Science of the Total Environment 806 (2022) 151472

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Characteristics and influencing factors of airborne microplastics in

nail salons
En-Yu Chen a, Kuan-Ting Lin a, Chien-Cheng Jung a,⁎, Chia-Ling Chang b, Chung-Yu Chen c,d
a
Department of Public Health, China Medical University, Taichung City, Taiwan
b
Department of Cosmetology and Health Care, Min-Hwei Junior College of Health Care Management, Tainan City, Taiwan
c
Department of Occupational Safety and Health, School of Safety and Health Science, Chang Jung Christian University, Tainan City, Taiwan
d
Occupational Environment and Food Safety Research Center, Chang Jung Christian University, Tainan City, Taiwan

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• MP concentration is higher in indoor air

than outdoor air in nail salons.
• Predominant shape and size are frag-
ments and <50 μm in indoor air, respec-
tively.
• The predominant polymer is different
between nail salons and other indoor
spaces.
• AC, building materials with plastic, and
nail treatment affect the MP abun-
dances.
• MP concentrations are positively associ-
ated with number of occupants indoors.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Airborne microplastic particles (MPs) are emerging contaminants. Although some studies have investigated the
Received 22 August 2021 characteristics of indoor MPs in homes or offices, information regarding MPs in nail salons with potentially higher
Received in revised form 18 October 2021 MP pollution is unavailable. In this study, we collected indoor and outdoor air samples from nail salons to analyze
Accepted 2 November 2021
the concentrations, physical characteristics, and polymers of MPs and further assessed the exposure through in-
Available online 4 November 2021
halation and influencing factors. Our data displayed that the average indoor MP concentration was 46 ± 55 MPs/
Editor: Anastasia Paschalidou m3. The estimated average annual exposure to indoor MPs was 67,567 ± 81,782 MPs/year. The predominant
shape and size of indoor MPs were fragment and <50 μm, respectively. The predominant polymer in indoor air
was acrylic (27%), followed by rubber (21%), and polyurethane (13%). Air conditioner, nail treatment, ceiling
Keywords: and flooring with plastic materials, and number of occupants were factors affecting indoor MP concentrations.
Nail salon We concluded that MP pollution was more severe in nail salons and the physical characteristics and polymer
Airborne microplastic compositions differed between nail salons and other indoor spaces reported in other studies. Air conditioner
Occupant usage induced higher MP emission, and higher MP concentrations were observed in nail salons with plastic ceil-
Ventilation
ing and flooring or more occupants.
Plastic building material
© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
⁎ Corresponding author at: Chien-Cheng Jung, Department of Public Health, China
Medical University, Taichung City 406040, Taiwan. Plastic is currently one of the most widely used materials because of
E-mail addresses: u107026016@cmu.edu.tw (E.-Y. Chen), u109070201@cmu.edu.tw
its low cost and durability. Statistical data indicate that global plastic
(K.-T. Lin), ccjung@mail.cmu.edu.tw (C.-C. Jung), a311@o365.mhchcm.edu.tw
(C.-L. Chang), cyuchen@mail.cjcu.edu.tw (C.-Y. Chen). production increased from 1.5 million tons in 1950 to 368 million tons

