:
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Frequency describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a

given amount of time.
If a wave takes ½ second to pass the frequency of wave is 2 per second.
Usually, Frequency is measured in Hertz unit (Hz).
It represents number of waves that pass per second.
Bit Rate:
The number of bits per second that can be transmitted along a digital
network. It’s the rate at which bits is transmitted in the network.
The speed of the data is expressed in
bits per second.
The data R is a function of the
duration of the bit or bit time
R=1/Bit time.
Baud Rate:
The baud rate of a data communications system is the number of
symbols per second transferred.
Its rate at which information is transferred in a communication channel.

Baud rate is commonly used when discussing electronics that use serial
communication.
This can be used to translate baud into a bit rate using the following
formula:
Baud rate refers to the number of signal or symbol changes that occur
per second.
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Attenuation:
Attenuation is the reduction or loss in the strength of the signal.
It may occur in any type of signal. It may be Analog or digital.
It occurs when transmitting data over large distances.
Signal to noise ratio:

It is used to measure the level of the audio signal compared to level of
noise present in the signal. It’s used to measure the background noise
found in components such as tape disk, phonographs, etc.
Network Topologies:
Protocol: The devices in the network use a system of rules and
procedures called communication protocols to transmit information over
physical or wireless technologies.
Network Topology is how computers can connect and relate to one
another in a computer network.
A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes
and connections in a network.
 Physical topology: How computers are connected to one another

physically.
 Logical topology: How data flows from one computer to another
within a computer network. Many nodes may be present in
between to establish a connection.
The different types of Networking Topologies include

1. Bus Topology.
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 Bus topology or Line Topology is a network topology in which all

of the various devices in the network are connected to a single
cable.
 Generally co-axial cables are used in bus topology.
 Only one node can transmit data(packet) at a time.
 Systems will listen to all traffic and receive only data that is
addressed to them.
 Broadcast packets are accepted by all the systems.
 If a device transmits data, it’ll travel in both directions from
computer and signal network remains occupied until destination
computer accepts packet.
 If a device fails it won’t affect the working of network. If the central
cable fails then either the network is split into two or network fails.
 Device called terminators are attached to both ends of the cable to
absorb the signal and clear the cable for communication.
Example of Bus topology is ethernet LAN.
Advantages of bus topology
 It’s very easy to install
 Low cost compared to other topologies.
 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or
peripherals in a linear fashion.
 It requires less cable length than a other topologies.
Disadvantages of bus topology

 It’s a passive technology
 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network
goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 Less fault tolerance
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2. Star Topology
It’s a centralised networking topology in which all the nodes within a

network are connected to a central network device known as hub, switch
or a computer.
It’s a client-server architecture where a central device acts as server and
nodes as clients.
Star networks are set up using co-axial cables or RJ-45 network cable.
Point-to-point communication means there is a dedicated link or cable
between 2 devices other devices cannot use it.
Broadcast (HUB) vs Unicast (Switch)- Target device only.
Hub is a multiport repeater. Target accepts others reject it.
Hub more data traffic.
Switch will have a table with MAC addresses of devices connected to its
ports.
Switch allows simultaneous communication. Hub only 1 d at a time.
Only 1 IP OP port is needed to connect to all devices.
Advantages of star topology
 Centralized management of the network through the use of the
central computer, hub, or switch.
 Easy to add another computer to the network.
 If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network
continues to function normally.
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 Easy to reconfigure: number of computers is limited by the number

of computers in the input output port. In the central device.
 High speed LAN.
 Good fault tolerance.
 Less expensive.
Disadvantages of star topology
 It may have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a

switch or router as the central network device.
 The central network device determines the performance and number
of nodes the network can handle.
 If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes
down, and all computers are disconnected from the network.
3. Ring Topology.
It’s a network configuration where all the devices are connected on a

point-to-point basis in a circular manner.
Each device is connected to two other devices.
In ring topology data packets travel from one device to another until
they reach their destination. The movement is mostly unidirectional and
it can be in some cases/ bi-directional.
Each computer connects 2 adjacent computers. Moves in a circular
fashion.
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Advantages of a ring topology

 Easy installation Less cabling.
 Easy to trouble shoot.
 All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet
collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity
between each workstation.
 Data can transfer between nodes or workstations at high speeds.
 Additional workstations can be added without impacting
performance of the network.
Disadvantages of a ring topology
 Slower transmission
 One fault paralyses network
 Difficult to reconfigure
 Physical ring topology is rarely used. Logical ring topology is used.
4. Mesh Topology.
 A mesh topology is a network setup where each computer and

network device is interconnected with one another.
 It is a topology commonly used for wireless networks.
 Two nodes are connected by dedicated point-to-point links
between them. So the total number of links to connect n nodes
would be n(n-1)/2 (Formula to calculate number of wires
required).
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 Simplex- n(n-1) Duplex n(n-1)/2

Advantages of a mesh topology
 No traffic problems
 Privacy and security
 Good fault tolerance.
 Manages high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can
transmit data simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or
transmission of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission
between existing devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
 Installation is difficult
 Expensive: The cost to implement is higher than other network
topologies, making it a less desirable option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time
consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the
high costs and potential for reduced efficiency.
 More cable – large space.
 Regional telephone offices.
 6.Hybrid Topology
 Cost Ease of Installation Ease of Maintenance Cable fault tolerance.
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 A hybrid topology is a kind of network topology that is a

combination of two or more network topologies, such as mesh
topology, bus topology, and ring topology.
 Its usage and choice are dependent on its deployments and
requirements like the performance of the desired network, and the
number of computers, their location.
 They are reliable, Effective, easily scalable and flexible.
 Demerits include setting up and maintenance will add up to
complexity and they are expensive.
5. Tree Topology
 This is a network type which is hierarchical in nature.

 It’s an extension of bus topology
 In which nodes are connected in hierarchical manner like branches
of a tree.
 It can be used to define parent child relationship among nodes.
 In a tree topology, there can be only one connection between
any two connected nodes.
 Because any two nodes can have only one mutual connection, tree
topologies create a natural parent and child hierarchy.
7. Unconstrained Topology
It refers to the topology in which the connection between the nodes is
established arbitrarily or in simple words in random manner by
establishing point to point links
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They do not follow any well-defined interconnected patterns or

constraints.
They allow a lot of configuration flexibility but complicates routing.
Network Operating Systems:

Network operating system or NOS, is a software that allows multiple
computers to communicate, share files, hardware devices with one
another.
eg., Windows NT/ 2000, Unix, Linux, etc.
Note: A typical configuration for a network operating system is a
collection of personal computers along with a common printer, server
and file server for archival storage, all tied together by a local network.
Types of NOS
Peer-to-Peer(P2P) Networks:
 Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share
resources and files located on their computers and to access
shared resources found on other computers.
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 In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal;

they all have the same privileges to use the resources available on
the network.
 Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to medium
local area networks.
 Peers will only have access to the data that they share with each
other.
 Bitcoin for example is a decentralised peer-to-peer ledger
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer(P2P) Operating System are as follows:
• Less requirement of hardware is there.

