Global warming

•Climate change and global warming are terms that are sometimes used
synonymously, but they have different meanings in the sense that a ‘warming” is only
one phase of the larger climate system on Earth that naturally features change. The
periods of warming and cooling are referred to as interglacials and glacials, respectively,
with the latter being partly characterized by enormous sheets of ice extending from the
poles. (Singer & Avery, 2007)

•In recent time climate change is viewed as one of the most significant global problems
which affect directly or indirectly alter the structure of the environment (United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992; Costello et al., 2009). The impact of
climate change on the environment and human health is far reaching and thus
influencing social changes in many aspects. The impact of climate change has seen in
numerous aspects, for instance human health, ecosystem health and biodiversity, food
production, economic growth, tourism, and water resources (Kovats et al., 2005; Ebi et
al., 2006; Arnell, 2004).

•Public Opinion on Global Warming ...

Despite the growing body of knowledge about the dynamics of Earth’s climate,
and the statements of global warming consensus in the scientific community, there are
those who question the “anthropogenic” warming concept.
In a study written by Leiserowitz, (2007), the point is made that people’s
understanding of climate change is critical to addressing the issue because it is in the
public domain that political pressure emerges.

•Chimes (2007) discusses some of the reasons that teachers face difficulties in
addressing the topic of climate change in their classrooms. One of the main points is
that currently there are few textbooks that feature it as a subject. This is partly because
of the
newness of global warming discussion in the secondary education domain.

•Former Vice President Al Gore’s book and film “An Inconvenient Truth”
garnered significant attention after its release because of its delivery of the global
warming message to a large public audience (2006). The book has an extensive
curriculum that accompanies it, designed primarily for high school students. Gore’s work
lays out the story of climate change by explaining the basic concepts, and then following
up with numerous indicators that Gore considers to be evidence of environmental
change.
•A teaching resource that represents a skeptical position is the book Unstoppable
Global Warming- Every 1,500 Years, by Singer and Avery (2007). Singer, a climate
physicist, promotes the idea of a 1, 500 year solar cycle. This idea maintains that Earth’s
current warming is fundamentally caused by 1,500 year cycles in solar activity, with high
periods of energy output causing warmer climates, and lower ones allowing for cooler
periods in Earth’s history. Singer’s most recent book on climate change quotes various
studies to support this idea.

•This award-winning study examines the costs and benefits of an aggressive program
of global action to limit greenhouse warming. Estimates are presented for economic
damages, ranging from agricultural losses and sea level rise to loss of forests, water
scarcity, electricity requirements for air conditioning, and several other major effects. The
study concludes with a cost- benefit estimate for international action and a discussion of
policy measures to mobilize the global response. (William R Cline
1992)

• The Hard Science presents a comprehensive, qualitatively rigorous, and critical

discussion of the science underlying the global warming issue. The major processes in
the climate system needed to understand projected human-induced climatic change are
presented in detail. (LD Danny Harvey, 2018)

•Global warming has serious implications for all aspects of human life, including
infectious diseases. The effect of global warming depends on the complex interaction
between the human host population and the causative infectious agent. From the
human standpoint, changes in the environment may trigger human migration, causing
disease patterns to shift. (Atul A Khasnis, Mary D Nettleman, 2005)

•Global warming from carbon dioxide was an esoteric topic 15 years ago, unknown to
most of us. But in a few years, helped along by some hot summers, it has climbed to the
top of the international agenda. A framework agreement" is widely expected, together
with some institutional arrangements that will keep global environmental issues
permanently on every government's agenda. (The American Economic Review, 1992)

Terrorism
•Chapters on the structure and development of terrorism begin with a discussion of the
definitions, typologies, and tactics of terrorism. The subsequent discussion focuses on
subnational groups that engage in terrorist violence. This includes the extrajuridicial,
repressive activities of police and military units. The organizational dynamics and
rationales for terrorism are discussed for various terrorist groups. These issues include
the elimination of the social factors causing terrorism, the outlawing of terrorism, the
use of military force against terrorism, terrorism and the media, and the impact of
technology on terrorism now and in the future. (J R White, 1991).
•The sociology of terrorism has been understudied, even though considerable
literatures on various forms of social conflict and violence have been produced over the
years. (Austin T. Turk, 2004)