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151472
0048-9697/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
E.-Y. Chen, K.-T. Lin, C.-C. Jung et al.
in 2019 and is expected to increase 4-fold by 2050 (PlasticEurope, 2020).
Moreover, plastic particles are released from plastic materials in environ-
ments through different degradation processes (Zhang et al., 2021). These
particles are classed by several categories according to their sizes:
megaplastics (> 50 cm), macroplastics (5 to 50 cm), mesoplastics (0.5
to 5 cm), microplastics (1 μm to 5 mm), and nanoplastics (< 1 μm)
(Chatterjee and Sharma, 2019). Microplastic particles (MPs) are of in-
creasing concern in the environments due to their potential health effects
(Galloway, 2015; Karbalaei et al., 2018) and ability to act as a vector for
adsorbed contaminants (Brennecke et al., 2016; Selvam et al., 2021).
Thus, the investigation of MPs in the environment is an urgent matter.
Many studies have investigated the concentration, characteristics, or
health effects of MPs, especially in ocean and soil environments (Boots
et al., 2019; Mendoza et al., 2018; Sana et al., 2020). Certain studies
have also collected air samples and further analyzed the physical char-
acteristics, polymer compositions, and deposition rates of MPs, with a
focus on the atmospheric environment (Abbasi et al., 2019;
Akhbarizadeh et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2019a; Szewc et al., 2021). Further-
more, investigation has been conducted regarding the effect of long-
range transport on MPs' abundance or source (Allen et al., 2019;
Bergmann et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020).
People spend over 80% of their time indoors, hence some studies col-
lected the air samples to characterize MPs in households or offices (Dris
et al., 2017; Jenner et al., 2021; Liao et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2020b).
Among the limited studies on indoor MPs, indoor MP concentrations
were found to be higher than outdoor concentrations. Poly (propene)
(PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) were the
predominant MPs in indoor spaces, with fibers being the most common
shape and textile products the major source. Although there is still not
enough evidence to conclude that airborne MPs are toxic to human
health via inhalation, some toxicological results in vitro and in vivo ex-
periments have suggested MP exposure may have adverse effects on
health (Dong et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2021). Considering human activities
are more often performed indoors than outdoors and MP concentra-
tions are higher in indoor air (Zhang et al., 2020a), further investigation
of indoor MPs is imperative.
Although studies have investigated the concentration and characteris-
tics of MPs in households or offices, little is known regarding business pre-
mises that cause high MP pollution. Employees are expected to work in
business premises for extended periods, and clients remain in those in-
door spaces until completing their business activities. To our knowledge,
only one study investigated the emission of MPs in laundry dryers and
found a higher MP concentration in laundry room (1.6 ± 1.8 blue fi-
bers/m3) than blank room (0.17 ± 0.27 blue fibers/m3) (O’Brien et al.,
2020). Young and her co-workers (Young et al., 2018) indicated that
nail salons routinely use nail polish with phthalates (PAEs) for holding
color or odor or improving the flexibility of the nail polish film. In addi-
tion, acrylic or rubber nails, silk nails, and rubber base gel are used during
nail treatments. However, studies have only discussed the concentrations,
compositions, or influencing factors for PAEs in nail salons (Craig et al.,
2019), information relating to MPs has not been reported.
In this study, indoor and outdoor air samples, building characteris-
tics, and occupants' behaviors were collected to investigate: (1) the con-
centrations, physical characteristics, and polymer compositions of MPs,
(2) MP exposure via inhalation, and (3) influencing factors of MPs. This
is the first study to characterize MPs in nail salons. These results provide
a better understanding of MPs in nail salons and provide control and
management directions to reduce exposure for workers and clients.
2. Material and method
2.1. Sampling strategy
Nail salons were selected through the members of our research team
and other collaborators in Taiwan. Both indoor and outdoor MPs, gas-
phase di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), PM2.5, carbon dioxide (CO2),
2
Science of the Total Environment 806 (2022) 151472
temperature, and relative humidity (RH) were simultaneously
collected from the six nail salons during the periods of business hours
(10:00 to 20:00), from February to April 2021. The sites of six nail
salons are presented in Fig. S1. For each nail salon, both indoor and
outdoor air samples were collected once a day for 3 or 4 days for 10
continuous hours each day. The average total volumes of air samples
for indoor and outdoor air were 5.43 and 5.08 m3, respectively.
To avoid interfering with employees' work, all instruments for indoor
air quality measurement were placed approximately 15 cm away from
the work desk. For outdoor air quality measurements, the sampling in-
struments were placed on balconies or in the adjoining arcade of the
nail salons. The inlets of all instruments were located approximately 90
to 100 cm above the floor level, within the breathing zone of a seated
adult. A schematic of the experimental setup is presented in Fig. S2.
2.2. Sampling and analysis for MPs
We used 25 mm Cassettes (3 pieces, SKC, Dorset, UK) with Silver
member filter (25 mm, 0.2 μm, STERLITECH, Kent, WA, US) at an airflow
of 9 L/min to collect indoor and outdoor MPs (total suspended particle)
during the periods of business hours. All filters were stored in a room at
a controlled temperature of 23 ± 3 °C and RH of 40% ± 5% before and
after sampling. In total, 38 MPs samples were collected, 19 and 19 sam-
ples from indoor and outdoor air, respectively.
The extraction of MPs from silver filters was performed using a mod-
ified version of the method suggested by Akhbarizadeh's study
(Akhbarizadeh et al., 2021). The filter was placed in a glass beaker con-
taining 20 mL of deionized water, and the sample was placed in an ultra-
sonic bath for 40 min. The filter was washed with deionized water
(approximately 5 mL) and removed from the glass beaker. Subsequently,
the filter was dried in an oven at 60 °C for approximately 7–8 h. Further-
more, 30% H2O2 (Honeywell/Fluka, Minneapolis, MN, US) was added to
the sample for 6 days to remove potential organic matter. In addition,
25 mL of ZnCl2 (98%; Alfa Aesar, Ward Hill, MA, US) solution with a den-
sity of 1.7 g/cm3 was added to the sample, which was shacked at 250 rpm
for 10 min before being allowed to settle for 1 h. This clear solution was
centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 3 min; then, the upper liquid was taken by
using a pipette and evenly dropped into a Whatman filter (47 mm,
0.45 μm) with a vacuum pump; thus, we assumed that particles on the fil-
ter were evenly distributed during the filtration procedure. These proce-
dures were conducted three times for each sample. The filter was stored
in a clear box and air-dried until analysis.
It is difficult to characterize MPs of different shapes, colors, sizes, and
polymer compositions using a single instrument (Shim et al., 2017).
Thus, in this study, we used two analytical instruments to characterize
those features. At least 20 fields of view from each filter were examined
via microscope (Revolve, ECHO, San Diego, CA, US) to identify the shape
and color of MPs in accordance with suggestions from previous studies
(Hidalgo-Ruz et al., 2012; Jiang et al., 2018; Li et al., 2016). Fourier-
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, Nicolet iN10; Thermo Fisher Sci-
entific, Waltham, MA, US) was used to analyze the polymer composi-
tions and sizes of MPs (excluding MPs with size >5000 μm). The
smallest particle size that can be measured by FTIR is 25 μm. The 25 to
50 μm MPs are presented as <50 μm in this study. We analyzed polymer
compositions by using polymer libraries including Aldrich Polymers, Al-
drich Polymers, Hummel Polymer and Additives, Rubber Compounding
