IoT and IIoT Systems

(SEP728)

Lecture 5
IoT/IIoTConnectivity and Networking protocols(con’t)
Embedded Systems
Networking vs Data Protocols

Prof Pedro Tondo, M.Eng.

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Today
• Networking/Comms Con’t
• Embedded Systems
• Embedded programming
• Embedded Operating System

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Network vs Data Protocols

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Design Considerations
Line of sight Equations

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Design Considerations
Line of sight Equations

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Design Considerations - Fresnel Zone

• The Fresnel Zone is important to the integrity of the RF link

because it defines a volume around the LOS that must be
clear of any obstacle for the maximum power to reach the
receiving antenna.

• Objects in the Fresnel Zone as trees, hilltops and buildings

can considerably attenuate the received signal, even when
there is an unobstructed line between the TX and RX.

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Line of Sight and Fresnel Zones

a free line-of-sight IS NOT EQUAL TO a free Fresnel Zone

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Design Considerations - Fresnel Zone

‣ The radius of the first Fresnel Zone at a given point between
the transmitter and the receiver can be calculated as:

‣ Note that this gives you the radius of the zone, not the height
above ground. To calculate the height above ground, you need
to subtract the result from a line drawn directly between the
tops of the two towers.
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Line of Sight and Fresnel Zones

Example: Calculate the radius of the fresnel zone if the
distance between two antennas are (D) 5.0kms and the signal
frequency is 2.4GHz (f). (ans: 12.49m, @80% = 9.994m)

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Clearance of the Fresnel Zone and

earth curvature
This table shows the minimum height above flat ground required to clear
70% of the first Fresnel zone for various link distances at 2.4 GHz.

Notice that earth curvature plays a small role at short distances, but
becomes more important as the distance increases.

Distance 1st zone 70% Required height

Earth curvature (m)
(km) (m) (m) (m)

1 5.5 3.9 0.0 3.9

5 12.4 8.7 0.4 9.1
10 17.5 12.2 1.5 13.7
15 21.4 15.0 3.3 18.3
20 24.7 17.3 5.9 23.2
25 27.7 19.4 9.2 28.6
30 30.3 21.2 13.3 34.5
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Example - Fresnel Zones

In the equations above, D is in miles, G in GHz, H1/H2 feet

For metric: H1 = 10.2 x SQRT(D/4f)

H2 = 0.078D or (d1*d2)

Example: Calculate H1 and H2 required for a 5Km link at 2.45GHz

H1 = 10.2 x (SQRT(5/4*2.45) = 7.29m (60% clearance already considered)
H2 = 0.078*5 = 0.39m
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Design Considerations - Fresnel Zone

‣ Considering the importance of the Fresnel Zone, it is

important to quantify the degree to which it can be
blocked.

‣ Typically, 20% - 40% Fresnel Zone blockage introduces

little to no interference into the link.

‣ It is better to err to the conservative side allowing no

more than 20% blockage of the Fresnel Zone.

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Design Considerations
Summary of signal Impairments (common)
• Attenuation distortion
• Free space loss/Fresnel Zone
• Noise
• Atmospheric absorption
• Multipath (not too bad with WiMAX – reflections/multiple copies)
• Refraction
• Thermal noise (cannot be eliminated – present on virtually every
electronic device – due to agitation of electrons – function of
temperature)

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Design Considerations
Link Budget
‣ The performance of any communication link depends on
the quality of the equipment being used.

‣ Link budget is a way of quantifying the link performance.

‣ The received power in an 802.11/16 link is determined

by three main factors: transmit power, transmitting
antenna gain, and receiving antenna gain.

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Design Considerations
Link Budget

‣ If that power, minus the free space loss of the link path,
is greater than the minimum received signal level of the
receiving radio, then a link is possible.

‣ The difference between the minimum received signal

level and the actual received power is called the link
margin.

‣ The link margin must be positive, and should be

maximized (should be at least 10dB or more for reliable
links).
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Power in a Wireless System

EIRP – Effective Isotropic Radiated Power

(Output Power when a signal is concentrated into a smaller 16
area by the Antenna) – directional radio frequency
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Example link budget calculation

Let’s estimate the feasibility of a 5 km link, with one access point and one
client radio.

The access point is connected to an antenna with 10 dBi gain, with a

transmitting power of 20 dBm and a receive sensitivity of -89 dBm.

The client is connected to an antenna with 14 dBi gain, with a transmitting

power of 15 dBm and a receive sensitivity of -82 dBm.

The cables in both systems are short, with a loss of 2dB at each side at the
2.4 GHz frequency of operation.