• No server needs to be established.
• Its setup process is natural.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer(P2P) Operating System are as

follows:
• It has no central location for storage, i.e. different systems have
different storage capacity.
• It is less secure compared to the client-server model.
Client/Server networks.
Client-server networks are computer networks that use a dedicated
computer (server) to store data, manage/provide resources and control
user access.
The server acts as a central point on the network upon which the other
computers connect to.
A computer that connects to the server is called a client.
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A server is simply a computer that provides the network resources and

provides service to other computers when they request it.
A client is the computer running a program that requests the service

from a server.
Local area network (LAN) is based on client server network relationship.
A client-server network is one on which all available network resources
such as files, directories, applications and shared devices, are centrally
managed and hosted and then are accessed by the client.
Advantages
 It is very secure.
 Gives better performance.
 It has centralized backup.
 It is very reliable.
Disadvantages
 It requires professional administration.
 It is more hardware and software intensive.
 It requires expensive dedicated software.
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Transmission Medium
In data communication, a transmission medium is a physical path
between the transmitter (sender) and the receiver
It is the channel through which data is sent from one device to another.
Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
1. Two wire open lines
2. Twisted-pair cable
3. Co-axial cable
4. Fiber-optic cables
Two wire open lines:
1. This line consists of two wires made of copper or aluminium of 0.4mm

to 1mm thick in diameter
2. The wires are generally spaced from 2 to 6 inches apart by insulating
spacers.
3. This type of line is most often used for power lines, rural telephone
lines, and telegraph lines.
4. It’s used for short-range communication that is about 50 meters
5. Data transfer rate is 19200 bits per second.
6. This is the simplest of all transmission medium.
Twisted-pair cable
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1. A twisted-pair cable is a cable made by intertwining two separate

insulated wires without using spacers.
2. It’s not used to transmit high frequency data as data (high-
dialectical) losses might occur within rubber insulation.
3. They can be used for communication up a distance of 1 kilometre.
4. It has a data transfer rate of 1-2 Mbps.
5. Used in Telephone network.
There are two twisted pair types: shielded and unshielded.
1. A STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) cable has a fine wire mesh

surrounding the wires to protect the transmission
2. A UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable does not contain a fine
wire mesh to protect transmission.
3. Shielded cable is used in older telephone networks and data
communications to reduce outside interference. The illustration
gives an example of how the inside of these looks
Co-axial Cable:
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1. Coaxial cable is a type of copper cable specially built with a metal

shield and other components engineered to block signal
interference.
2. It’s used by cable TV operators between antenna and user homes.
3. It’s called coaxial cable because it includes one physical channel
that carries the signal surrounded after a layer of insulation by
another concentric physical channel, and both running along the
same axis.
The outer channel serves as a ground.
4. Larger the cable diameter lower is the transmission loss.
5. A co-axial cable can be used over a distance of about 1KM.
6. It can achieve the speed of up to 100Mbps.
Fiber optic cables.
 A fiber optic cable is a network cable that contains strands of glass

fibers inside an insulated casing.
 They're designed for long-distance, high-performance data
networking, and telecommunications. Compared to wired cables,
fiber optic cables provide higher bandwidth and transmit data over
longer distances.
 Fiber optic cables support much of the world's internet, cable
television, and telephone systems.
 Fiber-optic cable is made up of a core-glass fiber surrounded by
cladding. An insulated covering then surrounds both of these
within a outer protective sheath.
 Since light waves give a much high bandwidth than electrical
signals, this leads to high data transfer rate of about 1000 mbps.
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Radio, Microwaves and satellite channels.

1. Radio, Microwaves and satellite channels. Are used to
electromagnetic propagation in open space.
2. These are non-guided transmission medium.
3. They are less expensive compared to wired transmission medium
and has the ability to cover longer range.
4. Frequencies below 100MHz (Mega Hertz) are radio frequencies
and higher are microwave frequencies.
5. Radio frequencies are prone to attenuation and might require
repeaters along the path to enhance the signal.
6. Radio frequencies can achieve a data transfer rate of 100Kbps to
400 Kbps (Kilo bits per second)
7. Microwave links use line-of-sight transmission with repeaters
placed every 100-200 kms.
8. Microwaves can achieve data transfer rate of about 1000
Mbps(Mega bits per second)
9. Satellite links use microwave frequencies in the order of 4-12 GHz
with the satellite as a repeaters.
10. Satellites achieve data transfer rate of 1000 Mbps.
Types of Networks
Different types of Networks include:
1. Local Area Network(LAN):
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 A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral

devices which are connected in a limited area such as school,
laboratory, home, and office building.
 A local area network is a simplest and basic type of network.
 It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers,
games, and other application.
 The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a
printer in someone’s home or office.
 It is a network which consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices
across several buildings.
 LAN do not contain routers and LAN’s have higher communication
and data transfer rates.
 A LAN is administered by a single organization.
2. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
 A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer

network across an entire city, college campus, or a small region.
 This type of network is large than a LAN extending to a maximum 50
km range
 Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network
allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of miles.
 It usually is an interconnection of multiple LANs. It uses a high-
capacity backbone technology (fibre optical links) to achieve the
same.
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3. Wide Area Network (WAN):
 It’s a network which is spread over a large geographical area.

 It provides really long distance transmission of data, voice, image and
video information over wide areas such as multiple countries.
 It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.
 WANs may utilize public, leased or private communication devices.
 Internet is the best example for WAN.
 Maintaining WAN becomes difficult due to its wide spread and high
maintenance costs.
 They’ve lower data transfer rates compared to LAN’s and MANs
Personal Area Network(PAN):
 A PAN or Personal Area Network is a network which is formed around

an individual person.
 It’s comprised of a computer, mobile phone, etc which can be
interconnected to share data among them.
 PAN can be used for establishing communication among these
personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the internet.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 PAN can be connected via cables, eg USB, etc.
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Note:
Difference Between LAN, MAN, and WAN
Parameter LAN MAN WAN
Full Form LAN is an acronym for MAN is an acronym WAN is an acronym for
Local Area Network. for Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network.
Network.
Definition and LAN is a network that MAN is a The WAN network spans
Meaning usually connects a small comparatively wider to an even larger locality.
group of computers in a network that covers It has the capacity to
given geographical area. large regions- like connect various countries
towns, cities, etc. together. For example,
the Internet is a WAN.
Network The LAN is private. The MAN can be both The WAN can also be
Ownership Hospitals, homes, private or public. both private or public.
schools, offices, etc., may Many organizations
own it. and telecom operators
may own them.
Maintenance Very easy to design and Comparatively difficult Very difficult to design
and Designing maintain. to design and and maintain.
maintain.
Speed LAN offers a very high MAN offers a WAN offers a low
Internet speed. moderate Internet Internet speed.
speed.
Delay in It faces a very short It faces a moderate It faces a high

Propagation propagation delay. propagation delay. propagation delay.
Faulty Tolerance The LAN exhibits a better The MAN exhibits a The WAN also exhibits a
fault tolerance than the lesser fault tolerance. lesser fault tolerance.
rest of the networks.
Congestion The congestion in the It exhibits a higher It exhibits a higher

network is very low. network congestion. congestion in the
network.
Communication LAN typically allows a MAN allows multiple A huge group of