Materials, Polymer Additives and Plasticizers, Polymer Additives and
Plasticizers, Sprouse Polymers by ATR, and Sprouse Polymers by Trans-
mission, with at least 70% similarity for confirmation (Liao et al., 2021).
All solutions and deionized water were filtered three times through
Whatman filter to avoid contamination. All containers and beakers were
also rinsed three times with deionized water and stored in a clear box.
The MP particles were also analyzed from six operation blank filters
from the fields. These filters were treated with the same extraction pro-
cesses of MPs (< 20 MPs/filter). The number of particles was lower in
blank filters than in field samples (average: 167 ± 174 MPs/filter).
E.-Y. Chen, K.-T. Lin, C.-C. Jung et al.
2.3. Indoor and outdoor air quality measurements
We measured indoor and outdoor PM2.5 concentrations using DUST-
TRAK Aerosol Monitors (Model 8530; TSI Corporation, Shoreview, MN,
United States). The monitoring range for PM2.5 was 1 to 400 mg/m3
(resolution: ± 1 μg/m3). Indoor and outdoor CO2, temperature, and
relative humidity (RH) concentrations were measured by using Q-
TRAK Indoor Air Quality Monitors (Model 7575, TSI Corporation, Shore-
view, MN, United States). The monitoring range for CO2, temperature,
and RH were 0 to 5000 ppm (accuracy: ± 50 ppm), 0 to 60 °C (accuracy:
± 0.5 °C), and 5 to 95% (accuracy: ± 3%), respectively. All air pollutant
concentrations from real-time instruments were detected at 5-min in-
tervals (5-min average/data) during the periods of business hours.
Then, the TSI Corporation software was used to download data.
For gas-phase DEHP, we used OVS Tenax tubes (226-56, SKC Inc.,
Chino, CA, US) at an airflow of 2 L/min to collect indoor and outdoor
air samples for analysis during the periods of business hours. The sor-
bent from the OVS Tenax tube was transferred into a 5 mL glass tube
and then added 2 mL methyl alcohol by ultrasound for 30 min for ex-
traction. The extracts were transferred into a 1.5 mL glass vial and ana-
lyzed by using a Liquid chromatography (Nexera X2; Shimadzu
Corporation, Japan) coupled with tandem quadrupole mass spectrome-
try (8045; Shimadzu Corporation, Japan) with electrospray ionization.
In this study, DEHP standard (1000 μg/L) and its corresponding d4 inter-
nal standards (DEHP-d4; concentration: 100 μg/L) were purchased from
AccuStandard Inc. (New Haven, Connecticut, USA) with a purity of
>99%. The average recovery of DEHP-d4 standard was 113% for OVS
Tenax tubes. The calibration curve concentrations for DEHP ranged
from 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 250, 500, and 1000 μg/L (R2 > 0.99). We ana-
lyzed the 5 replicated samples with 0.05 μg/mL concentration, the aver-
age relative standard deviation was 7.7%, and the average recovery rate
was 108%. In total, 34 DEHP samples were collected, 17 and 17 samples
from indoor and outdoor air, respectively.
2.4. Building characteristics and occupants' behaviors investigation
To understand the effects of building characteristics and occupants'
activities on MP concentrations, we also used questionnaires to survey
the building characteristics (e.g. space volume and area, flooring mate-
rial, and ceiling material) and occupants' activities (nail treatment and
electrical equipment usage) for each visit. The number of occupants
per hour was also recorded by nail workers.
2.5. Exposure estimation to MPs via inhalation
In six nail salons, all workers were female; thus, we calculated expo-
sure for MPs for women. In this study, Eqs. (1) and (2) are used to cal-
culate the exposure of MPs in MPs/day and MPs/year, respectively. In
Eq. (1), the C is the MP concentration (MPs/m3). The value for the inha-
lation rate (IR) is 13.7 m3/day, which was collected by referring to
Taiwan's Compilation of Exposure Factors (Health Promotion
Administration, 2008). The exposure time (ET) per day was based on
their business hours (10:00 to 20:00, 10/24 = 0.42 day). In Eq. (2),
the working days/week and weeks/year are 5 and 52, respectively.
Einh−number ðMPs=dayÞ ¼ C  IR  ET ð1Þ
Einh−number ðMPs=yearÞ ¼ Einh−number ðMPs=dayÞ  5  52 ð2Þ
2.6. Statistical analysis
A Kruskal-Wallis test was used to determine the difference between
indoor and outdoor MPs concentrations. We also used the Kruskal-
Wallis test to analyze the difference between MP concentrations accord-
ing to different flooring material, ceiling material, and number of
3
Science of the Total Environment 806 (2022) 151472
occupants. Spearman correlation was used to analyze the relationship
between MPs and air pollutant concentrations. We used SAS statistical
software (9.4 version, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, United States) to ana-
lyze all data. The statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.
3. Results
3.1. Concentration of microplastic particles
The average MP concentrations in this study and similar studies are
shown in Table 1. In this study, the average MP concentrations were
46 ± 55 and 28 ± 24 MPs/m3 in indoor and outdoor air, respectively,
which is higher than other indoor spaces from previous studies, except
for the indoor spaces in China. The average MP concentration was signif-
icantly higher in indoor air compared to outdoor air (p < 0.05). MP con-
centrations in indoor air were not significantly associated with outdoor
MP concentrations (p = 0.52).
3.2. Shape, size, and composition of microplastic particles
Fig. 1 presents the images of MP fragments and fibers that were ob-
served through microscopy. Fig. 2A illustrates that MP fragments are pre-
dominant, accounting for 99% of all MPs in indoor air; similar results are
observed for outdoor MPs (99%). Fig. 2B shows the presence of a higher
proportion of MPs with a size of <50 μm (55%), followed by those with
sizes of 50–100, 100–150, 150–200 μm, and > 200 μm that accounted
for 36%, 5.1%, 1.9%, and 1.3%, respectively, of indoor MPs. In outdoor
MPs, the predominant size was <50 μm and 50–100 μm that accounted
for 79% and 21%, respectively. Overall, the proportion of the size ranges
of indoor and outdoor MPs decreased in larger size fractions. Fig. 2C illus-
trates that acrylic, rubber, and polyurethane resin (PUR) are the predom-
inant MPs in indoor air, accounting for 27%, 21%, and 13%, respectively; in
outdoor air, acrylic and rubber are the predominant MPs, accounting for
40% and 13%, respectively. Among those, acrylic and rubber accounted
for >40% in both indoor and outdoor air. Fig. S3 shows the predominant
polymer compositions in airborne MP samples from the FTIR analysis.
3.3. Exposure estimation of microplastic particles
The estimated MPs exposure through inhalation is presented in Fig. S4.
The average exposure was 260 ± 315 MPs/day in nail salons. For nail sa-
lons A, B, C, D, E, and F, the average values were 93 ± 114, 183 ± 164,
69 ± 60, 269 ± 170, 862 ± 311, and 142 ± 175 MPs/day. The estimated
MPs exposure was presented in MPs/year, the average value was
67,567 ± 81,782 MPs/year. For nail salons A, B, C, D, E, and F, the average
values were 24,157 ± 29,702, 47,602 ± 42,722, 17,895 ± 15,526,
69,961 ± 44,316, 224,023 ± 80,977, and 36,850 ± 45,465 MPs/year.
3.4. Influencing factor of microplastic particles in indoor air
Nail treatments were conducted during each sampling occasion for all
nail salons. Additionally, the nail workers in nail salons A and D were run-
ning an air conditioner (AC). This was not the case in salons B, C, E, and F.
Air pollutant concentrations, building characteristics, and occupants' ac-
tivities are shown in Tables S1 and S2. CO2, temperature, and RH levels
were higher in indoor air than in outdoor air (p < 0.05), and the PM2.5
concentration was higher in outdoor air (p < 0.05). The concentration
of gas-phase DEHP was higher in indoor air than outdoor air (p < 0.05).
The differences between indoor and outdoor CO2 concentrations
(dCO2) or gas-phase DEHP concentrations were significantly associated
with indoor MP concentrations (p < 0.05; Fig. 3). Indoor MP concentra-
tions were not significantly associated with PM2.5, temperature, or RH
levels (data not shown). There were higher indoor MP concentrations
in nail salons with flooring and ceilings composed of plastic materials
(Fig. 4). Moreover, the MP concentration increased with increasing
number of occupants.
E.-Y. Chen, K.-T. Lin, C.-C. Jung et al. Science of the Total Environment 806 (2022) 151472