Path loss: -114 dB @ 5 km

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AP to Client link

+10 dBi +14 dBi

+20 dBm

-2 dB -114 dB @ 5 km -2 dB

-82 dBm

EIRP – Effective Isotropic Radiated Power

(Output Power when a signal is concentrated into a smaller 18
area by the Antenna) – directional radio frequency
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Link budget: AP to Client link

20 dBm (TX Power AP)

+ 10 dBi (Antenna Gain AP)
- 2 dB (Cable Losses AP)
+ 14 dBi (Antenna Gain Client)
- 2 dB (Cable Losses Client)

40 dB Total Gain
-114 dB (free space loss @5 km)

-74 dBm (expected received signal level)

--82 dBm (sensitivity of Client)

8 dB (link margin)

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Opposite direction: Client to AP

+14 dBi +10 dBi

+15 dBm

-2 dB -114 dB @ 5 km -2 dB

???

-89 dBm

EIRP – Effective Isotropic Radiated Power

(Output Power when a signal is concentrated into a smaller 20
area by the Antenna) – directional radio frequency
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Link budget: Client to AP link

15 dBm (TX Power Client)

+ 14 dBi (Antenna Gain Client)
- 2 dB (Cable Losses Client)
+ 10 dBi (Antenna Gain AP)
- 2 dB (Cable Losses AP)

35 dB Total Gain
-114 dB (free space loss @5 km)

-79 dBm (expected received signal level)

--89 dBm (sensitivity of AP)

10 dB (link margin)

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Embedded Systems

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Embedded Systems
• Hidden Inside(Embedded)/Multiple components interfaced together for a common
purpose (System)

• Small or large non-computer device with integrated software based on

microcontrollers and microprocessors for performing a special function or a limited set
of functions.

• It may or may not have a screen and a keyboard, be either programmable or non-
programmable, perform a single function in isolation or work as a part of a large
system.

• Examples: TV remote control , microwave oven, network of sensors in automobiles and

complicated manufacturing robotic equipment

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Embedded Systems
Features

• Designed to perform specific repeated functions on certain single-purpose devices

• Should perform their functions deterministically, within a prescribed timeframe

• Based on microprocessors and microcontrollers

• May work without operating systems (baremetal) or use specialized operating systems such as a
real-time operating systems (RTOS) instead of GPOS (General Purpose OS)

• Work with limited memory, power and computing resources

• May or may not have a keyboard, screen, user interface, connectivity

• May be created with consideration to environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and
other environmental conditions that may affect device performance

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Embedded Systems
Benefits

• Strong performance — since software is written for handling a single task on a certain device, its
performance is usually close to perfect, which is crucial for end-users

• Small size — in comparison with regular computers, embedded systems are much smaller in size,
which makes them compact, portable and convenient for mass production

• Low power consumption — most devices require little power for operations, which means that they
can be applied in various locations and work in complicated circumstances; it also means resource
usage optimization.

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Embedded Systems
Firmware Vs. Embedded Software Vs. IoT

• The three terms — firmware, embedded software and the Internet of Things (IoT) — are different
concepts, although they are tightly interconnected.

• Firmware is a program written into the memory of a particular single-purpose electronic device and
performing low-level functions such as converting sensor signals. It is written in low-level languages
(C/C++ or assembly) and then translated into the machine code in a compiled binary that is then
deployed to the device’s memory.

• Firmware often needs to be updated in the field in order to deploy critical updates such as: Bug
fixes, Security updates, Feature enhancements and additions

• This requires embedded systems to include a secure bootloader solution that allows the device to
authenticate and verify the integrity of new firmware images before updating the devices internal
memory with the latest software.

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Embedded Systems
Firmware Vs. Embedded Software Vs. IoT

• Embedded software, just like firmware, is created for a specific device.

• Main difference: the software is being written in high-level languages Java, C++ or Python.

• In general, embedded software is more sophisticated and performs high-level functions such as data
processing and interaction with other devices.

• It’s possible for a system to have both firmware and embedded software. The program files for
embedded software are stored in the file system of a given device and extracted to the random-
access memory (RAM) for execution.

• If you connect an embedded system to the internet, it turns into an IoT device.

• With the rapid pace of IoT development, practically any object can become a connected device.

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Embedded Systems

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Embedded Systems
Constraints
- Stability
- Design Constraints
- Security

Source:Digi-Key

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Questions?
Comments?

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Next week
- Security of IoT/IIoT and networking
protocols(MQTT) (Chapter 2, 5)

- Long Rage Wireless networks

(LoRaWAN) – Chapter 7

- Assignment 4 – receive a message from

PubNub as input to control a
device/logic

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References

[1] Liu, X., Wenbi R.,Yaobang Z.,Liping L.,Jingling Y.,Fei H., “Experimental Teaching Reform to Embedded
System Curriculum”. August 2020. IEE Xplore. Online
[2] Nikolov, N., “Research of MQTT, CoAP, HTTP and XMPP IoT Communication protocols for Embedded
Systems”. September 2020. IEE Xplore. Online
[3] Koshkin, D. Embedded Systems. Sam Solutions. Online

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