•Martha Crenshaw (1981) stated that Terrorism occurs both in the context of violent
resistance to the state as well as in the service of state interests. If we focus on terrorism
directed against gov-ernments for purposes of political change, we are considering the
premeditated use or threat of symbolic, low-level violence by conspiratorial
organizations. Terrorist violence communicates a political message; its ends go beyond
damaging an enemy's material resources.'The victims or objects of terrorist attack have
little intrinsic value to the terrorist group but represent a larger human audience whose
reaction the terrorists seek. Violence charac-terized by spontaneity, mass participation,
or a primary intent of physical de-struction can therefore be excluded from our
investigation. The study of terrorism can be organized around three questions: why
terrorism occurs, how the process of terrorism works, and what its social and political
effects are.

•Assassinations, bombings, hijackings, diplomatic kidnappings-terrorism is the most

publicized form of political violence. The history of terrorism goes back a very long time,
but the very fact that there is such a history has frequently been ignored, even
suppressed. This may be because terrorism has not appeared with equal intensity at all
times. When terrorism reappeared in the late twentieth century after a period of relative
calm, there was the tendency to regard it as a new phenomenon, without precedent.
Among these are why some people who share the same convictions turn to terrorism
and others do not. (Walter Laqueur, 2017).

•This article addresses the definition of terrorism. It is intended to provide a foundation

from which to understand the recent attacks on the World Trade Center and the
Pentagon. Although terrorism appears to be much less dangerous than other forms of
violence, it seems to command more attention. In order to respond to terrorism, a clear
definition is necessary. Experts on terrorism also include another aspect in the definition:
the act is committed in order to create a fearful state of mind in an audience different
from the victims. A behavioral perspective appears to be best suited for interpreting and
reacting to terrorism. (Charles L Ruby, 2002).

•Igor Primoratz (1990) aim in this paper is not to try to formulate the meaning the
word ‘terrorism’ has in ordinary use; the word is used in so many different, even
incompatible ways, that such an enterprise would quickly prove futile. My aim is rather
to try for a definition that captures the trait, or traits, of terrorism which cause most of
us to view it with moral repugnance.
•Terrorism is designed to change minds by destroying bodies; it is a form of costly
signaling. The main targets of persuasion are the enemy and the population that the
terrorists hope to represent or control. Terrorists wish to signal that they have the
strength and will to impose costs on those who oppose them, and that the enemy and
moderate groups on the terrorists' side cannot be trusted and should not be supported.
Each strategy works well under certain conditions and poorly under others. In some
cases, however, terrorists are pursuing a combination of strategies, and the response
must also work well against this combination. (Andrew H Kydd, Barbara F Walter, 2006).

•The importance of freshwater and water infrastructure to human and ecosystem

health and to the smooth functioning of a commercial and industrial economy makes
water and water systems targets for terrorism. The chance that terrorists will strike at
water systems is real; indeed, there is a long history of such attacks. The damage is done
by hurting people, rendering water unusable, or destroying purification and supply
infrastructure. More uncertain, however, is how significant such threats are today,
compared with other targets that may be subject to terrorist attack, or how effective
such attacks would actually be. Analysis and historical evidence suggest that massive
casualties from attacking water systems are difficult to produce, although there may be
some significant exceptions. (Peter H Gleick, 2006)

Terrorism 2
• Terrorism has remained in print ever since and indeed is still required reading in
undergraduate, gradu ate, executive education, and other professional intelligence,
military, and law enforcement courses taught throughout the world, clearly attests both
to the book’s continued relevance as well as to its enduring contribution to the field.
New adversaries with differ ent rationales and often transcendent motivations had
emerged to challenge the conventional wisdom about terrorists and terrorism. We were
therefore at the dawn of a new era of terrorist vio lence, I had argued—one that would
likely be even bloodier and more destructive than before. (Bruce Hoffman, 2018).