Table 1
Summary of characteristics of MPs in indoor spaces in similar studies.

Location Indoor space Abundance (MPs/m3) Shape Size (μm) Polymer type Reference

Paris, France Apartment, office 1 to 60 Fiber 50 to 3250 PP (Dris et al., 2017)

Aarhus, Denmark Apartment 1.7 to 16.2 Fiber, fragment 11 to 500 PS, PE, Nylon (Vianello et al., 2019)
California, USA – 15.9 (fiber + fragment) Fiber, fragment 20 to 8961 PVC, PA, PS, PE, PET, ABS (Gaston et al., 2020)
Aveiro, Portugal – 6 Fiber 17 to 3669 – (Prata et al., 2020)
Austrian Laundry dryer 0.17 ± 0.27 (blank room)a Fiber 764 PET (O’Brien et al., 2020)
1.6 ± 1.8 (laundry room)a
Wenzhou, China Apartment: 1583 ± 1180a Fiber, fragment Fiber: 1000 to 5000 PA, PP, PE, PS, PVC (Liao et al., 2021)
Hospital: 259 ± 67a Fragment: 5 to 30
Station: 287 ± 72a
Fiber, fragment
Tainan and Kaohsiung, Taiwan Nail-beauty salon 46 ± 55 (indoor)a Fragment, fiber < 50 Acrylic, Rubber, PUR This study
28 ± 24 (outdoor)a

PP: Poly(propene). PS: Polystyrene. PE: Polyethene. PVC: Polyvinyl Chloride. PA: Polyamide. PET: Polyethylene terephthalate. ABS: Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. PUR: Polyurethane.
a
Mean ± standard deviation.

4. Discussion
4.1. Concentration and characteristics of indoor MPs
Recently, some studies have analyzed the MP concentrations in in-
door air, especially in homes or offices. Their studies (Dris et al., 2017;
Gaston et al., 2020; Jenner et al., 2021) indicated that the MP concentra-
tions were higher in indoor air than that outdoor air. Our data also pre-
sented similar results. However, the average MP concentration in nail
salons was higher than the measurements from the previous studies
(Table 1), except for indoor spaces in China. In nail salons, acrylic or rub-
ber nail or silk nail were used in nail treatments. These emissions from
nail treatments could be important sources for indoor MPs. Thus, MP
pollution was more serious in nail salons and workers and clients
have higher exposure risk to MPs than in other indoor spaces. The stan-
dard deviation of MP concentrations was large. We have found that AC
usage, number of clients, and the absence or presence of plastics in the
flooring and ceilings were major factors influencing indoor MP concen-
trations. In these nail salons, the occupants' activities and number of cli-
ents were different during the periods of sampling, as were the floor and
ceiling materials. These factors may explain why the standard deviation
of MP concentrations was large.
The majority of MPs (approximately 60%) in indoor dust were be-
tween 200 and 800 μm in length (Soltani et al., 2021). Dris et al.
(2017) observed a higher proportion of MPs with lengths of 250 to
450 μm in dust samples than in airborne MPs. In nail salons, the predom-
inant size ranges of MPs were < 50 μm, and the proportions were mark-
edly lower in larger sizes; this result is consistent with those previous
studies on airborne MPs (Gaston et al., 2020; Liao et al., 2021; Vianello
et al., 2019). In general, smaller aerosols have longer suspension times
in air, and larger aerosols exhibit higher rates of deposition by gravity.
These results suggest that predominant sizes considerably differed be-
tween airborne and dust MPs. Moreover, there was a lower proportion
of MPs with a size of <50 μm in nail salons with number of occupants
were 8–9 (48%) than that in the other cases (4 persons/day: 55%; 5–7 per-
sons/day: 58%); the proportion of MPs with a size of 100 to 150 μm was
higher in nail salons with number of occupants were 8–9 (13%) than
that in the other cases (4 persons/day: 5%; 5–7 persons/day: 2%). Studies
have demonstrated that occupants' activities, such as walking, induced
particle with large sizes resuspended due to air turbulence in indoor envi-
ronments (Qian et al., 2014). The result reflected that occupants' activity
was also a factor influencing the MPs' size in the air.
Studies using passive samplers have shown that fiber was a predom-
inant MP type in dust samples (Dris et al., 2017; Jenner et al., 2021).
Other studies using active samplers have indicated that fragment was
a principal shape in airborne MPs (Gaston et al., 2020; Liao et al.,
2021; Vianello et al., 2019). In this study, fragments were the predomi-
nant type of MPs in indoor air. An active sampler was used to collect air-
borne MPs, and the predominant size was <50 μm. Acrylic nail was used
as nail materials in nail treatments, and MP fragments can be emitted
during nail filing, which explains why airborne fragment was the pre-
dominant MP type.
Color is a reliable characteristic based on which MP types can be
identified (Dris et al., 2017; Dris et al., 2016). In Soltani's study
(Soltani et al., 2021), over 40% of all fibers were black. Zhang et al.
(2020b) indicated that the predominant color of MP fibers was black

Fig. 1. Images of MPs in different shapes by using an optical microscope. (A) Fragment and (B) Fiber. Red arrows indicate the MPs.

4
E.-Y. Chen, K.-T. Lin, C.-C. Jung et al. Science of the Total Environment 806 (2022) 151472

(A) Shape

(B) Size

(C) Polymer composition

Fig. 2. Characteristics of MPs in nail-beauty salons. (A) Shape, (B) Size, and (C) Polymer composition. PUR: Polyurethane resin; PVC: Polyvinyl Chloride; PCL: Polycaprolactone; PEI:
Polyethylenimine; PVA: Poly-vinyl-alcohol.

