B.A.

(Programme) Semester-VI Education

DISCIPLINE SPECIFIC ELECTIVE (DSE)

Education in India: Policy and Practice
Study Material : Unit 1-3

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

University of Delhi

Department of Education
Editor: Ranjan Kumar Sahoo
 Graduate Course
DISCIPLINE SPECIFIC ELECTIVE (DSE)
Education in India: Policy and Practice

Contents
Unit 1:Understanding Educational Policy in India

Lesson-1: Policy and its Influence on the Educational System Kanchan Sharma
Lesson-2: Overview of Policies in India Pooja Sharma
Lesson-3: International Goals and Policy Formation in India Kanchan Sharma
Lesson-4: Educational Planning and Financing in India Dimpal Kumari

Unit 2: School of Education in India

Lesson-5: Kothari Commission Report and Vision of Common Sheela Rajeshwari

Schooling
Lesson-6: System of Schools: Types and Affiliation Preeti Sharma
Lesson-7: School Education in India Jasmeet Kaur
Lesson-8: Government Initiatives for School Education Nidhi Goel

Unit 3:Higher Education In India

Lesson-9: Issues in Higher Education and Rashtriya Uchchatar Ranjan Kumar Sahoo
Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)
Lesson-10: Quality and Regulations in Higher Education: Role of Bhageshwari Sharma
UGC and NAAC
Lesson-11: Types of Universities: Central, State, Private, Open Bhageshwari Sharma
and Deemed
Lesson-12: Contemporary Issues: Role of the Global Market and Chandan Shrivastava
GATS in Education

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
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 Lesson-1 Unit-1
POLICY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE EDUCATIONAL
SYSTEM
Kanchan Sharma

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Understand the importance of education and policies of education.
• Understand how education can change the thinking of society.
• Distinguish between different reformations in education.
• Identify key factors to make a change in the influence of policy.
• Know how the need of reformation and politics of the nation influences the
development of the nation.

Introduction
The foundation of the development of any country is education, and policies on education
are the building blocks of the development of a country. Both are the two sides of the same
coin. Education is the process of educating, and policy is a law or administrative plan of
action made by government bodies. Every reformation in every field starts with the 2WH
formula, that is, what, why, and how. We know very well what society needs and why it is
so important, but how to make a policy and how it could be implemented is the main course
of action of planning and the zestful part of the policy. A policy is made by the government
on the basis of society's need to influence society's development to compete with the new
challenges of the world like economic, technical, medical, political, spiritual, etc.
Governments of all countries emphasize education policy. Economic and social
development are directly proportional to the impact of educational policies. We are going
to discuss all educational policies from pre-Independent India to Independent India. We
will discuss all commissions. An endeavor is made in this chapter to investigate the nature
of educational policy and its influences.

Educational System
Education is the key to uncovering all of humanity's potential for tremendous development.
At the national or state level, the educational system is typically associated with the public
schooling system. Educational system comprises public funding (part of tax), commission,
policies and regulation, teaching resources, educational material, infrastructure, teaching

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and non-teaching staff, administrators, and other supporting facilities. The aim of
educational system is to -
• Increase individual potential.
• Enhance the quality of educational material.
• Create equal opportunity for all.
• Maintain considerable infrastructure.
A. Pre-British Educational System
Ancient period
The culture and education system of India has a great history. Education system consisted
of the tradition of Gurukulas, Ashrams, Monasteries etc. Where everyone was eager to get
the knowledge, not only Indians, even from other Asian countries.
There were two major education systems in ancient times.
• Vedic education system.
• Buddhist education system.
The Foundation of Vedic education system based on Vedas and Upanishads and the
foundation of Buddhist education system based on the thoughts of how to enhance the
quality of basic life. There are so many similarities and dissimilarities between the Buddhist
and Vedic education system.
Similarities between Vedic and Buddhist education systems.
• Goal of the education system was redemption.
• Structure of the education system based on religion.
• Education imparted in nature.
• Free education system.
• Tough life and physical labour.
• Education based on oral tests and debate. Written tests were missing.
Dissimilarities between Vedic and Buddhist education systems.
• Sanskrit was the main language in vedic system and Pali language was used in
buddhist education system.
• In Vedic system students were called ‘Brahmchari’ and in the Buddhist system they
were called ‘Bhikshu’.
• Vedic education system is not for all, but the Buddhist education system was open
for all instead of this education of women survived.

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 • Vedic education system had a poor funded structure, but the Buddhist education
system had a richly funded education structure.
Mughal Period
In India, the Mughal monarchs encouraged Islamic education. During the Mughal period,
there was no significant increase in universities or modern education. The main goal of
education in the pre-British period was religion.
There were no serious efforts to promote contemporary education, and the entire system
was seized by a few individuals. Women's education and the education of specific castes
have suffered as a result of this educational monopoly.
B. British Educational System
Because their ultimate focus was to trade and make money, the British East India Company
was apathetic about the development of education systems. To rule India, they planned to
educate a narrow slice of the upper and middle classes in order to create a class of “Indian
in blood and colour but English in flavour” mediators between the state and the citizens.
The “downward filtration theory” also increased the gap between society. Due to the
filtration theory, the British started to give English education to some people to fulfil the
requirement of administrative post to rule and to control other people of state.
• Warren Hastings (6 December 1732 – 22 August 1818): British colonial
administrator founded the Calcutta Madrassa “Aliya” in 1781 for the goal of
teaching Muslim law.
• Jonathan Duncan (15 May 1756 – 11 August 1811): Governor of Bombay
founded a Sanskrit College in Varanasi in 1791 to study Hindu philosophy and
laws.
• William Carey (17 August 1761 – 9 June 1834): English Christian missionary
William established Serampore College and Serampore University, India's first
degree-granting institution.
• The charter act (1813): The Act asserted the Crown's jurisdiction over British
India, provided 100,000 rupees to Christian missionaries, and allowed them to
preach their religion in English. The Act also enhanced the jurisdiction of Indian
regional governments and courts over European British subjects, and financial
provisions were provided to stimulate the revival of Indian literature and science.
• William Bentinck (14 September 1774 – 17 June 1839): In India, Lieutenant
General Lord William is credited with enormous social and educational changes,
notably the prohibition of sati.
• Thomas Babington Macaulay (25 October 1800 – 28 December 1859): British
historian, Thomas Babington Macaulay is widely credited with pioneering the
Western educational system in India. Bentinck named Thomas Babington
Macaulay as Chairman of the General Committee of Public Instruction. In 1835,

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 Macaulay presented “Macaulay's Minute,” a paper in which he argued for the
adoption of English and western principles in Indian education. He advocated for
the official language of the country to be English, for English to be the medium of
instruction in all schools, and for English-speaking Indians to be trained as teachers.
• The Sargent Commission (1944): Chaired by Sir John Sargent, it was established
in 1944 to make a detailed report on India's educational system. The “Sargent
Scheme” or “Report of the Sargent Commission on Post-War Education
Development in India” was the title of the commission’s report. In 1944, it was
handed over to the British-run government of India. This study laid the groundwork
for the country’s educational system to flourish in the future.
C. Independent India Educational System
There were no important commissions or findings in the British era after the Sargent
Commission. The University Education Commission (1948-49) was the first post-
independence commission on education. Dr. S. Radhakrishan was appointed as the
chairperson of the Commission and the first National Education Policy of Independent
India was adopted in 1968 under Indira Gandhi's leadership. The Union Cabinet of India
approved the latest National Policy on Education (NEP, 2020) on July 29, 2020. The 1986
National Policy on Education has been replaced by this new policy. We'll start at the
beginning and look at all of the educational policies that have influenced us.