•This article aims to challenge the dominant view that the expressions of terrorism since
the last decade of the twentieth century are fundamentally new. It questions the new
aspects of terrorism, such as the transnational nature of the perpetrators and their
organizations, their religious inspiration and fanaticism, their use of weapons of mass
destruction, and their indiscriminate targeting. It points out essential continuities with
previous expressions of terrorist violence, such as the national and territorial focus of the
new terrorists, their political motivations, their use of conventional‐ weaponry, and the
symbolic targeting that is still aimed at achieving a surprise effect. (Isabelle Duyvesteyn,
2004)

Crisis management
•Crisis management has also been defined as an action embarked on by an
organization to evaluate and manage a crisis (Wang & Ritchie, 2012). We can also
define crisis management as a thought-out plan by an organization to minimize,
manage, or avert a crisis when it arises.

•Prochazkova, Prochazka, Santos, and Carvalho (2015) opined that crisis awareness is a
situation of corporate promptness to foresee and successfully address internal or
external factors. This could influence crisis in an organization by deliberately
distinguishing and practically prepare for the occurrence of the unavoidable.

•Alexander (2015) posits that irrespective of the kind of crisis whether man-induced,
natural, or pandemic, emergencies cannot be predetermined. This is because crisis
is seen as an undeniable interruption every organization is bound to stumble upon at a
point in their business, most times crisis crop up unexpectedly. No wonder, Oparanma
and Wechie (2019) opine that no organization can operate without the occurrence of
unexpected or unplanned business disruptions.

•Patrik and Richard (2017) in their study proactive crisis management affirmed that
due to a competitive and consistently changing global business environment, it is almost
impossible for organizations to avoid crises of various types and magnitude. The findings
of the research indicate that the perception of crisis awareness and crisis readiness in an
organization has a direct impact on the organization's crisis management initiatives and
activities.

•Saka (2014) examined the effect of crisis management strategy on organizational

performance of multinational corporations in Nigeria, empirical insight from Promassidor
Ltd. Crisis is inevitable in any organization because it comes in varied forms and degrees.
The results revealed that management challenges to crisis management strategy are
attributed to poor organizational performance and that crisis management strategy does
not have any effect on organizational performance.

•there is a range of theories

and suggestions within crisis management and crisis management consultant have
experienced even more models from real life experiences. Pearson and Clair (2008)
argue for that many researches within crisis management are missing relevant empirical
studies in order to be taken seriously. A more and more changing
business environment also demands theories and models to be developed for new
upcoming threats.

•According to Fink, successful crisis planning removes much of the threat and
uncertainty in potential future crises, and allows for more control should a crisis appear
(in Paraskevas, 2006). Fink's statement goes to show that any crises can be described as
being in any of the four stages. It is important to identify early warning signals for the
crisis, even though it might be hard to recognize them, especially crises in a prodromal
state. A crisis may even be apparent to an organization, yet no action is taken to prevent
it.Once the organization has passed the initial stage, the crisis will start causing harm
depending on how well prepared and effective the organization is. (Paraskevas, 2006)

•The crisis management evaluates all the relevant factors, and affirms their level of risk
and the amount of attention they need. A noticeable point is that the management is
able to control some of the factors above. However, the majority of the factors is outside
the control or influence of the organization, and needs to be discussed from a broader
perspective. If the starting
point is not clearly defined, the approach to the factors requires a process of
rationalization. This method might be risky, since it creates an illusion of control, when
it, in real life, does not exists. Up to a certain point, the literature encourages denial or
blindness of the crisis, when the opposite is preferred. This denial has been identified as
one of the largest barriers to effective crisis planning. (Pollard & Hotho, 2006)

•The first distinction is between

community crisis and non-community crisis. A community crisis splits up into several
subcategories, such as natural crisis, industrial crisis and non-industrial crisis. A natural
crisis is the result of a disaster in nature, e.g. earthquakes, flooding, tsunamis, and
volcano eruptions. An industrial crisis is a result of socio-technical disasters, such as rail
crash, product recall, stadium fires and computer problem. The non-industrial crisis
includes political conflicts and non-conflict crisis. The non-industrial crisis splits up into
two different sub-categories, conflict type situation and non-conflict types of crisis.
(Shaluf, Ahmadun, & Aini, 2003)

•The external genre includes crisis such as war, threats, relation breakdown, embargoes
and blockades. The internal genre includes crisis such as political crisis, internal conflicts
(religion, ethnic, etc.) terrorist attacks, strikes, sabotage, riots and executive kidnappings.
The non-conflict types of crises narrows down to economic crisis and social crisis.
(Shaluf, Ahmadun, & Aini, 2003)

•Pearson and Clair (1998), in their attempt to define an organizational crisis and crisis
management, listed a variety of different crisis types that an organization might be faced
with. The great variety of crises that might affect an organization suggests to what
extent organizations are vulnerable to crises. Pearson and Clair added that despite the
apparent differences in crisis situation, they share a number of elements.