Allotment single pair of devices to computers to interact computers can easily
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establish a simultaneously with interact with each other

communication. But it each other. using the WAN.
may also support more
computers.
Uses Schools, homes, colleges, It basically covers a It covers an entire

hospitals, offices, etc., city, a small town, or country, a subcontinent,
can privately use it. any given area with a or an equivalent area.
bigger radius than the
LAN.
Wireless Networks
It refers to the networks that use wireless network connection such as
WiFi, Bluetooth, infrared, etc.
In wireless networks we have the following types:
 Wireless LANs − Connects two or more network devices using
wireless distribution techniques.
 Wireless MANs − Connects two or more wireless LANs spreading
over a metropolitan area.
 Wireless WANs − Connects large areas comprising LANs, MANs
and personal networks.
 Wireless PANs – Connects Personal devices of a person to
integrate and facilitating information sharing between them.
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Connection-oriented and connection less services:

Connection-oriented service:
1. It’s a type of communication service in which devices or nodes
establish a connection for transferring data between them.
2. There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of
connection-oriented service. They are:
 Handshaking: Initially connection is to be established before
transferring the data. During handshake two nodes decide
parameters of data transfer.
 Data Transfer: The actual data will be sent in order. The
connection-oriented protocols will deliver the data in order and
ensures the successful transmission of data.
 Connection Termination: In the end the connection established
between the nodes will be terminated after the completion of the
data transfer.
3. Data will be resent in connection- oriented service if there is an
error at the receiver’s end.
4. It ensures secure transmission of data from sender to the receiver.
5. Example of connection oriented is TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) protocol.
Connectionless service:
 In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from
source to destination without establishing a session connection.
 It does not check if destination exists or not or if it prepared to
accept the message and doesn’t receive acknowledgement.
 The sender simply starts sending packets called datagrams to the
destination.
 This method is not reliable and not suitable to securely transfer
data.
 Authentication is not needed in connectionless service.
 It is used in video conferencing.
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 Example of Connectionless service is UDP (User Datagram

Protocol) protocol.
Segmentation and Multiplexing

 Large size data can be communicated within a network at once.
 It can be sent as one massive continuous stream of bits. The
problem with this is there will be delay in communication for other
devices.
 If the data gets corrupted or transfer fails, entire data has to be
transferred again.
 Data Segmentation is the approach to divide the data into smaller,
more manageable pieces to send over the network.
 This division of data stream into smaller pieces is called
segmentation.
 Advantages of Segmentation:
 Many different conversations can be happen at a time on the
network.
 Segmentation can increase the reliability of network
communications.
 The separate pieces of each message need not travel the same
pathway across the network from source to destination.
 If a particular path becomes congested with data traffic or fails, the
data can still be directed towards destination using alternate
pathways.
 If a message fails to make it to the destination, only the missing
parts needs to be retransmitted.
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Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal,
over a shared medium. If Analog signals are multiplexed, it is Analog
Multiplexing and if digital signals are multiplexed, that process is Digital
Multiplexing.
Multiplexing is a technique by which different streams of transmission
can be simultaneously processed over a shared link.
Multiplexing divides the high capacity medium into low-capacity logical
medium which is then shared by different streams.
Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a
physical media (cable), and light (optical fiber). All mediums are capable
of multiplexing.
When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called
Multiplexer divides the physical channel and allocates one to each.
On the other end of communication, a De-multiplexer receives data from
a single medium, identifies each, and sends to different receivers.
Queueing Delay
The delay that occurs when frames or cells wait in a device before being
forwarded, and often a major component of latency.
After a data packet is received by the destination, the packet will not be
processed by the destination immediately. It has to wait in a queue in
something called a buffer. So, the amount of time it waits in queue
before being processed is called queueing delay.
In general, we can’t calculate queueing delay because we don’t have any

formula for that.
This delay depends upon the following factors:
 If the size of the queue is large, the queuing delay will be huge. If the
queue is empty there will be less or no delay.
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 If more packets are arriving in a short or no time interval, queuing

delay will be large.
 The less the number of servers or links, the greater is the queuing
delay.
Throughput vs Bandwidth
Bandwidth and throughput both indicate network performance. The
terms are often used together, but bandwidth refers to capacity, while
throughput details how much data actually transmits. Bandwidth and
throughput are two terms related to network performance.
Bandwidth- Max Capacity

Throughput- Amount being sent.
Bandwidth:
 Bandwidth can be defined as the amount of information that can flow
through a network at a given period of time.
 It gives the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted.
 Insufficient bandwidth can lead to network congestion, which slows
connectivity.
 When we say a networks speed is 100Mbps it’s the maximum amount
of data that can be transmitted per second.
 We measure bandwidth in bit rate, i.e., bits per second and its units
like mega-bits, giga-bits, etc.
Throughput:
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 Throughput is the actual amount of data actual amount of data that

could be transferred through the network.
 Throughput refers to the actual amount of data transmitted and
processed throughout the network.
 Throughput is also measured in bit rate.
 Throughput shows the data transfer rate and reflects how the network
is actually performing.
 Unless the network operates at max performance, the throughput is
lower than the bandwidth.
Network Switching:
Note:
 The purpose of communication is to exchange information
between two or more devices.
 The simplest form of communication can be achieved by
establishing direct connection between two systems.
 This is very impractical and inefficient to establish path solely for
each pair of devices
 We could practically establish dynamic connection among different
nodes at various times.
 In a communication network each communicating device or node
is connected to a centralized network node.
 The interconnected nodes are capable of transmitting data
between stations.
The two basic communication networks based on architecture and

techniques are
1. Broadcast network.
2. Switched network.
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1. Broadcast network:
 In network broadcasting is a group communication method in
which a single node/device transmits the data or information to all
the other nodes.
 All the other nodes/stations will receive the data.
 This is 1 to many or 1 to all communication method.
 Example: Radio system.
 The two conventional topologies that are used for broadcasting
are star topology and bus topology.
Example for Broadcast network.
2. Switched Networks:
When there is a large network, and a new device is added to it’s
impractical to add point-to-point connection to all the devices that are
present within the network.
Communication of data can be facilitated by interlinking devices.
Some types of inter-connectivity include
1. Point-to-point connection like in mesh topology.
2. Centralized connection as in star topology.
3. Bus topology is impractical when stretched to longer distances.
 The solution to interconnectivity is switching.

 A switched network contains a series of inter-linked nodes known as
switches.
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 A switch is a device that creates temporary connection between two

or more devices.
 Some of the switches are connected for end systems and others are
meant for routing.
 In switched networks the transmitted data is transferred from source
to destination through a series of intermediate nodes known as
switching nodes. They’re only concerned with how to move the data
from one node to another until data reaches destination.
Switched Networks can be categorized into:
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Circuit Switched Networks:
 Circuit switching is a connection-oriented network switching

technique in which a dedicated route is established between the
source and the destination and the entire message is transferred
through it.
Phases of Circuit Switched connection:

1. Circuit Establishment: In this phase, a dedicated circuit is
established from the source to the destination through a number
of intermediate switching centres.
The sender and receiver transmits communication signals to
request and acknowledge establishment of circuits.
2. Data Transfer:
Once the circuit has been established, data and voice are
transferred from the source to the destination.
The dedicated connection remains as long as the end parties
communicate.
3. Circuit Disconnection: When data transfer is complete, the
connection is relinquished. The disconnection is initiated by any
one of the user. Disconnection involves removal of all intermediate
links from the sender to the receiver.
 Circuit switching is used for connections that are continuous in

nature.
 Example: Long range telephone system.
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 All the nodes that are dedicated to establish the connection should
solely be available for transmission of data among them not for any
other purpose.
 Switching nodes must intelligent to establish efficient routing

channels within the network.
Message Switched networks:
 Message switching is a connectionless network switching

technique where the entire message is routed from the source
node to the destination node, one hop at a time. It was a precursor
of packet switching.
 During message routing, every intermediate switch in the network
stores the whole message.
 It’s an efficient substitute for circuit switching networks.
 In message switching, the source and destination nodes are not
directly connected. Instead, the intermediary nodes (mainly
switches) are responsible for transferring the message from one
node to the next.
 Thus, every intermediary node inside the network needs to store
every message prior to retransferring the messages one-by-one as
adequate resources become available.
 If the resources are not available, the messages are stored
indefinitely. This characteristic is known as store and forward.
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 Every message should include a header, which typically consists of

routing information, such as the source and destination, expiry
time, priority level, etc.
 Because message switching implements the store-and-forward
technique, it efficiently uses the network. Also, there is no size limit
for the messages.
Packet switched Networks;
 A packet switched network (PSN) is a type of computer

communications network that groups and sends data in the form of
small packets.
 A packet switched network is one of the most commonly used
computer networks. It is widely implemented on local networks and
the Internet.
Three Properties that define a packet switched paradigm is
1. Arbitrary(random), asynchronous communication.
2. No set-up required before communication begins
3. Performance varies due to statistical multiplexing among packets.
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 It enables the sending of data or network packets between a source

and destination node over a network channel that is shared between
multiple users and/or applications.
 A packet switched is also known as a connectionless network, as it
does not create a permanent connection between a source and
destination node.
 It’s an alternative to circuit switching network and it’s the basis of
Internet.
 For data to be transmitted over a network, it is first distributed into
small packets, which depend on the data's protocol and overall size.
 Each packet contains various details, such as a source IP address,
destination IP address and unique data and packet identifiers.
 The segregation of data into small packets enables efficient data
transportation and better utilization of the network resources
 More than one user, application and/or node may take turns sending
and receiving data without permanently retaining the underlying
medium, as in a circuit switched network.
Reference Notes:
Round Trip time: RTT is the length time it takes for a data packet to be
sent to a destination plus the time it takes for an acknowledgment of
that packet to be received back at the origin or sender.
Latency: In computer networking, latency is an expression of how much
time it takes for a data packet to travel from one designated point to
another.
Latency=Propagation delay + Serialization delay + Queueing delay +
Processing delay.
Transmission delay is the time from when the first bit of a file reaches a
link to when the last bit reaches the link. The transmission delay is
calculated as the size of the file divided by the data rate of the link.
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Propagation delay is the amount of time a bit on the link needs to

travel from the source to the destination, where the speed is dependent
on the medium of communication.
Queueing delay happens packet arrives at its destination and the
destination is busy and will not handle the packet and packet has to wait
it in the buffer to the switch.
Reasons
The number of packets arriving in a short time interval.
The transmission capacity.
The size of the queue.
Processing delay is the time taken by a processor to process the data

packet. This delay depends on the speed of the processor.
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OSI and TCP/IP models
Protocol:
A protocol is a standardized set of rules and regulations for formatting,

processing and communicating data by devices within and among the
networks.
Protocol stack:
A protocol stack refers to a group of protocols that are running
concurrently that are employed for the implementation of network
protocol suite.
It’s a complete set of network protocol layers that work together to
provide networking capabilities. It is called a stack because it is typically
designed as a hierarchy of layers, each supporting the one above it and
using those below it.
The protocols in a stack determine the interconnectivity rules for a
layered network model such as in the OSI or TCP/IP models.
The number of layers can vary between models.
For example, TCP/IP has 5 layers. OSI has 7 layers.
In order for 2 devices to communicate they need to have the same
protocol stack.
It allows computers running different OS to communicate easily.
OSI (Open System Interconnect) reference model:

(Conceptualized-1976 First implemented-1986)
It’s a standard to understand when network communication happens
how we can have a framework to divide it into various layers which will
help us understand and design networks and also troubleshoot
networks.
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(Working of different layers.)
(Brief info)
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(Complete structure)
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(To understand the operations involved)
(To understand the devices involved)
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(description)
The Layers in the OSI reference model are
1. Physical Layer
2. Data link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer.
To remember the order(All People Should Try New Dominos Pizza)
(APSTNDP) bottom-to-top layers.
This order works from bottom-to-top when sending the message and
it works top-to-bottom while receiving the message.
Application, Presentation and Session are software layers and they
reside in software application level.
Transport layer is an interface between software and hardware layers. So
it’s heart of OSI.
Rest are hardware layers.
7 Application Layer:
Application layer protocols are rules and services used by end
networking applications such as browsers to get the task done to the
user.
Application layer is used by the network applications. It means computer
applications that use the internet.
Chrome, Firefox, Outlook, skype, etc.
These apps are dependent on ALP (Application layer protocols) for their
functioning.
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For example, Protocols include HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, NFS, FMTP, DHCP,
SNMP, TELNET, POP3, IMAP, IRC, NNTP.
All these protocols collectively form the Application Layer.

These protocols form the basis for various networking services such as
File transfer, web surfing, emails, virtual terminals etc.
E.g., Protocols.
File Transfer- FTP
Web surfing – HTTP or HTTPs

Emails – SMTP
Virtual Terminal – Telnet
Application layer provides services to network applications with help of
protocols to perform user activities.
Note: Application layer doesn’t mean applications like Chrome, firefox,

etc.
Browsers doesn’t reside in the application layer but it uses the
application layer protocols such as HTTP or HTTPs to do web surfing.
HTTP and HTTPs belongs to Application layer.
6. Presentation Layer:
It performs the following operations:
1. Translation:
The data received will be mostly in the form of textual data.
Presentation layer will convert this alpha numeric data into its equivalent
binary representation. i.e, ASCII, EBCDIC,UNICODE, etc.
Compression and Decompression

 And data compression function and reduces the number of bits that
are used to represent the original data.
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 This bit reduction process is lossy or loss less.

 Amount of space used to store the original file will be reduced.
 5MB file -> 2 MB file.
 As size is reduced data can be transferred faster and it reduces the
transmission time reduced.
 Data compression is helpful in real time video and audio streaming.
Encryption and decryption:

 To maintain the integrity of the data before transmission the data will
be encrypted.
 Encryption enhances the security of the sensitive data.
 At senders side it’s encrypted and at receivers side it’s decrypted.
 SSL Secure Socket layer protocol is used for encryption and
decryption of data.
 Convert data into to and file formats like Mp3, jpg, etc.
Presentation Layer Protocol:
 Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
 Apple Filing Protocol (AFP)
5. Session Layer:
Following are the operations performed by the Session layer.
Setting up and managing the connections
Enabling sending and receiving the data followed by termination or
connection or sessions.
Session layer has APIs application program interfaces.