Commission/
Chairmanship Major Recommendation
Policy

University Dr. S. • For the future generations, higher education is

Education Radhakrishnan. essential.
Commission • English as a medium of instruction in higher
(1948-49) education should be replaced as early as
possible by an Indian language.
• Special State examination for recruitment to
various State services should be organized.

Secondary Lakshmanaswami • Significant development in secondary education

Education Mudaliar • Installation of the higher secondary system with
Commission diversified courses
(1952-53) • Three language formula
• Emphasis on educational and vocational
guidance
• Improvement in the system of examination

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Commission/
Chairmanship Major Recommendation
Policy

• Improvement in the methods of teaching

National D. S. Kothari • Enhancement of science and technological

Education education, equal opportunity.
Commission • The ultimate objective should be to adopt the
(Kothari 10+2+3 pattern.
Commission, • Spread of literacy and adult education
1964-66) • Part-time education and correspondence
courses
• Production of quality of books
• Development of Languages: Three language
formula.
• Provision of free and compulsory education.

National Indra Gandhi • Compulsory education to children in the 6-14

Policy on years and support regional languages
Education • Teachers should have specialized training and
(1968) certification.
• Non-formal and adult education programmes
for Scheduled Castes and Tribes, minorities, the
disabled, and handicapped were suggested.
• Enhancement of science education and
research.
• The "three-language formula" was to be
introduced in secondary education. English, the
official language of the state, and Hindi being
taught.
• Removal of illiteracy among women.

National Rajiv Gandhi • Modern education, information technology

Policy on education, teacher education, early childhood
Education care, women's empowerment, and adult literacy
(1986) all received special emphasis.

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Commission/
Chairmanship Major Recommendation
Policy

• To create, operate, maintain, and administer

hostels for Navodaya. Vidyalaya students.
• To gradually integrate students from different
parts of the country into each school in order to
nurture national integration and improve social
content.
• Development of center such as Navodaya
Vidyalayas (NVS schools), Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan, Kendriya Vidyalayas (KV schools),
Mid-Day Meal Scheme and use of IT in
education.
• Establishment of a school within a kilometer
and the adoption of a common educational
system.
• Removal of Women’s Illiteracy.

Programme of P.V Narasimha • Stressed on developing moral values among

Action (1992) Rao students and bringing education closer to life
• Entrance exam for the admission in all
professional and technical programmes.
• Ensuring the involvement of girls and children
from scheduled castes and tribes, as well as
other educationally oppressed minorities.
• Two moderately sized rooms that could be used
in all weather conditions, as well as essential
toys and activities, blackboards, maps, charts,
and other learning materials, to implement the
"operational blackboard."
• Improvement of teacher’s training institutes.
• Improvement of existing pre-primary
educational facilities.

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 Commission/
Chairmanship Major Recommendation
Policy

New Krishnaswamy • Ensuring foundational literacy and numeracy

Education Kasturirangan among all children
Policy (2020) • Strengthening Early Childhood Care and
Education
• Restructuring of old 10+2 Education system
with a new 5+3+3+4 curricular framework that
corresponds to ages 3–8, 8–11, 11–14, and 14–
18 years.
• Universal education from preschool through
secondary school, by 2030.
• Inclusion of out-of-school youngsters into the
mainstream through open schooling.
• IITs and other state engineering institutes will
strive toward a more holistic and diverse
education.
• Teacher Eligibility Tests (TETs) would be
upgraded in order to establish better exam
material in terms of both subject and
methodology.

Influences of Education Policies on the Education System

The National Policy on Education 1968, which was based on the Kothari Commission's
recommendations was a turning point in India's history. Its mission was to promote national
progress, a sense of national citizenship, and greater national cohesion. It emphasized the
need for a comprehensive educational system reform to increase educational quality at all
levels, with a larger emphasis on science and technology, moral values cultivation, and a
closer link between education and people's lives. The major influences of NPE 1968 on
education system are as follows:
• Encourage national integration as well as increase cultural and economic prosperity
• Ensure equalisation of educational opportunities.
• Encourage children under the age of 14 to go to school.
• Specialize training and certification to teachers.
• Emphasis on the study of regional languages.
• Three language formula.

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 • Removal of illiteracy among women.
• Non-formal and adult education programmes for Scheduled Castes and Tribes,
minorities, the disabled, and handicapped.
• Free and compulsory education.
• Increase Book production.
• Enhancement of science education and research.
Although, the policy suggested so many recommendations, but due to lack of proper action
plan, fund, and the hegemonic role of state and center, the policy failed in achieving its
objectives.
In comparison to the NPE 1968, the NPE 1986 policy performed better. There were
several reasons for this. After the 42nd amendment, the center’s power in the education
sector grew even to a greater extent. Education, Forests, Weights & Measures, Protection
of Wild Animals and Birds and Administration of Justice were among the five subjects
transferred from the State to the Concurrent List. The center was able to take on more
responsibilities and implemented a number of educational schemes such as Navodaya
Vidyalayas (NVS schools), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Kendriya Vidyalayas (KV schools),
Mid-Day Meal Scheme and use of IT in education. The key characteristic was the
establishment of a school within a kilometer and the adoption of a common educational
system. But same as the 1968 policy, required increased financial and organizational
support and the government planned to spend 6% of GDP on education. Other than this
some of the major influences of NPE 1986 on education system are as follows:
• Provide a unified core curriculum to ensure consistent comparability and to promote
and grasp our shared and composite history.
• To create, operate, maintain, and administer hostels for Navodaya Vidyalaya
students.
• To act as a focal point for improving the quality of school education by putting
teachers through real-world training and sharing experiences and resources.
• To create facilities for instruction in a common medium, namely Hindi and English,
throughout the country.
• To gradually integrate students from different parts of the country into each school
in order to nurture national integration and improve social content.
The P.V. Narasimha Rao government revised the National Policy on Education 1986
in 1992 which was known as Program of Action (PoA). The PoA 1992, gave
considerably more weight to science and technology, as well as the growth of moral ideals
and a closer link between education and people's lives. It suggested for an all-India common
admission examination for all professional and technical programmes. The Government of
India established a three-exam scheme with JEE and AIEEE at the national level, and State
Level Engineering Entrance Examinations (SLEEE) for State Level Institutions, with an
option to join AIEEE in a Resolution dated October 18, 2001. This reduces the problems