•Shrivastava and Mitroff (1987) also identified a platitude of different types of crises
and determined that crises could be described along two dimensions; internal-external
dimension and technical-social dimension. The two dimensions can be combined to
form a figure with the internal-external dimension on the horizontal axis and the
technical-social dimension on the
vertical axis.

Gambling
•Over the past several decades, and particularly during the last 10 to 15 years, there has
been a rapid increase in the accessibility of legalized gambling in the United States and
other parts of the world. Few studies have systematically explored the relationships
between patterns of gambling and health status. Existing data support the notion that
some gambling behaviors, particularly problem and pathological gambling, are
associated with nongambling health problems. (Marc N. Potenza MD, PhD, David A.
Fiellin MD, George R. Heninger MD, Bruce J. Rounsaville MD & Carolyn M. Mazure PhD ,
2002)

•(The Commission, 1999)

At the inaugural meeting of this Commission two years ago, I stated that we had been
charged by Congress with “a very broad and very difficult task–to conduct a
comprehensive legal and factual study of the social and economic implications of
gambling in the United States.” We have now completed that task.

•Michael B. Walker (1992) provides a comprehensive study of gambling behaviour and

explores both theories and therapies for the treatment of problem gambling.
Involvement in each form of gambling is examined in terms of social and cognitive
factors and from this a socio-cognitive theory of gambling is developed in which false
beliefs about gambling play a core role in maintaining gambling involvement.

•As states have moved from merely tolerating gambling to running their own games, as
communities have increasingly turned to gambling for an economic boost, important
questions arise. Has the new age of gambling increased the proportion of pathological
or problem gamblers in the US population? Where is the threshold between" social
betting" and pathology? Is there a real threat to our families, communities, and the
larger society? Pathological Gambling explores America's experience of gambling,
examining: The diverse and frequently controversial issues surrounding the definition of
pathological gambling. (National Research Council, 1999)

•Under Rodrigo Duterte's administration, Chinese capital has increasingly flowed into
the Philippines. Much of this new investment has been in online gambling firms-a
peculiar type of capital that is not involved in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and is
even criminalised by the Chinese state. In examining the broader social reverberations of
Chinese capital on Philippine society, it argues that Chinese online gambling capital
generates specific forms of economic and social exclusions. (Alvin Camba, 2020)
•In 1995, a few sites (eg, Gaming Club) began offering casino gambling games online
without real money being wagered. Some sportsbooks (eg, Intertops Casino, Sports
Book, Ladbrokes) also created websites that listed their odds as well as toll-free numbers
to phone to place bets. The first case of money actually being wagered over the Internet
by the general public appears to be the online purchase of lottery tickets from the
International Lottery in Liechtenstein for a manual drawing that occurred on October 7,
1995 (Romney, 1995).

•The surviving passion for cockfighting or sabong among Filipinos has made it a
culturally and legally acceptable form of gambling. As an established cultural
phenomenon, sabong has largely influenced the ways its practitioners make a living. It is
in this context that this qualitative study explored the experiences of two old Filipinos
who had been engaging in the blood sport for a very long time. (Ericson H Peñalba,
2021)

•(Mark Griffiths, 1995) Although in theory gambling is against the law for children,
there is one form of gambling that young people do have access to: fruit (ie slot)
machines. Mark Griffiths has carried out extensive research into why some adolescents
get hooked on gambling, how they gamble and what can be done about it. He provides
an overview of adolescent gambling worldwide in addition to individual case studies,
treatment approaches, and an insight into how the gaming industry induces young
people to gamble.