Authentication
Just before a session or connection is established with the server. Server
performs a function called authentication.
Authentication is process of verifying the user.
User credentials such as User names, passwords, etc will be checked to

verify user authentication.
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Once authenticated the session/connection will be established between

client and server.
Authorization : It’s a check that is performed to see if a user has

appropriate permissions to access a file. If the user has permission to
perform the operation requested then he’ll be allowed to do so else no
authorisation error will be displayed to the user.
Session Management:
Session layer keeps the track of file that is being downloaded.
The type of data, speed of transfer, error rate and other information
regarding the data and transaction will be recorded.
Session layer keeps track of which data packet belongs to which file. Text
or image file and tracks where the received packet goes, etc.
Imp: Web browser performs all functions of Session, Presentation and
Application layer.
Protocols of Session Layer:
 Remote Procedure Call Protocol (RPCP)
 Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)
 Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP)
Note: All the images, HTML, CSS, JS are all stored as separate files on the
web server. When I request for a web page to web server it. Web server
opens a session to the web server to download each of the text and
image files separately. These are received in the form of data packets.
And then later combine it.
Note: NETBIOS (Network Basic Input Output System) is an example for
API which allows applications on different computers to communicate
with each other.
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4. Transport layer:
It controls the reliability of end to end connection and communication
through Segmentation, flow control and error control.
1. Segmentation:
Data received from session layer is divided into small manageable data
units called segments.
Each segment will contain source and destination port number and a
sequence number.
Port number helps to direct data to correct application.
Sequence number helps to re-assemble segments in correct order to
form correct message at receivers end.
Flow control: Transport layer controls the amount of data being

transmitted.
Example: If sender and receivers speed of sending and receiving varies.
Based on receivers’ capability transport layer can tell the sender to slow
down the data transfer rate if it has less capacity or increase speed if it
has more receiving capacity.
It ensures optimum system performance.
Error control : If some data doesn’t arrive at the destination then

transport layer uses automatic repeat request scheme to retransmit the
lost or corrupted data.
A group of bits called checksum is added to each segment by transport
layer to find out the received corrupted segment.
Protocols in TCP layer: TCP, UDP
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Note: Sequence number: every packet in transmission will have a

unique sequence number. This sequence number is used to uniquely
identify a packet.
Packets can reach the destination in any order or through multiple
pathways. It’s important to identify them to reassemble them in proper
order and then presented to the user.
3. Network layer:
Data segments are transferred to Network layer.
It works for transmission of
It works for the transmission of the received data segments from sender
to the receiver located in different networks.
Data units in NL are called packets. It’s the layer where routers reside.
The functions of Network layer are
 Logical addressing
 Routing
 Path determination
Logical addressing is IP addressing done in network layer.

Every computer in a network has a unique IP address.
Network layer assigns senders and recievers IP address to each segment
to form an IP packet.
IP addresses are assigned to ensure that each packet can reach the
correct destination.
Routing: Routing is the method of moving the data packets from source
to destination. It is based on logical address format of IPv4 or IPv6
FB will have attach source and destination to Data packet.
225.225.225.0 ->Subnet (It tells first 3 combinations represent network,
last combination represents host or computer B)
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192.168.3.2 ->
192.168.2.1 ->
Path determination : A computer may be connected to a internet

server in a number of ways. Choosing the best possible path for data
delivery from source to destination is called path determination.
Protocols such as
Open Shortest Path First

Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)
Intermediate system to Intermediate system
To determine best possible path for data delivery.
Data link layer

It’s second layer of OSI model.
It is responsible for node-to-node delivery of data.
It’s major role is to ensure error-free transmission of information. DLL is
also responsible for encoding, decoding and organizing the outgoing
and incoming data.
It contains 2 sub layers:
 Logical link control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
Logical Link control
This sublayer of DLL deals with multiplexing. The flow of data among
applications and other services. It provides acknowledgements as well as
error checking.
Media Access Control
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It controls and manages devices interaction responsible for addressing

frames and also contains physical media access.
Physical addressing:
DLL takes care of physical addressing
MAC addresses of sender and receiver are assigned to each packet to
form a data frame. .
DLL is embedded as software in NIC of computer and provides means to
transfer data between computers via., local media. It includes Copper
wire, optical fibre, Air for radio signals.
It controls how data is placed and received from the media. (Media
Access Control and error detection, error control, flow control, access
control)
Physical Layer:
Physical layer will convert data in binary form into signals and transmit
over local media.
It can be electromagnetic signal in case of copper cable.
Light signal in case of optical fibre cable and radio signal in case of air.
Signal generated by physical generated by physical layer depends on the
type of media used to connect two devices.
At receivers end It receives the signal convert it to bits. And pass it to
data LL as frames. makes the senders message visible in the application
in the receiver’s computer screen.
Physical layer protocols and devices:
Cables, hubs, repeaters, etc.
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TCP/IP protocol suite or reference model

It refers to a set of protocols that support network communication.
In TCP/IP protocol suit. It breaks data into smaller units called segments
and hands them off to IP which deals with routing segments through the
network to the final destination.
TCP module is the receiver combines the segment to form the original
message.
TCP/IP is more practical model and developed to meets the needs of
original internet design.
TCP/IP sounds like it’s comprised of 2 protocols only TCP and IP,
however numerous protocols bundled at different layers.
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Application layer:
It is the top most layer. It includes protocols which which help in
communication between host program interface and transport level
services to use the network.
It generates a message which is passed to the lower layers
This layer is comparable to Application, presentation and session layers
of the OSI model all combined into one.
This layer is used by user applications to pass messages from one
computer to another in a network. Browsers, etc.
Example,
 Browser use HTTP or HTTP to perform browsing or surfing.

 Email programs use SMTP/POP to transferring emails.
Application layer provides means to access the information on the
internet.
Application layer protocols include (Just read a few)
DNS, -> Translates IP addresses into domain names. Vice versa.
DHCP -> Auto assigns IP address to computers residing in a network.
FTP -> To transfer files over the internet.
HTTP-> Used for sending and receiving web pages.
Internet Message Access Protocol -> Email messages
Internet Relay Chat protocol -> Internet chat.

POP3 -> Retrieve messages from servers
SMTP -> Email messages on the internet.
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Transport Layer;
At sending node the transport layer receives messages from the
application layer. When message reaches one of the protocols i.e., TCP
or UDP is selected.
TCP supports segmentation if message is large TCP divides it into
segments or smaller pieces and adds a
UDP facilitates these protocols. DNS DHCP SNMP RIP protocols.
TCP. Connection establishment is 3-way connection handshake.
Data Transfer Features
Error Free data transfer - Checksum Calculates the checksum value.
If checksum value doesn’t match then TCP segment is cancelled and no
acknowledgement is sent. When it doesn’t receive acknowledgment.
Ordered data transfer - TCP adds sequence number in a TCP segment
at the receiving end TCP modules use the sequence number to construct
the application message in the correct order.
Retransmission of lost data/segment:

Discarding duplicate packets: sequence number will help in removing
redundant segments accidentally sent.
Congestion throttling or flow control:
Send the segment to the other end as soon as possible without losing
the data.
For which it sets a timer if the sender acknowledges before the timer
expires the TCP increases the transmission speed until the segment
begins to become unacknowledged.
Connection Termination: It sends a finished message which gets
acknowledged. Other side also sends the message and it gets
acknowledged.
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It’s a 4 way handshake process. This is how TCP handles data transfer.
Main protocols
TCP and UDP
Internet Layer:
It’s same as network layer in OSI reference model.
Their purpose is to route the packets to the destination through the best
possible path.
Routing and delivery of the data is responsibility of this layer.
It allows communication across networks with same or different
protocols.
As the path in which the data is transferred is not predetermined, the
packets may be received out in random fashion without any order. The
upper layer will reorder the data.
Main protocols:
IP(Internet Protocol)
ICMP(Internet Control Message Protocol)
ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
RARP(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