(~50%). To our knowledge, no study has yet presented findings regard-
ing the color of airborne MPs. In this study, blue and red airborne MPs
were identified; however, the MPs in nail salons were predominantly
transparent (99%). In other words, color may not a reliable property
for differentiating airborne MP types.
We used active pump samplers to collect air samples in a short time
(10 h) to analyze the characteristics of airborne MPs. However, the sam-
ples from passive samplers can present the characteristics of MPs over
time (30 days) (Soltani et al., 2021). Thus, a study is necessary to collect
dust samples for completely investigating the characteristics and poten-
tial exposure risk of MPs for workers and clients in nail salons.
4.2. Polymer type and source of MPs in nail salons
Studies conducted in homes or offices have suggested that in indoor
air, PP, PS, PA, and PET were common polymers in MPs (Dris et al., 2017;
Gaston et al., 2020; Liao et al., 2021; Vianello et al., 2019). Our data
showed that the predominant polymers of MPs in nail salon were

5
E.-Y. Chen, K.-T. Lin, C.-C. Jung et al. Science of the Total Environment 806 (2022) 151472

Fig. 3. Correction between air pollutants and total MPs concentrations in indoor air (n = 17) by using correction analysis. The statistical correction was set at p < 0.05. (A) dCO2 and MPs
and (B) Gas-phase DEHP and MPs.

Fig. 4. The MPs concentrations and relative variables in indoor air. (A) Flooring material, (B) Celling material, and (C) Number of occupants (average/day). The red lines represent median
values. The bottoms and tops of the black lines represent the values of the lowest and highest values, respectively. The lower and higher sides of the rectangle represent the 25th and 75th
percentile, respectively. *The difference between MP concentrations according to different flooring material, ceiling material, and number of occupants is significant at p < 0.05 by using a
Kruskal-Wallis test.