•A study of gambling citations from 1903 through 2003 (Shaffer, Stanton, & Nelson,
2006) reveals that the frequency of scholarly journal articles increased rapidly beginning
in the mid-to late 1980s. Furthermore, as of 2006 almost a third of all gambling-related
citations that have ever been published appeared in print between 1999 and 2003,
meaning that much of our knowledge about gambling problems has only recently been
published.

•David C Hodgins, Jonathan N Stea, Jon E Grant (2011) stated that

Gambling disorders, including pathological gambling and problem gambling, have
received increased attention from clinicians and researchers over the past three decades
since gambling opportunities have expanded around the world.

Social disorganization
•Through the concept of social disorganization, this essay aims to show, how
neighbourhood characteristics in the slums reduce the communities’ ability to regulate
resident behaviours and exert social control. Modernization is defined as a process
where countries transition from a traditional society to a modern one. Through this
process, societies undergo a socio-cultural transformation which involves the changing
of values, norms and social structures. Some examples are changes to the economy and
increase in literacy rates in the country(Chaudhary,2013).
•Kubrin (2009) highlights that social disorganization theory is based on the notion
thatcommunities can be characterized along a continuum of social control, with
sociallyorganized communities located at one end while socially disorganized ones on
the opposite.Socially organized communities often share several characteristics like
solidarity, cohesion and integration.

•Stark (1987) highlighted that apart from structural characteristics of

theneighbourhood, it is important to note the ways in which the community react
toward thesecharacteristics. Additionally, how these reactions increase the amount of
crime in thecommunity. Studies have highlighted the importance of culture in affecting
crime rates of thecommunity through the content of values shared, proposing that
structural characteristics leadto the rise of differing values and beliefs in the community.

•Social disorganization theory. like many other theories reviewed in this book. is a
product of
its time. During the 1920s and 1930s, researchers at the University of Chicago became
increas
ingly concerned about what they were witnessing in terms of the effects of growing
urbanization.
industrialization, and immigration on patterns of social organization in Chicago
neighborhoods,
Two researchers in particular. Park and Burgess (1925)

•One neighborhood aspect that Shaw and McKay (1942) found to be related to
delinquency was the physical status of the neighborhood. Specifically, they reported that
neighborhoods with the highest delinquency levels were those located within or
adjacent to areas
of heavy industry. Another neighborhood aspect they found to be related to delinquency
is the
economic status of the neighborhood. When studying the economic status of areas,
they found
that low socioeconomic status areas were indirectly related to higher levels of
delinquency;

•Porter and Vogel (2014) studied how residential mobility can affect
delinquency by using a sample across two waves of data from the National Longitudinal
Study
of Adolescent Health. This study supported the work of previous research and found
that there is
in fact a very strong link between residential mobility and general delinquency, as
adolescents
who moved had a delinquency rate 1.15 times greater than non-mobile adolescents.

•the social disorganization literature has also found racial heterogeneity as another
neighborhood factor that predicted crime (Carson & Esbensen, 2014; Rountree & Land,
1996; Sampson, 1985)

•neighborhood-level characteristics consistent with social disorganization theory have

been found to be related to crime and deviance. A number of
researchers have attempted to explain the mechanisms through which socially
disorganized neighborhoods affect crime (Bellair, 1997; Markowitz, Bellair, Liska, & Liu,
2001; Morenoff et
al., 2001; Sampson & Raudenbush, 1999; Taylor & Covington, 1993). Two primary
explanations have been informal social control and collective efficacy.

•Kubrin and Weizer (2003)

pointed out that the above mechanisms only explain part of the relationship between
neighborhood social disorganization and crime, and that future research should examine
alternative ways in which social disorganization impacts crime. According to Kubrin and
Weitzer, other research could examine factors such as the role of culture, formal social
control, and urban political-economic and how these mechanisms relate to
neighborhood crime.

•Involvement in extra-curricular activities may therefore be another factor that accounts

for the relationship between social disorganization and crime. Swisher (2008) argued
that the types of youth-oriented activities that are organized and positive in social and
developmental aspects of life are more likely to be found in wealthier neighborhood
structures that provide a
better youth develomental outcome influencing juveniles to engage in non-delinquent
actions towards others.