Network Access Layer;
Network access layer is the first layer. It defines how the data is
physically sent through the network.
Data can be transferred via physical or wireless transmission medium.
Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD
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It senses or listens whether the shared channel for transmission is busy

or not, and defers transmissions until the channel is free. The collision
detection technology detects collisions by sensing transmissions from
other stations. On detection of a collision, the station stops transmitting,
sends a jam signal, and then waits for a random time interval before
retransmission.
Main protocols:
Ethernet, Token ring, etc.
Pros and cons of TCP/IP

 The advantages of using the TCP/IP model include the following:
 helps establish a connection between different types of computers;
 works independently of the OS;
 supports many routing protocols;
 uses client-server architecture that is highly scalable;
 can be operated independently;
 supports several routing protocols; and
 is lightweight and doesn't place unnecessary strain on a network or
computer.
The disadvantages of TCP/IP include the following:

 It is complicated to set up and manage;
 transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets;
 is not easy to replace protocols in TCP/IP;
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Reference:
The data in different layers of TCP/IP protocol are called
Application – Application message
Transport – TCP segment /UDP datagram
Network – IP packet
Data Link – Ethernet frame
Physical – Signals(It can be electrical, light signal, radio signal)
TCP vs UDP
Feature TCP UDP
Requires an established connection Connectionless protocol with no

Connection to transmit data (connection should requirements for opening,
status be closed once transmission is maintaining, or terminating a
complete) connection
Data sequencing Able to sequence Unable to sequence
Guaranteed Can guarantee delivery of data to Cannot guarantee delivery of

delivery the destination router data to the destination
Retransmission Retransmission of lost packets is No retransmission of lost

of data possible packets
Error checking
Extensive error checking and Basic error checking mechanism
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acknowledgment of data using checksums
UDP packets with defined

Data is read as a byte stream;
Method of boundaries; sent individually
messages are transmitted
transfer and checked for integrity on
to segment boundaries
arrival
Speed Slower than UDP Faster than TCP
Broadcasting Does not support Broadcasting Does support Broadcasting
Used by HTTPS, HTTP, SMTP, POP, Video conferencing, streaming,

Optimal use
FTP, etc DNS, VoIP, etc
Domain Name System:

The Domain Name System (DNS) is the phonebook of the Internet.
IP addresses are represented in dotted decimal notation. We humans
can’t remember IP addresses of all the resources we’d wish to search on
the internet.
DNS translates domain names to IP addresses so browsers can load
Internet resources.
When user types a domain names and searches then the browser will
approach the DNS where DNS returns the IP address associated with the
IP address and it’ll be further used to send and receive information via
browser.
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Transmission Control Protocol

 TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol a communications
standard that enables application programs and computing devices to
exchange messages over a network.
 TCP is a connection-based protocol that provides reliable flow of data
between 2 computers.
 It ensure secure and successful communication of data in the
network.
 It is designed to send packets across the internet and ensure the
successful delivery of data and messages over networks.
 It provides a point to point reliable communication.
 The reliability of connection is ensured using error-detection and
error correction mechanism.
 Some of the example include:
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
File Transfer Protocol(FTP)etc.
User Datagram Protocol:

 The UDP protocol is a connection-less protocol.
 It’s meant for faster communication of data that might not require
secure transmission and loss of data isn’t a bigger issue.
 It sends independent data packets called datagrams.
 UDP is beneficial in time-sensitive communications, including online
video streaming, online game streaming.
 UDP is faster but less reliable than TCP.
 It does not provide delivery-assurance, error-detection and error-
correction mechanisms.
 Some of the examples include:
Voice over IP (VoIP), online games, and media streaming.
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Understanding Ports.
Every computer has a single physical connection to the network. All the
data destined will arrives through that connection.
A port number is used to uniquely identify an application among several
others running on the computer.
Ports are identified by a 16-bit number. They range from 0-65,535
Ports from 0-1023 are reserved.
Examples.
Port Protocols
21 File Transfer Protocol
23 Telnet Protocol
25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
80 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.
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Networking Devices:
Network devices are physical devices that enable communication and
interaction between hardware on a computer network.
End devices:
End devices refers to those devices which sit on edge of network
connection. A source or destination device in a networked system. For
example, a user's PC is an end device, and so is a server.
They are also called hosts because they hosts because they host the
application level programs such as web browser or electronic mail
program.
It’s also known as a node.
Every node has a unique network address, sometimes called Media
Access Control (MAC) address or Data Link Control(DLC) address.
What role a host plays is determined by the software installed in the
node. It can act as a client server or both.
Computers such as workstations, laptops, tablets, smartphones etc.
Servers such as file servers and web servers
Network devices : Printers and scanners
Eg., computer, printer, VoIP phones, mobile phone, security camera, etc.
Intermediary devices
Intermediary devices interconnect end devices.
These devices provide connectivity and work behind the scenes to
ensure that data flows across the network.
Intermediary devices connect the individual hosts to the network and
can connect multiple individual networks to form an internetwork
(internet)
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Example:
Network Access Devices(hubs, switches, etc)
Internetworking Devices(Routers)
Communication servers and modems
Security devices (Firewalls)

Intermediary devices are also concerned with management of the data
as it flows throughout the network.
They determine the path of efficient communication.
Some of the processes done in Intermediary devices are:
 Regenerate and Transmit data signals
 Maintain information about what pathways exist through the
network and internetwork.
 Notify othe r devices about error and communication failures.
 Direct data along alternate pathway when there is link failure.
 Classify and direct messages according to priorities.
 Permit or deny flow of data, based on security settings.
Based on functionality Intermediate devices are further classified
into.
Connectivity devices:
 They’re used to make physical network connections.
 Operates at physical layer of OSI model.
 They don’t make changes to data and transmission route.
Internetworking devices:
 These devices move data across a network. They direct data to
specific locations within a network. Perform data format
conversion.
 They operate above the physical layer in OSI reference model
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Connectivity devices are those devices that are used to make physical
network connections.
They work at physical layer of OSI model.
1. Network Interface cards:
A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component which allows

the computer to connect to the internet. It’s also known as Network
adapter, media access card or simply NIC.
Modern NICs provide functionality to computers, such as support for

I/O interrupt, direct memory access (DMA) interfaces, data
transmission, network traffic engineering and partitioning.
It acts as a communicating source for sending and receiving data on

the internet.
NIC provides MAC address to a device which helps to uniquely
identify that device within the network.
It’s an add on component like sound card or video card usually
integrated on the system board.
The computer must have a software driver to enable interaction.
A mac address is 12 digit hexadecimal value assigned to the card.
Functions of NIC
 NIC is used to convert data into a digital signal.
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 In the OSI model, NIC uses the physical layer to transmit signals
and the network layer to transmit data packets.
 NIC offers both wired (using cables) and wireless (using Wi-Fi)
data communication techniques.
 NIC is a middleware between a computer/server and a data
network or Internet.
 NIC operates on both physical as well as the data link layer of
the OSI model.
Transceivers:
 A transceiver is a combination transmitter/receiver in a single

package. While the term typically applies to wireless
communications devices,
 It’s not a separate device but a component embedded in devices
such as network cards.
 It’s a short name for transmitter/receiver
 It both transmits and receives both Analog or digital signals.
 It’s mostly used in LAN that usually applies signal onto network
wire and detects signals passing through the wire.
Amplifiers and Repeaters:
Repeater:
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A repeater is a device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher

level or higher power, so that the signal can cover longer distances
without degradation.
Amplifier:
Amplifier if an electronic circuit that increases the power of the input

signal. There are many types of amplifiers such as voice amplifier, optical
amplifiers at different frequencies.
When signal is being transmitted to long distances. Signals gets

weakened due to energy loss in the medium. Signal strength should be
amplified. Sometimes the signal attenuation happens much before the
arrival to the destination. In this case signal needs to be amplified and
retransmitted with a power gain at one or more mid points.
1. Amplifier is used to magnify a signal, whereas repeater is used to

receive and retransmit a signal with a power gain.
2. Repeater has an amplifier as a part of it.