6
E.-Y. Chen, K.-T. Lin, C.-C. Jung et al.
acrylic, rubber, and PUR, which accounted for approximately 60% of
total indoor MPs. The predominant polymers in MPs differed between
nail salons and other indoor spaces. Moreover, O'Brien's study also indi-
cated that the MP concentration was higher in laundry room than in
blank room (O’Brien et al., 2020). These results suggesting that the in-
vestigation of MPs in other indoor spaces of business premises, such
as hair salons, is necessary to enhance the understanding regarding in-
door MPs.
Industrial activities, traffic emissions, road dust, and long-range
transportation affect outdoor MP pollution (Abbasi et al., 2019;
Akhbarizadeh et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2019a; Szewc et al., 2021; Wang
et al., 2020). Thus, the pollution sources of MPs are simpler in indoor
air than outdoor air. In nail salons, a higher proportion of acrylic was ob-
served because acrylic nails are used as nail material (Fig. S5A). More-
over, DEHP was a crucial compound in nail polish (Young et al., 2018).
Fig. 3B illustrates that DEHP concentration was positively associated
with the indoor MP concentration. Thus, nail treatment is a major
source of indoor acrylic. Our data demonstrated that rubber comprised
21% of total indoor MPs. Rubber base gel is used in nail treatments
(Fig. S5B) to provide nails with more elastic and flexible properties.
Thus, nail treatment may contribute to indoor rubber MPs. However,
tires have also been reported as key sources of rubber in MPs (Abbasi
et al., 2019; Prata et al., 2020). One study revealed that outdoor air con-
tributed to indoor rubber (Armada et al., 2021). Window opening is a
universal behavior in Taiwan (Jung et al., 2019). In this study, nail salons
were located near major high-traffic roads, and rubber constituted 13%
of total outdoor MPs. Therefore, the potential effect of outdoor air on in-
door rubber levels cannot be ignored. PUR comprised 13% of total indoor
MPs. PUR is a material used in sponges. Nail technicians often use
sponges to adjust the color of the nail polish (Fig. S5C). Sponge usage
during nail treatments can be a source of indoor MPs.
PVC is often used in ceiling or flooring materials (Akovali, 2012;
Thornton, 2002). Among the six nail salons sampled, PVC flooring and
ceiling were used in four nail salons. Our data indicated that PVC con-
centrations were 5 MPs/m3 and 3 MPs/m3 in flooring with PVC and
non-PVC materials, respectively, and 6 MPs/m3 and 2 MPs/m3 in ceilings
with PVC and non-PVC materials, respectively. This is the first study to
demonstrate that ceiling and flooring materials were key contributors
to indoor MPs. Low proportions of poly(vinyl acetate), polyethylen-
imine, and PCL (5%–6%) were identified in indoor air. These three poly-
mers could have been used as adhesives or in paints. However, studies
have rarely recorded these three polymers in indoor air; more research
may be necessary to investigate their potential source.
Although we have explained the sources for predominant MPs in-
doors, no study investigated the usage amounts of acrylic or rubber
nail and sponge or the generation mechanisms. More research is neces-
sary to investigate the related issue to fully assess the critical sources to
MPs in nail salons to reduce MP exposure.
4.3. MPs in outdoor air
According to our knowledge, this is the first study to measure out-
door airborne MPs in Taiwan. Outdoor MP concentration was lower
compared to indoor air, as is consistent with previous studies (Dris
et al., 2017; Gaston et al., 2020; Jenner et al., 2021). Although similar
sizes, shapes, and polymer compositions were observed for indoor and
outdoor MPs, there was a higher proportion of acrylic found in outdoor
air compared to indoor environments. Acrylic billboards are very com-
mon in the streets of Taiwan and the nail salons of this study were in
the downtown area. Additionally, our sampling sites for outdoor air
were located beside high-traffic roads where acrylic reflective marking
is common. This may explain why the proportion of acrylic was higher
in outdoor air than in indoor air. Moreover, the indoor MP concentration
was not associated with the outdoor MP concentration (data not
shown) in this study. Tire, road dust, and road markings were major
contributors to MPs in the atmosphere (Abbasi et al., 2019; Kitahara
7
Science of the Total Environment 806 (2022) 151472
and Nakata, 2020; Liu et al., 2019a). Wind speed, wind direction, rain-
fall, and photolysis affect the outdoor MP concentration, transport, and
degradation (Allen et al., 2019; Dris et al., 2017; Liao et al., 2021;
Zhang et al., 2021). The influencing factors differ between MPs in indoor
and outdoor air. The MP concentration in outdoor air was higher in our
study than in some previous studies (Akhbarizadeh et al., 2021; Dris
et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2019b) but lower than in others (Li et al., 2020;
Liao et al., 2021). Plastic bags, package materials, or long-term transpor-
tation were universal sources of outdoor MPs (Cai et al., 2017; Liao et al.,
2021). Population density, human activities, industry types, or land use
types also affect MP concentrations and types (Amato-Lourenço et al.,
2020). Therefore, the pollution sources and influencing factors could
differ between indoor and outdoor MPs.
In Taiwan, residential, industrial, and commercial area mixed-use is
the main type of city development. This type of city development may
have different influences or sources on MPs. However, in this study,
we did not collect related parameters for outdoor air, such as wind
speed or wind direction. More researches are necessary to investigate
related issue for outdoor MPs in Taiwan to reduce the concentrations
and health risk for human in the atmosphere.
4.4. Potential exposure risk of MPs to human
Data regarding associations between MP exposure through inhala-
tion and adverse health risks are limited. The sizes of MPs exceed the in-
halation size range, and studies have only observed MP fibers as having
adverse effects on the human respiratory system (Prata, 2018; Warheit
et al., 2001). However, large plastic particles can avoid clearance in the
upper airways and have noteworthy durability in physiological fluids,
leading to their accumulation through inhalation (Law et al., 1990).
Some studies have shown that MPs can act as a vector for heavy metals
(Zhou et al., 2019) or organic contaminators (Akhbarizadeh et al., 2021)
that increases their potential toxicology. Gas-phase DEHP with an
endocrine-disrupting chemical was significantly associated with indoor
MP concentrations in this study. Moreover, previous studies have indi-
cated that synthetic plastic processing can cause health problems
(Eschenbacher et al., 1999; Tickner et al., 2001; Warheit et al., 2001)
such as coughing and headache. Thus, the risk of exposure to MP frag-
ments through inhalation cannot be ignored.
Cox found (Cox et al., 2019) that exposure to MPs through inhalation
was 37,781–55,099 MPs/year, which was lower than that observed in
our study. Prata reported (Prata, 2018) a lower exposure of MPs through
inhalation (6760–33,800 MPs/year) than we did. Thus, estimations of
annual MP inhalation differ markedly. The sampling and analysis
methods varied in different studies could be a major reason. Thus, a
standardized method of sampling and analysis is necessary to examine
the exposure and health risk of airborne MPs.
In this study, we did not estimate the exposure for MPs via oral.
However, according to our observation, some nail workers ate food
and drank water in the salons. We suggested that it is necessary to esti-
mate the exposure of MPs via oral to completely assess the health risk
for workers.
4.5. Factors influencing indoor MPs concentrations
The dCO2 can be used to represent the ventilation condition in