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of overlapped exams and decreases the mental burden of students, along with reduced the
financial problems of students and their parents. Other than this some of the major
influences of PoA, 1992 on education system are as follows:
• Special focus on higher education- particularly graduate, post-graduate, and
research work.
• Development of universities for medicine, engineering, and agriculture.
• Establishment of autonomous colleges.
• Integration of Child Development Services, State Government Pre-Primary Schools
and Municipalities.
• Improvement of teacher’s training institutes.
• Improvement of existing pre-primary educational facilities.
• Substantial improvement in the quality of education.
• Ensuring the involvement of girls and children from scheduled castes and tribes, as
well as other educationally oppressed minorities.
• Implementation of "operational blackboard scheme"
• Radical changes in education through the introduction of media & information
technology in education.
On 29 July 2020, the cabinet approved a new National Education Policy with an aim
to introduce several changes to the existing Indian education system. The recommendations
made by the National Education policy 2020 are divided in four parts which are as follows:
PART-I: SCHOOL EDUCATION
Early Childhood Care and Education: The Foundation of Learning
• According to this policy, the current 10+2 framework in school education will be
replaced with a new pedagogical and curricular structure of 5+3+3+4 covering ages
from 3 year to 18 year.
• A strong foundation of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) from the age
of three is also included in the new 5+3+3+4 structure, which is aimed at fostering
improved overall learning, development, and well-being.

Foundational Literacy and Numeracy: An Urgent & Necessary Prerequisite to

Learning
• Enjoyable and motivating books for students of all ages will be created in all local
and Indian languages.
• Health check-ups, particularly for 100 percent immunization, will be conducted in
schools, and health cards will be issued to track progress.
• A National Book Promotion Policy will be developed, and significant activities will
be implemented.

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Curtailing Dropout Rates and Ensuring Universal Access to Education at All Levels
• One of the most important objectives of the educational system should be to ensure
that students are enrolled and attending school.
• Through initiatives such as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (now the Samagra Shiksha)
and the Right to Education Act, India has made remarkable strides in recent years
in attaining near-universal enrolment in elementary education.’
Curriculum and Pedagogy in Schools: Learning Should be Holistic, Integrated,
Enjoyable, and Engaging
• Restructuring school curriculum and pedagogy in a new 5+3+3+4 design,
corresponding to the age ranges of 3-8 years (Foundational Stage), 8-11 years
(Preparatory Stage), 11-14 years (Middle Stage), and 14-18 years (Secondary
Stage), respectively.
• Multi-Level planning, play/activity-based learning, pedagogy of ECCE (Early
Childhood Care and Education), curriculum, and technique will be included in the
foundational stage.
• The Preparatory Stage should last three years and will expand on the Foundational
Stage's play, discovery, and activity-based pedagogical and curricular style.
• The Middle Stage will last three years and will expand on the Preparatory Stage's
pedagogical and curricular style.
• The Secondary Stage will consist of four years of multidisciplinary study, building
on the Middle Stage's subject-oriented pedagogical and curricular style, but with
more depth, critical thinking, attention to life aspirations, and flexibility.
• Students, particularly in secondary school, will have more flexibility and options
for subjects to study.
• In the National Curriculum Framework for early childhood and school education,
NCERT will identify the needed skill sets and incorporate methods for their
transmission.
• Teaching and learning will be more participatory; students will be encouraged to
ask questions, and classroom sessions will include more enjoyable, creative,
collaborative, and exploratory activities for students to learn more deeply and
experientially.
• The medium of instruction will be the home language/mother tongue/local
language/regional language until at least Grade 5, but preferably until Grade 8 and
beyond.

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Teachers
• Teacher Eligibility Tests (TETs) would be upgraded in order to establish better
exam material in terms of both subject and methodology. TETs will also be
extended to teachers at all levels of schooling (Foundational, Preparatory, Middle,
and Secondary).
Equitable and Inclusive Education: Learning for All
• In Higher Education, analogous challenges of Equity and Inclusion will be
eliminated.
Efficient Resourcing and Effective Governance through School Complexes/Clusters.
• State/UT governments will address these issues by 2025 by implementing creative
techniques to group or rationalise schools.
• The objective behind this intervention would be to ensure that every school has:
a) Adequate number of counsellors/trained social workers and teachers.
b) Resources like libraries, science labs, computer labs, skill labs, playgrounds,
sporting equipment and facilities, and so on.
c) Through joint professional development programmes, sharing of teaching-
learning content, joint content development, and holding joint activities such
as art and science exhibitions, sports meet, quizzes and debates, and fairs, a
sense of community is built to overcome the isolation of teachers, students,
and schools.
d) For the education of children with disabilities, collaboration and assistance
across schools are essential.
e) Improved school governance by delegating all finer judgements to
principals, teachers, and other stakeholders within each group of schools.
Standard-setting and Accreditation for School Education.
• The SECRET, in partnership with the NCERT, will be in charge of academic
standards and curricula in the state.
• Schools, institutions, teachers, authorities, communities, and other stakeholders
benefit from a culture, structures, and processes that empower them and offer
enough resources.
PART – II: HIGHER EDUCATION
Quality Universities and Colleges: A New and Forward-looking Vision for India’s
Higher Education System.
• Higher education must serve as the foundation for knowledge development and
innovation, resulting in a stronger national economy.

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 • Higher education must contribute to the development of a nation that is educated,
socially concerned, intelligent, and skilled in finding and implementing effective
answers to its own issues.
Institutional Restructuring and Consolidation.
• The fundamental goal of higher educational strategy is to reduce fragmentation by
transforming higher education institutions into large interdisciplinary universities,
colleges, and HEI clusters/Knowledge Hubs.
• By 2040, all higher education institutions (HEIs) will strive to be multidisciplinary
and have greater student enrolments in order to make the most use of infrastructure
and resources.
Towards a More Holistic and Multidisciplinary Education.
• A holistic and multidisciplinary education would strive to integrate the
development of all human capacities, including intellectual, aesthetic, social,
physical, emotional, and moral.
• IITs and other state engineering institutes will strive toward a more holistic and
diverse education that includes more arts and humanities similarly arts and
humanities students will strive to learn more science, and all students will make an
effort to include more vocational topics and soft skills.
Optimal Learning Environments and Support for Students.
• High-quality learning also necessitates the development of capacities that enhance
student wellness, such as fitness, excellent health, psychosocial well-being, and
sound ethical foundation.
• providing appropriate resources and infrastructure, such as high-quality libraries,
classrooms, labs, technology, sports/recreation areas, student discussion areas, and
dining areas.
Motivated, Energized, and Capable Faculty
• Various advancements in the academic profession's status, as well as faculty
motivation in terms of teaching, research, and service. Teaching responsibilities
will be kept to a minimum, and student-teacher ratios will be kept to a minimum,
so that teaching stays enjoyable and there is enough time for contact with students,
research, and other university activities.
• Clean drinking water, clean running toilets, blackboards, offices, teaching
resources, libraries, labs, and nice classroom spaces and campuses will be offered
to higher education institutions. Every classroom should have access to the most
up-to-date educational technologies to enhance learning opportunities.