3. Sometimes, amplifiers introduce some noise to the signal, whereas
repeaters contain noise eliminating parts
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BASIS FOR
REPEATER AMPLIFIER
COMPARISON
Basic It decodes the signal and extract It just increases the amplitude of
the original signal and the signal.
regenerate the signal then
retransmit it.
Noise Repeater eliminates the noise by Amplifier amplifies the signal along
generation regenerating the signal. with the noise.
Properties High gain and low output Low gain and high output power.
power.
Mainly used in Stationary environment. Remote area and mobile
environment.
Outcome of Maximizes the signal to noise Minimizes the signal to noise
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BASIS FOR
REPEATER AMPLIFIER
COMPARISON
using the device ratio hence decreases the error levels, therefore, increases the
associated with the signal. noise.
Thick wire can transmit upto 500 mts and then can be extended by using
repeaters.
Thin wire 185 mts and then might require repeaters.
Repeaters perform no action on the data.
Repeaters may be a separate device or a part of hub.
Hubs:
A hub is a physical layer networking device which is used to connect

multiple devices in a network.
Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of LAN.

A hub contains multiple ports.
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A hub receives a signal and then retransmits or broadcasts the signal to

all the nodes in the network.
Hubs cannot provide routing capabilities or other advanced network

services.
Hubs are used instead of repeaters in centralised network.
Internetworking devices:
Bridges:
Bridges are used to connect two subnetworks that use interchangeable

protocols. It combines two LANs to form an extended LAN.
The main difference between the bridge and repeater is that the bridge
has a penetrating efficiency.
A bridge can be used to divide a large network into smaller segments.
Bridge contains the logic that allows them to keep the traffic of each
segment separate.
A bridge accepts all the packets and amplifies all of them to the other
side. The bridges are intelligent devices that allow the passing of only
selective packets from them.
A bridge only passes those packets addressed from a node in one
network to another node in the other network.
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A bridge performs in the following aspect −

 A bridge receives all the packets or frame from both LAN
(segment) A and B.
 A bridge builds a table of addresses from which it can identify that
the packets are sent from which LAN (or segment) to which LAN.
 The bridge reads the send and discards all packets from LAN A
sent to a computer on LAN A and that packets from LAN A send to
a computer on LAN B are retransmitted to LAN B.
 The packets from LAN B are considered in the same method.
The main uses of bridges are

Bridges are used to divide large busy networks into multiple smaller and
interconnected networks to improve performance.
Bridges also can increase the physical size of a network.
Bridges are also used to connect a LAN segment through a synchronous
modem relation to another LAN segment at a remote area.
Types of bridges.
Transparent Basic Bridge:
 Transparent Bridges is invisible to the other devices on the
network.
 Transparent Bridge only perform the function of blocking or
forwarding data based on MAC address.
 MAC address may also be referred as hardware address or physical
address. These addresses are used to built tables and make
decision regarding whether a frame should be forward and where
it should be forwarded.
Transparent learning bridge:
Stories the origin of a frame that is senders port and later uses this
information to place frames to that port.
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Initially the switching table remains empty if a node suppose node A

sends data to node C. Then as the table is empty, the data will be
broadcasted to all nodes. But it records node A’s address in the table.
Next if any other nodes intend to send the data to node A then as it’s
address is stored in the table the data will be forwarded to it.
Translational Bridge:
Translational Bridges are useful to connect segments running at different
speeds or using different protocols such as token Ring and Ethernet
networks.
Depending on the direction of travel, a Translational Bridge can add or
remove information and fi elds from frame as needed.
Source-Route Bridge
It decides the route between two hosts. The entire frame route is
contained within a single frame in this bridge. As a result, the bridge will
make precise decisions about how the structure will be forwarded over
the network.
The data link layer is connected to two similar network segments using
this method. It can be done in a distributed manner wherever the
bridging algorithm combines end stations.
Switches:
A network switch is a physical device that operates at the Data Link layer
of the OSI model (Layer 2).
It takes in packets sent by devices that are connected to its physical

ports, and forwards them to the devices the packets are intended to
reach.
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Switches can also operate at the Network Layer (Layer 3) where routing
occurs.
They connect multiple devices, such as computers, wireless access points,

printers, and servers; on the same network within a building or campus.
A switch enables connected devices to share information and talk to
each other.
Working of a switch:
Once a device is connected to a switch, the switch notes its media access
control (MAC) address (a code written in device’s network-interface card
(NIC).)
The NIC attaches to an Ethernet cable that connects to the switch. The
switch uses the MAC address to identify which device’s outgoing packets
are being sent, and where to deliver incoming packets.
The MAC address identifies the physical device and doesn’t change,
while the network layer (Layer 3) IP address, can be assigned dynamically
to a device and change over time. (Think of a MAC address as the VIN
number on a car, and the IP address as the license plate.)
When a packet enters the switch, the switch reads its header, then
matches the destination address or addresses and sends the packet out
through the appropriate ports that lead to the destination devices.
To reduce the chance for collisions between network traffic going to and
from a switch and a connected device at the same time, most switches
offer full-duplex functionality in which packets coming from and going
to a device have access to the full bandwidth of the switch connection.
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While it’s true that switches operate at Layer 2, they can also operate at
Layer 3, which is necessary for them to support virtual LANs (VLANs),
logical network segments that can span subnets.
In order for traffic to get from one subnet to another it must pass
between switches, and this is facilitated by routing capabilities built into
the switches.
Switching methods:
1. Store and Forward switching.