indoor spaces (Turanjanin et al., 2014). Our data revealed that the
dCO2 was positively associated with indoor MP concentrations, imply-
ing lower airflow turbulence (to remove MPs) in poorly ventilated
nail salons. However, Zhang's study (Zhang et al., 2020b) discovered
that the MP concentrations increased in a dormitory when the AC was
turned on because wind induced MP emission or resuspension (Rezaei
et al., 2019). In our study, all nail salons used single-split AC without
fresh air support. During the periods of sampling, the average dCO2
was higher in nail salons with AC usage (633 ppm) than in those with-
out AC usage (461 ppm) but with a window opening. These results
E.-Y. Chen, K.-T. Lin, C.-C. Jung et al.
imply that AC usage without fresh air support induced MP emission or
resuspension as well as CO2 concentrations indoors. In other words,
AC with fresh air support should be used to reduce MP and CO2
concentrations through fresh air dilution.
Our data demonstrated higher MP concentrations in business pre-
mises with higher numbers of occupants each day. Human activity
was reported to increase MP concentrations due to emissions from tex-
tile products (such as clothes) or airflow turbulence (Zhang et al.,
2020b). This result is consistent with that reported by the previous
study (Pratiwi et al., 2020). Thus, number of occupants is a key factor
influencing MP concentration in indoor air. However, Soltani et al.
(2021) did not observe significant differences in MP concentrations ac-
cording to the different numbers of occupants or occupant density. The
mechanism underlying the potential link between number of occupants
and MP emission remains unclear. Therefore, additional studies are nec-
essary to elucidate the effect of the number of occupants on MP emis-
sion in indoor air.
MP concentrations were higher in ceiling or flooring composed of
plastic materials was higher than those not composed of such mate-
rials. Possible explanations are that (1) the flooring or ceiling emits
or retains MPs associated with nail treatment and the MPs thereby
resuspend more easily from smooth plastic flooring or ceiling (espe-
cially when workers wipe that flooring or ceiling), (2) airflow turbu-
lence from AC induces MP emission from the ceiling or flooring, or
(3) occupants' activities (e.g., walking) increase air turbulence in
relation to MPs on flooring. In the future, research should be con-
ducted to investigate the mechanism of MP emission from plastic
flooring or ceilings.
5. Conclusion
This is the first study to investigate the concentrations, characteris-
tics, exposure via inhalation, and influencing factors of MPs in nail sa-
lons. Our study finds that indoor MP concentration was higher than
outdoor concentration, indicating that indoor MP was a critical issue
in public health. Moreover, our data shows that indoor MP concentra-
tions and exposure via inhalation were higher in nail salons than in
the homes or offices from previous studies, and the polymer composi-
tions were different. These results reflect the potential health risk
caused by airborne MP exposure for workers or clients in nail salons,
which should be further investigated, and indicate that related studies
on other business premises are an urgent matter. Our data demon-
strated that ventilation conditions, building materials, and occupants'
activities are important factors influencing indoor MP concentrations.
These findings indicate critical directions for control methods to reduce
MP exposure for workers and clients of nail salons. Possible interven-
tions include supplying appropriate ventilation, controlling customer
numbers, wearing masks during nail treatment, and using non-plastic
material in ceilings and floors.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
En-Yu Chen: Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis, and
Writing-original draft.
Kuan-Ting Lin: Investigation, Data curation, and Writing-original
draft.
Chien-Cheng Jung: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing-
original draft, and Review & editing.
Chia-Ling Chang: Investigation and Formal analysis.
Chung-Yu Chen: Data curation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
8
Science of the Total Environment 806 (2022) 151472
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the China Medical University (CMU109-N-03) for
financially supporting this research. We also gratefully acknowledge the
use of ECHO REVOLVE microscope belonging to the Medical Research
Core Facilities, Office of Research & Development at China Medical Uni-
versity, Taichung, Taiwan.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151472.
References
Abbasi, S., Keshavarzi, B., Moore, F., Turner, A., Kelly, F.J., Dominguez, A.O., et al., 2019. Dis-
tribution and potential health impacts of microplastics and microrubbers in air and
street dusts from Asaluyeh County,Iran. 244, 153–164.
Akhbarizadeh, R., Dobaradaran, S., Amouei Torkmahalleh, M., Saeedi, R., Aibaghi, R., Faraji,
Ghasemi F., 2021. Suspended fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)), microplastics (MPs),
and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air: their possible relationships and
health implications. Environ. Res. 192, 110339.
Akovali, G., 2012. Plastic Materials: Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). Toxicity of Building Mate-
rials, pp. 23–53.
Allen, S., Allen, D., Phoenix, V.R., Le Roux, G., Jiménez, P.D., Simonneau, A., et al., 2019. At-
mospheric transport and deposition of microplastics in a remote mountain catch-
ment. Nat. Geosci. 12, 339–344.
Amato-Lourenço, L.F., dos Santos, Galvão L., de Weger, L.A., Hiemstra, P.S., Vijver, M.G.,
Mauad, T., 2020. An emerging class of air pollutants: potential effects of microplastics
to respiratory human health? Sci. Total Environ. 749, 141676.
Armada, D., Celeiro, M., Martinez-Fernandez, A., Nurerk, P., Dagnac, T., Llompart, M., 2021.
Miniaturized active air sampling method for the analysis of tire rubber pollutants
from indoor and outdoor places. J. Sep. Sci. 44, 1694–1705.
Bergmann, M., Mützel, S., Primpke, S., Tekman, M.B., Trachsel, J., Gerdts, G., 2019. White
and wonderful? Microplastics prevail in snow from the Alps to the Arctic. Sci. Adv.
5, eaax1157.
Boots, B., Russell, C.W., Green, D.S., 2019. Effects of microplastics in soil ecosystems: above
and below ground. Environ.Sci.Technol. 53, 11496–11506.
Brennecke, D., Duarte, B., Paiva, F., Caçador, I., Canning-Clode, J., 2016. Microplastics as
vector for heavy metal contamination from the marine environment. Estuar. Coast.
Shelf Sci. 178, 189–195.
Cai, L., Wang, J., Peng, J., Tan, Z., Zhan, Z., Tan, X., et al., 2017. Characteristic of microplastics
in the atmospheric fallout from Dongguan city, China: preliminary research and first
evidence. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 24, 24928–24935.
Chatterjee, S., Sharma, S., 2019:. Microplastics in our oceans and marine health. Field ac-
tions science reports. J. Field Actions 54–61.
Cox, K.D., Covernton, G.A., Davies, H.L., Dower, J.F., Juanes, F., Dudas, S.E., 2019. Human
consumption of microplastics. Environ.Sci.Technol. 53, 7068–7074.
Craig, J.A., Ceballos, D.M., Fruh, V., Petropoulos, Z.E., Allen, J.G., Calafat, A.M., et al., 2019.
Exposure of nail salon workers to phthalates, di (2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate, and or-
ganophosphate esters: a pilot study. Environ.Sci.Technol. 53, 14630–14637.
Dong, C.-D., Chen, C.-W., Chen, Y.-C., Chen, H.-H., Lee, J.-S., Lin, C.-H., 2020. Polystyrene
microplastic particles: in vitro pulmonary toxicity assessment. J. Hazard. Mater.
385, 121575.
Dris, R., Gasperi, J., Saad, M., Mirande, C., Tassin, B., 2016. Synthetic fibers in atmospheric
fallout: a source of microplastics in the environment? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 104, 290–293.