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Equity and Inclusion in Higher Education
• Providing all students with equal access to high-quality education, with a focus on
SDGs.
Teacher Education
• Teacher education is critical in developing a field of educators who will shape the
next generation of students, so the HEI will offer the 4-year integrated B.Ed. may
also run a 2-year B.Ed., for students who have already received a Bachelor’s degree
in a specialised subject. A 1-year B.Ed. may also be offered for candidates who
have received a 4-year undergraduate degree in a specialised subject.
Reimagining Vocational Education
• Over the coming decade, vocational education will be gradually integrated into all
schools and higher education institutions.
Catalyzing Quality Academic Research in All Fields through a new National Research
Foundation
• India currently invests only 0.69 percent of GDP in research and development,
compared to 2.8 percent in the United States, 4.2 percent in South Korea and 4.3
percent in Israel, so in the upcoming year India will increase investment in research
activity.
Transforming the Regulatory System of Higher Education
• The higher education regulatory structure will ensure that distinct, independent, and
empowered authorities will undertake the functions of regulation, accreditation,
funding, and oversight, to ensure this there will be four institutional structures such
as the National Higher Education Regulatory Council (NHERC), the National
Accreditation Council (NAC), the Higher Education Grants Council (HEGC) and
the General Education Council (GEC) under the Higher Education Commission of
India (HECI).
Effective Governance and Leadership for Higher Education Institutions
• All Higher educational institutes in India shall strive to become self-governing,
independent institutions dedicated to innovation and excellence.
PART-III: OTHER KEY AREAS OF FOCUS
Professional Education
• There will be an integral overall enhancement in the field of Professional education,
Agricultural education, Legal education Healthcare education and technical
education.

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Adult Education and Lifelong Learning
• Adult education must be viewed as the basic rights of every citizen, basic education
is the need for lifelong learning. So, there will be government initiatives such as a
new and well-supported NCERT constituent body which will dedicate to adult
education and will design the adult education curriculum framework.
Promotion of Indian Languages, Arts, and Culture
• The promotion of Indian arts and culture is important not only for the nation but
also for the individual. Towards this direction under ‘Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat’,
100 tourist destinations in the country will be identified where educational
institutions will send students to study these destinations and their history, scientific
contributions, traditions, indigenous literature and knowledge, etc., as a part of
augmenting their knowledge about these areas.
Technology Use and Integration
• Government is committed to develop the field of new coming technology such as
artificial intelligence, machine learning, block chains, smart boards, handheld
computing devices, adaptive computer testing for student development.
Online and Digital Education: Ensuring Equitable Use of Technology
• We are living in a digital world where everything starts from technology, we can't
imagine anything without technology. Government promised to enhance the digital
facilities, infrastructure, online teaching platforms like SWAYAM, DIKSHA,
virtual labs etc.
Part-IV: MAKING IT HAPPEN
Strengthening the Central Advisory Board of Education
• The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) should be re-designated
the Ministry of Education to refocus attention on education and learning (MoE).
Financing: Affordable and Quality Education for All
• Government commits to increase expenses on education facility for the success of
policy, The current public expenditure on education in India is roughly 4.43 percent
of GDP according to the Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure 2017-18 and only 10%
of total public spending on education according to Economic Survey 2017-18.
Implementation
• MHRD, CABE, Union and State governments, boards, NTA, school and higher
education regulatory agencies, NCERT, SCERT, schools, and HEIs, all will have a
role in this policy for the implementation.

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Conclusion
We can't say we achieved a final Education policy; every policy depends on the foundation
of need and need changes their face with time. So, NEP 2020 it's just like a blacksmith's
hammer blow to change the shape of the current problem of education. It started from vedic
era education to education policy 2020. Macaulay minutes and filtration theory had a very
good impact on Indian education policy, due to which the British started to give English
education to some groups of people to fulfil their needs, so they opened a number of
colleges and universities, and this was the era of modern education in India.
Similarly progress and achievement of education policy after independence has also some
impact on education policy 2020. After independence, all education policies made a strong
platform for the implementation of education policy 2020. Platform like mid-day meal, IT
education, teacher training system, operation blackboard, integration of child development
services, Navodaya Vidyalayas (NVS schools), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Kendriya
Vidyalayas (KV schools), JEE, AIEEE, state level engineering exam system etc.
The reforms under NEP 2020 aim to transform India into a knowledge superpower by
concentrating on equity, inclusion, and digital literacy. It aligns the Indian educational
system with global best practices in the field while also producing a tech-savvy generation
ready to enter the workforce of the future. The New Education Policy 2020's goal is to turn
India into a global knowledge superpower. The NEP 2020 strategy suggests that all
universities and colleges seek to be multidisciplinary by 2040, and Indian higher education
will open in foreign universities, with the option of a four-year multidisciplinary
undergraduate degree with many departure possibilities. This approach will increase jobs
and drastically alter our educational system in the country.

Chapter at a Glance
✓ The foundation of the development of any country is education, and policies on
education are the building blocks of the development of a country. Both are the two
sides of the same coin.
✓ The aim of educational system is to increase individual potential, enhance the quality
of educational material, create equal opportunity for all and to maintain considerable
infrastructure.

✓ There were two major education systems in ancient times: Vedic education system
and Buddhist education system.

✓ Kothari Commission's recommendations was a turning point in India's history.

15
 ✓ Kothari Commission's mission was to promote national progress, a sense of national
citizenship, and greater national cohesion.

✓ The NPE 1968 suggested for compulsory education to children in the 6-14 years and
support regional languages

✓ The NPE 1986 focused on modern education, information technology education,

teacher education, early childhood care, women's empowerment, and adult literacy.

✓ The PoA 1992 stressed on developing moral values among students and bringing
education closer to life

✓ The PoA 1992 recommended for implementation of Operational Blackboard Scheme

✓ The NEP 2020 recommended for restructuring of old 10+2 Education system with a
new 5+3+3+4 curricular framework that corresponds to ages 3–8, 8–11, 11–14, and
14–18 years.

Do and Learn
❖ Discuss how NEP 1968 was not a great success.
❖ Describe a policy in which you found a creative way to overcome an obstacle of NEP
2020.
❖ List out five major problems of NEP 2020 and explain how you can remove it.

Self-Assessment
1. Discuss the structure of restructuring school curriculum of NEP 2020 and explain
how it is different from 10+2 framework of schools.
2. Distinguish between NEP 2020 and NEP 1986.
3. Explain how the government is supporting regional languages?
4. Write down the full form of MHRD, CABE, NTA, NHERC and NAC.
5. Explain the role of SCERT and NCERT in NEP 2020.
6. Explain why Learning Should be Holistic, Integrated, Enjoyable, and Engaging.
7. What are the important milestones in NEP 1986 over NEP 1968?
8. Discuss the implementation part of NEP 2020.
9. What is Foundational Stage, Preparatory Stage, Middle Stage and Secondary Stage?
10. What do you mean about the Programme of Action 1992?