2. Cut-through switching.
3. Fragment free switching.
4. Adaptive switching.
Store and forward switching:
In this method of packet switching. Switch copies the entire ethernet
frame into the switch memory and performs the Cyclic Redundancy
Check(CRC) on each data frame and check for errors.
If errors are present the frame is dropped if not it’ll be delivered to
destination address.
It supports the efficient transmission of non-corrupted frames.
This method of switching can cause delay in switching as every single
frame has to be checked for error ie,. Go through CRC.
Note: A cyclic redundancy check is an error-detecting code commonly

used in digital networks and storage devices to detect accidental
changes to digital data. In our case data being transmitted over the
internet.
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Cut-through switching:
It is a packet switching method. switching data frame or data packets,
where the switching device forwards the frames or packets as soon as
the destination address is processed without waiting for the rest of the
data to be received.
It takes into memory the destination MAC address (First 6 bytes of
frame) before making switching decision.
It may transmit bad frames.
It reduces delay.
Fragment-Free switching:
It’s an advances form of cut-through switching technique.
In this type the switch along with the MAC address will also read at least
64 bytes of ethernet frame before switching.
It is to avoid forwarding ethernet runt frames.(Ethernet frames smaller
than 64 bytes). It assumes that the frame hasn’t gone through a collision
If the checking returns a positive result.
Adaptive Switching:
This is a switching technique which is configured by the user to maximise
the efficiency of the switch.
Switching begins with the user-specified method ie. Cut through or store
and forward. Depending on the errors on the port the mode changes to
the best of two switching methods.
This optimizes the switch's performance by providing higher speed cut-
through switching if error rates are low but higher throughput store-
and-forward switching when error rates are high.
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Routers:
1. Routers are physical devices that join multiples networks together.

2. It works on Network layer.
3. It maintains a table called routing table of available routes and
their conditions and use this information along with distance and
cost algorithms to determine the best root for a given packet.
4. A packet may have to travel through a number of nodes with
routers before arriving to the destination.
5. Routers are intended that packets are routed or transmitted in the
best path possible through the network.
6. Later switches will deliver the data packets to the appropriate
ports.
7. Routers are most important traffic control devices on the network.
8. Routers provide interconnectivity between networks with different
protocols.
Types of Routers:
1. Interior networks:
 Interior network works within networks.
 They handle packets travelling between the nodes on the same
intra-network.
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 An interior router is used to divide a large network into more

manageable subnetworks.
 Eg., Ethernet and token ring networks.
Border routers:
Border network exists in one network and its function is to connect that
network with outside networks, including the internet.
They discover routes within interior networks and outside networks like
internet.
They handle incoming and outgoing traffic to a network.
Exterior routers:
They do not exist within a particular network but they bridge ways
between networks when data is being transmitted to its destination.
Exterior routers do not store routes to particular hosts but they store
routes to other routers.
Its role is to receive the packet and then forward it to direction of their
destination.
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Gateways:
A gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two

networks operating with different transmission protocols.
It’s called gate to the internet.
Gateways serve as an entry and exit point for a network as all data must
pass through or communicate with the gateway prior to being routed.
Gateways are basically protocol converters, facilitating compatibility
between two protocols and operating on any layer of the OSI model.
They can be unidirectional (allowing data to flow in only one direction)
or bidirectional (allowing data to flow both in and out of a network).
Network gateways can be combined with other key network and security
appliances, such as a firewall. However, dedicated network gateways
have different functions than routers, bridges, and firewalls.
The most common type of gateways, the network gateway operates at
layer 3, i.e. network layer of the OSI model. However, depending upon
the functionality, a gateway can operate at any of the seven layers of OSI
model.
In simple words they connect inter-networks.
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Types of Gateways
1. Default gateway:
It’s required for nodes that are part of an internetwork.
A default gateway is the node in a computer network using the
Internet protocol suite that serves as the forwarding host (router) to
other networks when no other route specification matches the
destination IP address of a packet.
2. Multiple gateway:
It’s used as a substitute to default gateway to transfer packets when
default packet becomes unavailable.
Differences between Router and Gateways
Parameters Router Gateway
Meaning and It is a networking layer system that we can It is basically hardware or a

Definition use for managing and forwarding the data device that acts as
packets into various computer networks. a gate among various available
networks.
Principle of The routers usually work on the third layer of The gateway interprets the
Working a protocol, and they transmit data packets system of networks as
from system to system. A route functions to endpoints from packet to
choose the path of the network for packet.
transporting the data packets.
Hosting The router is available for only dedicated One can easily host a gateway
applications. on physical servers, virtual
applications, as well as
dedicated applications.
Networks A router routes various data packets via a A gateway acts as a connection
similar set of networks. between two very different
networks.
OSI Layer A router can easily operate on three and four A gateway can only operate on
layers only. five layers.
Associated You can also call a router an internet router You can also call a gateway a
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Terms or a wireless router. voice gateway, proxy server, or

gateway router.
Dynamic A typical router provides support for A gateway only provides

Routing dynamic routing. support for static routing.
Operating For operating a router, one needs to install For working, a gateway
Process of different routes (of data) for the different distinguishes between the
Components given networks. Here, the destination structure of a network and the
address depends on the available traffic. components available outside
of it.
Firewalls:
 A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and

outgoing network traffic and decides whether to allow or block
specific traffic based on a defined set of security rules.
 A firewall can be hardware, software, or both.
 It is a system that is designed to prevent unauthorized access to or
from a private network.
 It’ll prevent unauthorized users from accessing private networks.
 Firewalls is usually set up between private network and a public
network such as an internet.
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Computer and communication Networks

Elements of Computer Networks

1. Network Hardware: It refers to physical devices such as laptops,

2. Wireless or Unguided connection: In this method communication is

Communication begins when a message is to be sent from one

The 3 main elements that are involved in communication are

Fundamentals of Digital signals.

Signal: A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is used

Digital data is the electronic representation of information in a format of

Analog and Digital Signal:

Fig. Analog Signal and Digital Signal

Analog refers to physical quantities.

Converting data into signal:

Frequency describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a

Its rate at which information is transferred in a communication channel.

Signal to noise ratio:

 Physical topology: How computers are connected to one another

The different types of Networking Topologies include

 Bus topology or Line Topology is a network topology in which all

Disadvantages of bus topology

It’s a centralised networking topology in which all the nodes within a

 Easy to reconfigure: number of computers is limited by the number

Disadvantages of star topology

 It may have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a

It’s a network configuration where all the devices are connected on a

Advantages of a ring topology

 A mesh topology is a network setup where each computer and

 Simplex- n(n-1) Duplex n(n-1)/2

 Cost Ease of Installation Ease of Maintenance Cable fault tolerance.

 A hybrid topology is a kind of network topology that is a

 This is a network type which is hierarchical in nature.

They do not follow any well-defined interconnected patterns or

They allow a lot of configuration flexibility but complicates routing.

Network Operating Systems:

 In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal;

Advantages of Peer-to-Peer(P2P) Operating System are as follows:

• Less requirement of hardware is there.

Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer(P2P) Operating System are as

A server is simply a computer that provides the network resources and

A client is the computer running a program that requests the service

Two wire open lines:

1. This line consists of two wires made of copper or aluminium of 0.4mm

1. A twisted-pair cable is a cable made by intertwining two separate

1. A STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) cable has a fine wire mesh

1. Coaxial cable is a type of copper cable specially built with a metal

Fiber optic cables.

 A fiber optic cable is a network cable that contains strands of glass

Radio, Microwaves and satellite channels.

10. Satellites achieve data transfer rate of 1000 Mbps.

 A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral

2. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)

 A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer

3. Wide Area Network (WAN):

 It’s a network which is spread over a large geographical area.

Personal Area Network(PAN):

 A PAN or Personal Area Network is a network which is formed around

Difference Between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Parameter LAN MAN WAN

Delay in It faces a very short It faces a moderate It faces a high

Congestion The congestion in the It exhibits a higher It exhibits a higher

Communication LAN typically allows a MAN allows multiple A huge group of

establish a simultaneously with interact with each other

Uses Schools, homes, colleges, It basically covers a It covers an entire