Dris, R., Gasperi, J., Mirande, C., Mandin, C., Guerrouache, M., Langlois, V., et al., 2017. A
first overview of textile fibers, including microplastics, in indoor and outdoor envi-
ronments. Environ. Pollut. 221, 453–458.
Eschenbacher, W.L., Kreiss, K., Lougheed, M.D., Pransky, G.S., Day, B., Castellan, R.M., 1999.
Nylon flock–associated interstitial lung disease. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 159,
2003–2008.
Galloway, T.S., 2015. Micro-and Nano-plastics and Human Health. Marine Anthropogenic
Litter. Springer, Cham, pp. 343–366.
Gaston, E., Woo, M., Steele, C., Sukumaran, S., Anderson, S., 2020. Microplastics differ be-
tween indoor and outdoor air masses: insights from multiple microscopy methodol-
ogies. Appl. Spectrosc. 74, 1079–1098.
Health Promotion Administration, 2008. Compilation of Exposure Factors. Health Promo-
tion Administration, Taipei City.
Hidalgo-Ruz, V., Gutow, L., Thompson, R.C., Thiel, M., 2012. Microplastics in the marine
environment: a review of the methods used for identification and quantification. En-
viron.Sci.Technol. 46, 3060–3075.
Jenner, L.C., Sadofsky, L.R., Danopoulos, E., Rotchell, J.M., 2021. Household indoor
microplastics within the Humber region (United Kingdom): quantification and
chemical characterisation of particles present. Atmos. Environ. 259, 118515.
Jiang, C., Yin, L., Wen, X., Du, C., Wu, L., Long, Y., et al., 2018. Microplastics in sediment and
surface water of west dongting lake and south dongting lake: abundance, source and
composition. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 15, 2164.
Jung, C.-C., Hsu, N.-Y., Su, H.-J., 2019. Temporal and spatial variations in IAQ and its asso-
ciation with building characteristics and human activities in tropical and subtropical
areas. Build. Environ. 163, 106249.
E.-Y. Chen, K.-T. Lin, C.-C. Jung et al.
Karbalaei, S., Hanachi, P., Walker, T.R., Cole, M., 2018. Occurrence, sources, human health
impacts and mitigation of microplastic pollution. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 25,
36046–36063.
Kitahara, K.-I., Nakata, H., 2020. Plastic additives as tracers of microplastic sources in
Japanese road dusts. Sci. Total Environ. 736, 139694.
Law, B., Bunn, W., Hesterberg, T., 1990. Solubility of polymeric organic fibers and
manmade vitreous fibers in gambles solution. Inhal. Toxicol. 2, 321–339.
Li, J., Qu, X., Su, L., Zhang, W., Yang, D., Kolandhasamy, P., et al., 2016. Microplastics in
mussels along the coastal waters of China. Environ. Pollut. 214, 177–184.
Li, Y., Shao, L., Wang, W., Zhang, M., Feng, X., Li, W., et al., 2020. Airborne fiber particles:
types, size and concentration observed in Beijing. Sci. Total Environ. 705, 135967.
Liao, Z., Ji, X., Ma, Y., Lv, B., Huang, W., Zhu, X., et al., 2021. Airborne microplastics in indoor
and outdoor environments of a coastal city in Eastern China. J. Hazard. Mater. 417,
126007.
Liu, K., Wang, X., Fang, T., Xu, P., Zhu, L., Li, D., 2019a. Source and potential risk assessment
of suspended atmospheric microplastics in Shanghai. Sci. Total Environ. 675,
462–471.
Liu, K., Wu, T., Wang, X., Song, Z., Zong, C., Wei, N., et al., 2019b. Consistent transport of
terrestrial microplastics to the ocean through atmosphere. Environ.Sci.Technol. 53,
10612–10619.
Lu, K., Lai, K.P., Stoeger, T., Ji, S., Lin, Z., Lin, X., et al., 2021. Detrimental effects of
microplastic exposure on normal and asthmatic pulmonary physiology. J. Hazard.
Mater. 416, 126069.
Mendoza, L.M.R., Karapanagioti, H., Álvarez, N.R., 2018. Micro (nanoplastics) in the ma-
rine environment: current knowledge and gaps. Curr.Opin.Environ.Sci.Health 1,
47–51.
O’Brien, S., Okoffo, E.D., O’Brien, J.W., Ribeiro, F., Wang, X., Wright, S.L., et al., 2020. Air-
borne emissions of microplastic fibres from domestic laundry dryers. Sci. Total Envi-
ron. 747, 141175.
PlasticEurope, 2020. An Analysis of European Plastics Production, Demand, and Waste
Data. PlasticEurope.
Prata, J.C., 2018. Airborne microplastics: consequences to human health? Environ. Pollut.
234, 115–126.
Prata, J.C., Castro, J.L., da Costa, J.P., Duarte, A.C., Rocha-Santos, T., Cerqueira, M., 2020. The
importance of contamination control in airborne fibers and microplastic sampling:
experiences from indoor and outdoor air sampling in Aveiro,Portugal. 159, 111522.
Pratiwi, A., Syafei, A.D., Assomadi, A.F., Boedisantoso, R., Hermana, J., 2020. Microplastic
characterization based on the number of occupants. AIP Conference Proceedings.
2296. AIP Publishing LLC, p. 020061.
Qian, J., Peccia, J., Ferro, A.R., 2014. Walking-induced particle resuspension in indoor envi-
ronments. Atmos. Environ. 89, 464–481.
Rezaei, M., Riksen, M.J., Sirjani, E., Sameni, A., Geissen, V., 2019. Wind erosion as a driver
for transport of light density microplastics. Sci. Total Environ. 669, 273–281.
Science of the Total Environment 806 (2022) 151472
Sana, S.S., Dogiparthi, L.K., Gangadhar, L., Chakravorty, A., Abhishek, N., 2020. Effects of
microplastics and nanoplastics on marine environment and human health. Environ.
Sci. Pollut. Res. 1–14.
Selvam, S., Jesuraja, K., Venkatramanan, S., Roy, P.D., Kumari, V.J., 2021. Hazardous
microplastic characteristics and its role as a vector of heavy metal in groundwater
and surface water of coastal south India. J. Hazard. Mater. 402, 123786.
Shim, W.J., Hong, S.H., Eo, S.E., 2017. Identification methods in microplastic analysis: a re-
view. Anal. Methods 9, 1384–1391.
Soltani, N.S., Taylor, M.P., Wilson, S.P., 2021. Quantification and exposure assessment of
microplastics in Australian indoor house dust. Environ. Pollut. 283, 117064.
Szewc, K., Graca, B., Dołęga, A., 2021. Atmospheric deposition of microplastics in the
coastal zone: characteristics and relationship with meteorological factors. Sci. Total
Environ. 761, 143272.
Thornton, J., 2002. Environmental Impacts of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Building Materials.
Healthy Building Network, Washington, DC.
Tickner, J.A., Schettler, T., Guidotti, T., McCally, M., Rossi, M., 2001. Health risks posed by
use of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) in PVC medical devices: a critical review.
Am. J. Ind. Med. 39, 100–111.
Turanjanin, V., Vučićević, B., Jovanović, M., Mirkov, N., Lazović, I., 2014. Indoor CO2 mea-
surements in serbian schools and ventilation rate calculation. Energy 77, 290–296.
Vianello, A., Jensen, R.L., Liu, L., Vollertsen, J., 2019. Simulating human exposure to indoor
airborne microplastics using a breathing thermal manikin. Sci. Rep. 9, 1–11.
Wang, X., Li, C., Liu, K., Zhu, L., Song, Z., Li, D., 2020. Atmospheric microplastic over the
South China Sea and East Indian Ocean: abundance, distribution and source.
J. Hazard. Mater. 389, 121846.
Warheit, D., Hart, G., Hesterberg, T., Collins, J., Dyer, W., Swaen, G., et al., 2001. Potential
pulmonary effects of man-made organic fiber (MMOF) dusts. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 31,
697–736.
Young, A.S., Allen, J.G., Kim, U.-J., Seller, S., Webster, T.F., Kannan, K., et al., 2018. Phthalate
and organophosphate plasticizers in nail polish: evaluation of labels and ingredients.
Environ.Sci.Technol. 52, 12841–12850.
Zhang, K., Hamidian, A.H., Tubić, A., Zhang, Y., Fang, J.K., Wu, C., et al., 2021. Understanding
plastic degradation and microplastic formation in the environment: a review. Envi-
ron. Pollut. 274, 116554.
Zhang, Q., Xu, E.G., Li, J., Chen, Q., Ma, L., Zeng, E.Y., et al., 2020a. A review of microplastics
in table salt, drinking water, and air: direct human exposure. Environ.Sci.Technol. 54,
3740–3751.
Zhang, Q., Zhao, Y., Du, F., Cai, H., Wang, G., Shi, H., 2020b. Microplastic fallout in different
indoor environments. Environ.Sci.Technol. 54, 6530–6539.
Zhou, Y., Liu, X., Wang, J., 2019. Characterization of microplastics and the association of
heavy metals with microplastics in suburban soil of central China. Sci. Total Environ.
694, 133798.