16
References and Suggested Readings
• Altbach, Philip G. (2006) The Private Higher Education Revolution: An
Introduction. University News. January 2-8, 2006. Vol. 44 No.01.
• Basant, Rakesh, and Gitanjali Sen. (2014). "Access to higher education in India: an
exploration of its Antecedents." Economic and Political Weekly (2014): 38-45
• Chatterjee, Jayanta, How to improve India's higher education and research quality?
http://www.nature.com/
• Higher education in India and Yashpal Committee recommendations
http://www.jnu.ac.in/Yash_Pal_Committee.

• MHRD (2006) Annual Report. Ministry of Human Resource Development,

Department of Secondary and Higher education. Government of India. New Delhi.
• Planning Commission (1999) Approach paper to the Tenth Five-year Plan (2002-
2007). Planning Commission. New Delhi.
• Rajni Pathania, (2020) "Literacy in India: Progress and Inequality." Bangladesh e-
Journal of Sociology
• Tilak, Jandhyala B.G. (2015) "How inclusive is higher education in India? " Social
Change 45.2 (2015): 185-223
• UGC (2005) Research Handbook: Towards nurturing research culture in higher
education institutions in India. University Grants Commission. New Delhi.

17
 LESSON-2
OVERVIEW OF POLICIES IN INDIA
Pooja Sharma

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Identify the different policies in India.
• Explain the need for policies in education.
• Describe the features of Policies in education.
• Differentiate between recommendations of National Policy of education 1968 and
1986.
• Explain the various objectives of educational policies in India.
• Analyze the implications of Program of Action 1992.

Introduction
Globally, educational reform is of major concern to governments. The primary goal of
education policies is to represent their results in terms of economic and social development
globally. Our education system ranks third in the world. A policy on education is a set of
rules and guidelines that governs the educational system by the government. The
educational policy consists of a comprehensive framework that directs the education
system of a nation and guides its progress. In terms of education policy, the size of schools,
class sizes, curriculum structure, teacher-student ratio, instructional strategies, and higher
education challenges and requirements all have to do with educational matters. The purpose
of education policy is to achieve the country's academic goals.
The previous chapter discussed what policies are and how policies influence the
educational system. India has taken significant steps after independence to create its own
educational system and move away from the British legacy. Education has always been
considered an important part of the development of individuals as well as the progress of
society at large. A sound education system has been developed by several initiatives in
India, and one of these initiatives involves forming policies. So, the country focused on
providing quality education for everyone. India launched its first education policy in 1968
based on recommendations of the Indian education commission or Kothari commission
(1964-66). Throughout this chapter, we will cover The National Policy of Education (NPE-
1968), The National Policy of Education (NPE-1986), and The Program of Action (1992).
An overview of India's various policies can be found in the following flowchart:

18
 Various Educational
Policies

National Policy of National Policy of

Program of Action,
Education, NPE Education, NPE
POA (1992)
(1968) (1986)

Need of Educational Policy in India

Education policy is important for various reasons. The following points outline the need
for policies in India:
• As in developed and developing countries, the main reason behind education policy
is to eradicate illiteracy.
• Education is a merit good, so it leads to higher incomes both for the individual and
the nation.
• Education creates positive externalities for society.
Similarly, the development of educational policy in some nations, such as India, is
primarily oriented toward delivering free and obligatory basic education to the Indian
masses.

National Policy of Education (NPE) 1968

Kothari Commission of 1964-66 was a leading think tank that formulated the National
Policy on Education in 1968. This policy was mainly concerned with restructuring the
Indian education system, establishing a stronger link between education and the people,
cultivating moral values, and improving its quality at all stages. This policy was intended
to strengthen national unity, promote national advancement, and promote a sense of
citizenship. Here are some of its major recommendations:
Education is free and compulsory: Throughout this policy (1968),it was suggested to
make 'serious efforts' to make sure that all children who enroll in school successfully
complete the prescribed course and that the Constitutional mandate for free and compulsory
education be upheld.
Teachers' Status, Wages, and Education: The policy recognized that teachers play an
important role in enhancing the educational quality and improving national development.
In this policy, it was stressed that conditions for teachers needed to be improved, and it
urged them to be free to pursue and publish their own research and express their opinions
on important national and international issues.

19
Language development: As part of the policy, regional languages were encouraged for
educational and cultural development. While outlining a three-language formula that
includes two Hindi-speaking States studying Hindi and English along with a regional
language and one of the southern Indian languages in the non-Hindi-speaking states. One
of the important recommendations is to promote Hindi as a link language, provide for the
teaching of Sanskrit language, and promote the study of English and other international
languages.
Equal Opportunity to Education: The policy emphasized the importance of ensuring
equal access to education for all regardless of their race, religion, gender, class, caste, etc.,
by bridging the educational gap between rural and urban areas and for males and females
as well. It recommended adopting a Common School System to promote social cohesion
and national integration. Moreover, this policy recommended that students be admitted on
merit to all schools, including public schools, and safeguarding the interests of socially
disadvantaged children.
Indication of Talents: The policy stressed identifying talents in different fields as soon as
possible and providing opportunities to develop them to their full potential.
Work-Experience and National Service: A policy recognizing a need for closer ties
between a school and the community recommends work experience, community service,
and national service as essential components of education. These programs are thought to
foster character development and a sense of social responsibility.
Education and Research in Science: As a result of the policy, science, education, and
research are given top priority since they speed up economic growth. According to this
policy Science and mathematics should be included in general education throughout the
entire school career.
Agriculture and Industry Education: This policy stressed the importance of establishing
at least one agricultural university in each state and helping other universities develop
departments dedicated to studying different aspects of agriculture. Students in technical
education should get hands-on experience. Moreover, it is important to regularly review
agricultural, industrial, and other technical labor demands.
Book Production: This policy criticized frequent changes to the books and high book
prices. The NEP 1968 recommends that all students, including university students, pay
special attention to books in regional languages. Furthermore, it stressed the importance of
producing a few common textbooks for schools and universities throughout the country.
Examination: In the policy, tests need to be improved over time to ensure their reliability
and validity.
Secondary Education: Secondary education was considered a key mechanism for
fostering social development and revolution in accordance with the policy. It stressed the
importance of expanding technological and vocational education at the secondary level.

20
Education at the University Level: The NPE 1968 offered several major suggestions in
university education. A few measures can be taken to attain these objectives, such as
establishing new institutions only once appropriate money is available, focusing on
postgraduate courses, and enhancing training and research facilities. Furthermore, it
suggested that advanced study centers be strengthened and that students be provided with
appropriately equipped laboratories, libraries, experts, and other facilities.
Structure of Education: It introduced the 10+2+3 pattern to create a uniform educational
system in the country. The goal is to steadily increase investment in education by raising
spending by 6% of income.
Performance of Policy: Several factors led to the downfall of Policy 1968, some of which
are listed below.
• An appropriate action plan was not proposed.
• Due to a lack of funding, the Indian economy had collapsed.
• Education was on the state list, so how the schemes were implemented was little
affected by the center.
Despite the downsides, the key legacies of this policy went undetected for many years, as
listed below:
• Structure of the educational system.
• Follows the three-language formula.
• A strong emphasis on science and mathematics.
We can infer that NPE (1968) was a milestone moment in Indian education after
independence because this was the first national educational policy with significant goals
for national progress.For more than two decades, this policy guided education in India. The
primary proposals include implementing a 10+2+3 education system across the country
and a thorough rethinking of the educational system, and a higher emphasis on science and
technology. It also advocated for the use of mother language as a medium of instruction in
the early years of schooling.

National Policy of Education (NPE) 1986

As we know, the National Policy on Education (NPE) is a policy designed by the
Government of India to promote and regulate education in India. This policy covers rural
and urban education from elementary to higher education. As we know, Indira Gandhi
produced the first NPE in 1968, Rajiv Gandhi produced the second one in 1986, and
Narendra Modi delivers the third one in 2020.
Main Features of NPE 1986:
• Develop a national curriculum framework with a common core and other
components.

21
 • Ensure that all students have equitable access to education.
• Minimum academic achievement standards for every educational level.
• Learning that continues throughout life.
• Promotion of equality through education.
• Elimination of illiteracy among women.
• Educational opportunities for minorities.
• People with disabilities need to be educated.
• Ensure universal participation and retention of all children up to and including the
age of fourteen.
• Setting paces for schools for talented children, primarily in rural areas.
• An emphasis on technical and management education.
The main recommendations of National Education Policy (1986) include:
Early Childhood Care and Education: The 1986 Policy proposes early childhood care
and education programs. According to this policy ECCE should be child-centered that deal
with play and promote individuality. The policy 1986 suggests the opening of day care
centres all over the country, especially in rural area. Moreover, this policy stipulates the
openings of Anganbadis almost in all the villages. These programs will not be based on
formal methods or the 3 R’s; in fact, the local community will participate in early childhood
care and education program.
Universal Elementary Education: National Policy of Education 1986 has the following
main objectives for Elementary Education:
• Enrollment and accessibility for all.
• Ensuring that children under the age of 14 are retained.
• To improve the quality of education for all children to fulfill their possible.
The educational policy of 1986 opened several primary schools, including residential
schools.
Quality of Education: According to National Policy of Education 1986, the overall quality
of education shall be enhanced by improving the school environment, child-centered and
activity-centered classrooms. This policy focuses on the removal of all physical
punishments, continuing the practice of not failing the students at the elementary level, and
providing all essential facilities in primary school level.
Decentralization of Education: The Educational Policy 1986, Lays stress on
Decentralization of education. Basically, it means to localize the elementary education. The
focus is to frame the village education committee to ensure the full participation and
management of the education of students. This village education committee manages all
school programs, including Early Childhood Education, Adult Education, UEE, and Non-
Formal Education.

22
Navodaya Vidyalayas: One of the most important recommendations of the NPE 1986 was
to establish Navodaya Vidyalayas, which opened up a new chapter in the history of
education. Navodaya Vidyalayas are opened one in each district. The focus of Navodaya
Vidyalayas is to providing quality education to students. These schools are residential, and
children will have free lodging and boarding. As we all know that Navodaya Vidyalayas
are located in rural areas. The provision of admitting girls to the tune of one-third of the
total number of the students. Additionally, seats for SCs, STs, and OBCs will be reserved
according to the directives of the constitution.
Non-formal Education: This policy focuses on providing non-formal education to
children who left school, who are between schools, and students who live in areas without
schools.
Vocational Education: NPE 1986 recommends that at least 10 percent of children should
enroll in vocational training programs at the +2 level. It also intends some formal vocational
courses for dropouts as well. According to the NEP 1986, vocational education courses
should be frame significantly to the community's needs. The policy proposes to design
vocational education programs for students at multiple levels to have an abundance of semi-
skilled workers, engineers, and supervisors.
Women Education: The 1986 Policy advocates the growth and development of women's
education. The opening of day care centers will help the girl child come to school.
Moreover, the appointment of at least one lady teacher out of two teachers in the program
of Operation Blackboard. This results in the empowerment of women. These
recommendations are mentioned in the section on women's education of the 1986 education
policy.
Education of the Handicapped Children: National Policy 1986, emphasizes that people
with locomotor handicaps and other mild disabilities should have the same educational
options as so called ‘normal’ children. This means the 1986 policy focuses on incorporating
motor disabled children into normal schools and establishing special schools within district
offices. According to this policy, it is crucial to provide vocational training to the disabled,
teacher training programmes, and the assistance of volunteers in the education of the
disabled people. The policy focuses mainly on transforming the educational system to
promote gender equality and the employment of teachers from oppressed groups and
people with disabilities.
Teacher Education: This policy recommends improvements in the teacher education also.
It suggests strengthening the institutions of national importance such as the UGC, NCERT,
NIEPA, AICTE, ICAR, IMC and others, so that they will be able to shape and fulfill the
nation's education system and meet the expectations of the people. Moreover, this policy
also proposes establishing District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) to
undertake pre-service and in-service courses for elementary school teachers, in addition to
non-formal and adult education courses.

23
 This policy was designed to prepare India for the 21st century. The 1986 policy
accomplish better than the 1968 policy. Several factors contributed to this. The first reason
is that this policy was passed following the 42nd amendment in 1976. Education, forests,
weights and measures, wild animal and bird protection, and judicial administration were
all moved from the state to the concurrent list as a result of this modification. Furthermore,
the center was now able to assume a wider range of responsibilities and introduce a number
of programs in line with this policy. Many of our iconic programmes and projects, such as
the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the Mid Day Meal Scheme, Navodaya Vidyalayas (NVS
schools), KendriyaVidyalayas (KV schools), and the use of information technology in
education, were originated from the NEP of 1986.

NEP 1968 versus NPE 1986

There are many similarities between the 1968 national policy of education and the 1986
national policy of education. However, there were a few key differences that helped make
the national policy of education 1986 a more organized and successful policy as a result.
These are:

National Policy of Education 1968 National Policy of Education 1986

1. The 42nd Constitutional amendment of
1. Children between the ages of 6 and 14
1976 led to the introduction of this
are entitled to free and compulsory
policy. We know that the state list of
education and those who enrol should
education was transferred to the
complete the required courses.
concurrent list in this amendment.
2. According to NPE 1968, teachers are
2. This policy emphasized Early
paid according to their qualifications
Childhood Care and Education
and responsibilities.
(ECCE), women's empowerment, and
3. Promotion of Hindi, Sanskrit, English,
adult literacy.
and other international language,
3. There was an emphasis on establishing
development of regional languages in
autonomous colleges and universities
1968.
that had been missing in previous
4. The education system was standardized
policies.
as 10+2+3. Mathematics and science
4. Accessible and distance learning were
were introduced as part of a general
advocated in order to meet the varied
education school setting program.
educational needs of the country.
5. This policy was given due importance
5. In order to achieve a social milieu,
to promote national integration and
scholarships and incentive schemes
equal educational opportunities.
were created, Moreover, residential
Education of young girls and physically
schools and hostel facilities for SC, ST,
challenged students was emphasized as
and female students were given.
a means of bringing about social
change.

24
We can conclude that, the NPE 1986 is the outcome of the discussions and considerations
made during the budget session of 1985. This time Rajeev Gandhi was the prime minister.
A sense of common citizenship, national integration, and national progress were all goals
of this policy. Moreover, this policy emphasised the basic transformation of the educational
system to increase its quality at all levels. This document put emphasis on science and
technological education, the development of ethical behaviour, and the importance of
education in connecting with people in real life.

Program of Action (POA-1992)

The Program of Action of 1992 was yet another key step in the difficult effort of regulating
India's educational system. This policy, more than any other in India's history, prioritised
the growth of scientific knowledge and foresaw the need for 21st-century schooling. Its
goal was to make a significant difference in our educational system. And they focused on
the factors that could influence the progress of our nation. The Committee presented a
report entitled "Toward an Enlightened and Humane Society." It included some
modifications to NPE 1986 after considering the Ramamurti Committee's
recommendations. The committee was chaired by Sri Janardhan Reddy, who submitted his
report in January 1992. It was entitled the 'Program of Action 1992'. It has 23 sections.
Through this Policy, the main objective was to remove social, economic, regional, and
gender inequities in education. Some of the major recommendations of Program of Action
of 1992 are as follows:
Early Childhood Care and Education: A two-year vocational course in ECCE at level
+2 is recommended in the Program of Action 1992. The Indira Gandhi National Open
University offers a diploma program in Early Childhood Education. There are several
topics that have been mentioned in the POA (1992), including a system of accreditation for
ECCE training institutions, review of the existing training program, and training for senior
level staff of ICDS.
Elementary Education: Program of Action (1992) recommended universal access and
enrollment, universal retention of children from 4-to-14 years of age, and substantial
improvement of quality of education. It is important that teacher training programmes
incorporate concepts and methods of child-centered education, multigrade teaching,
continuous and comprehensive evaluation. The development of content based on minimum
levels of learning, and the adoption of play ways and activity-based approaches in primary
schools. Program of Action (1992) emphasized a child-centered approach. The
implementation of decentralized planning and good management of primary education is
also suggested.
Secondary Education: In the Program of Action 1992, the importance of expanding
secondary education opportunities was recognized. A primary objective of the Program of
Action too, was to improve the participation of the backward classes. It reorganized and

25
expanded the autonomy of the secondary school boards. Moreover, this action plan
proposed a visionary idea to improve digital literacy among students. It emphasised the
significance of technology and created a policy to improve the country through computer
education.
Vocational Education: According to the POA, vocational education is important to
increase individual productivity and national competency. The training programme should
encourage ethical behaviors like empathy, especially for girls and for children from
educationally disadvantaged backgrounds. Furthermore, the right attitude towards the
profession and society.
Women Education: This program made women's education a top priority as well. Along
with acknowledging India’s difficulty with women education, POA also emphasized on
providing equal opportunities. It recommended that more development programs be
instituted to learn about their rights, as well as improving their legal literacy. It offered
suggestions for addressing issues such as gender disparity through gender and poverty
sensitization programs. Furthermore, all teachers required to be trained on the use of
innovative training programs designed to empower women.
Adult Education: The program proposed improving adult education opportunities under
the Non-Formal Education initiatives. It suggested that female students living in rural,
urban, or remote areas may benefit from innovative programs such as distance education
or an open school system. Moreover, Micro-planning was suggested for students living in
tribal areas. In addition to this, women who were illiterate as adults received special
attention.
The Education of Disabled Students: The committee suggested a few important steps for
children with disabilities. A new teacher training program had been developed for inclusive
classrooms in order to meet the needs of special students. It was also brought to light that
non-formal education and adult education programs need to be reoriented.
Quality of Education: According to the 1992 National Action Program, the quality of
education will be determined by the quality of its teachers, which in turn emphasizes the
need for a significant improvement in teacher training programs. The program also
recommended special orientation for school teachers as well as other significant steps to
improve teacher education.
In a nutshell, we can say that the POA proposed a large-scale programme for
restructuring teacher education, both pre-service and in-service, which is explained in detail
in Chapter 22. The Programme of Action 1992 was another vital step in the effort to restrict
the educational system in India. All prior education programmes in India were aimed at
advancing scientific knowledge, but this one projected the need for 21st century education.
Hence, The Programme of Action 1992, aimed to improve our educational system

26
substantially. POA emphasized the aspects that have the ability to play a role in determining
the progress of our nation.

Chapter at a Glance
✓ Educational policies are primarily concerned with how they affect global economic
and social development.
✓ The education policy covers both rural and urban India, from elementary to higher
education.
✓ A National Policy of Education (NPE) is an educational policy formulated by the
Government of India.
✓ The first National Policy of Education, developed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
in 1968, was based on the report and recommendations of the Kothari Commission
(1964–1966).
✓ National Policy of Education 1968 called for a "radical restructuring" and promoted
equal educational opportunities to achieve national integration.
✓ The national policy 1968 of education included the promotion of common citizenship
and culture.
✓ As part of the NPE of 1968, education spending was increased by 6 percent of
national income.
✓ Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi introduced the new educational policy in May 1986.
✓ The purpose of the new educational policy from 1986 was to eliminate disparities
and to equalize educational opportunities.
✓ The NEP 1986 focused on child-centered primary education, and then developed an
'operation blackboard' initiative to extend primary education.
✓ The revised programme of action of 1992 advocated education for equality.
✓ The NPE 1986 or NPE 1992 adopted a common educational framework that called
for 10+2+3 for elementary and secondary schools, 2 years of high school, and 3 years
of graduation.
✓ To maximize individual productivity and national competency, the POA
recommends vocational education.

Do and Learn
❖ Describe how various educational policies required in India.
❖ Examine the similarities and differences between NPE 1968 and 1986.
❖ Describe the main objectives of Action 1992 with an open mind.

27
Self-Assessment
1. What is the need for various educational policies in India?
2. How do you define an education policy?
3. Describe the National Policy of Education 1968 in detail?
4. What are the objectives of the National Policy of Education 1968?
5. Describe how national education policies contribute to education for all?
6. Explain the 1986 National Policy on Education in detail?
7. What is the significance of the Program of Action 1992?

References and Suggested Readings

• Thakur, P., & Kumar, R. (2021). Educational policies, comparative analysis of
national education policies of India and challenges. International Journal of
Multidisciplinary Educational Research, 10 (3), 13–16. https://www.ijmer.in
• Rai, A. S., & Singh, G. (2021). Unit-3 Educational Policies in India. Indira Gandhi
National Open University, New Delhi.
• https://onlineschoolsindia.in/school-guide/main-features-of-poa-1992-programme-
of-action/
• https://old.amu.ac.in/emp/studym/100003933.pdf
• https://kkhsou.ac.in/eslm/ESLM_Main/5th%20Sem/Bachelor%20Degree/Education
/Education%20Major/English%20medium/Economicis%20of%20Education%20(%
20English%20Medium)/Block%201/Unit%20-3.pdf
• https://skillshades.com/2021/01/22/national-policy-of-education-1968-and-national-
education-policy-1086/

28
 Lesson-3
INTERNATIONAL GOALS AND POLICY
FORMATION IN INDIA
Kanchan Sharma

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Explain the process of policy formation in India.
• Identify the agencies involved in policy formation and their individual purposes.
• Understand the techniques used behind the identification of appropriate policy.
• Describe the target achieved by India to meet millennium development goals.
• The aim of sustainable development goals in India.
• Explain the steps to develop sustainable goals.

Introduction
One of the most important duties of government is policy formulation in order to achieve
a country's objectives. Policymaking is the fundamental essence of public administration,
according to Paul Henson Appleby, an American theorist of public administration in
democracies. Any country's government and administration will be aimless without
policies; hence policy is a prerequisite for all management. The task for administration is
set by the policy. It establishes the framework within which all actions aimed at achieving
a goal should be carried out. The purpose of this lesson is to provide you an overview of
the key processes of policy planning and formulation in India. It also outlines policy
development tools and techniques. Also, the lesson gives you a thorough understanding of
millennium development goals and sustainable development goals along with their purpose
and place in India, which makes it easy for understanding the concept of policy formulation.
What is Policy Formation?
Policy refers to a broad framework that reflects future goals, plans and aspirations of an
administration and steps for carrying out those goals.
Dr. Appleby mentioned “Administrators are continually laying down rules for the future,
and administrators are continually determining what the law is, what it means in terms of
action, what the rights of parties are with respect both to transactions in process and
transactions in prospect. Administrators also participate in another way in the making of

29
policy for the future; they formulate recommendations for legislation, and this is a part of
the function of policy making.”
According to Cochran and Malone, policy formulation takes up the “what” questions:
“What is the plan for dealing with the problem? What are the goals and priorities? What
options are available to achieve those goals? What are the costs and benefits of each of the
options? What externalities, positive or negative, are associated with each alternative?”
The viability of a policy to accomplish its goals is determined largely by the policy design
and the steps taken to construct it. In general, the policy-making process entails identifying
a problem and a collection of solutions or alternatives to handle it, followed by narrowing
down the options to arrive at a final policy model. Because policy creation entails numerous
processes, political scientists have repeatedly argued that it is best described as a policy
rather than a 'one-time affair.'

Techniques Involved in Policy Formation

Several techniques are involved in making sound and rational policy decisions and in
turning policy proposals into a policy. A plethora of techniques and tools are put into use
for enhancing the process of policy formulation and making it smooth. Some of the
techniques include
• Analysis of cost and benefit
• Forecasting of economic factors
• Operations Research and Systems Analysis; and
• PPBS Approach.
Analysis of Cost and Benefit: The technique of cost-benefit analysis is used in the fields
of economics, mathematics, statistics, operations research, etc. The policy makers find this
technique of great help during the framing of subject-specific policies as it provides advice
on the formulation and development of any policy. The costs of a policy or program needs
to be calculated and set against the benefits it can offer to the people of the country. Thus,
the potential benefit of the policy is calculated. This step allows the authorities and policy
makers to create a policy or programme which can offer the maximum benefit to the general
public. Whereas critics have another opinion that everything cannot be quantified or
calculated. For instance, during the formation of policies for promoting causes like gender
equality and equity, abstract values are included more than mere calculations. As a result,
it is always difficult to make calculations for such a subject of value. However, it is a very
useful technique, which can’t be neglected completely.
Forecasting of Economic Factors: In the 1960s and 1970s, the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) developed economic forecasting models to enable
forecasting of policy trends on economies. There is undoubtedly a national economy model
established by governments to demonstrate the impact of policy changes on the country's

30
economy. These models play an important role in the formulation of economic policies.
The model incorporates numerous interpretations and assumptions in order to recommend
the best options to policymakers based on the information and knowledge available. For
example, if the government wants to understand the impact of a 3% rise in women's income
on welfare, standard of living, and personal fulfillment, a predicting model can assist.
Though forecasting is not accurate at all times, it still helps in justifying the purpose of the
policy and the expenditure required to roll out the same.
Operations Research and System Analysis: The major aim of operations research is to
provide aid to the policy makers in determining policy and actions in a scientific way. This
technique allows the agencies involved to select a course of action through proper
investigation of the problem and selection of alternatives based on the consequences. It is
widely applicable for the government, mainly in social services, health, law enforcement
etc. Systems Analysis and Decision Analysis are other important techniques in policy
formulation. These techniques according to administrators, provide the following
information:
• A comprehensive view and introspection of all relevant factors
• The values of ‘competence’ and ‘rationalism’
• An inclination towards action and improvement
• The effective use of quantitative models
Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS): PPBS was first adopted by the
United States in the 1960s for two purposes majorly – for increasing administrative
performance and for enhancing the policy making process in the military field. The
technique of PPBS was recommended as a means for improving policy making and
performance among the national government mechanisms. As it was quite helpful in the
creating the design of budgeting and policy making, the major purpose of PPBS was to add
rationality in the process of budgeting, by motivating the administrators to plan long-term
organizational goals and establish several programmes to achieve those goals.
PPBS equips the policy makers with the in-depth evaluation of goals related to a policy or
programme. It is then followed by the analysis of alternatives to identify the most effective
way of achieving the desired objectives at the minimal cost. Alongside, the budgeting
process is evaluated at every step. Hence, PPBS attempts to review the outcome of the
policy or programme at every step. For example, the principal objective of Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGA) towards women and
its benefaction for women can be reviewed through PPBS after regular interval.
All the above-mentioned techniques have their own advantages and disadvantages. The
selection of appropriate techniques helps in formulating effective policy design and thus
reaching the goals – national or international. Especially while formulating policies for
millennium development goals and sustainable development goals, it is always beneficial

31
to use multiple methods and draw inferences. This certainly helps the policy makers to
formulate the required policy.

Agencies Involved in The Process of Policy Formation in India

Policy formulation mainly takes place in government administration, special commissions,
places of interest groups and policy planning organizations. Formulation of policies that
promote both the millennium development goals and sustainable development goals is
enhanced by the active participation of various agencies from both the formal and informal
spaces. The formal ones include the legislative, executive and political wings of the
government whereas the informal channels of policy formation in India include the political
parties, community-based groups, civil society organizations, private-for-profile firms. It
is impossible for any policymaker to form a policy in isolation as it requires participation
from other departments too. Thus, in order to formulate successful policies that actually
meet the goals in future, cooperation among all the agencies is essential. The
communication and interaction between the formal and informal channels give the right
balance of input for a more informed policy dialogue.
Multiple agencies are involved in formulation and development of a policy. In India. The
agencies which play the role of policy formation include Cabinet, legislature, judiciary,
political parties, NGOs, planning commissions, bureaucrats, and citizens.
Constitution of India: As per the constitution of India, India is a union of states, which is
organized on federal lines with jurisdiction of powers between the Centre and the states
along with an independent judiciary to determine the constitutionality of actions of the
legislature and the executive. Therefore, the rules for policy formation and development
are partly found in the constitution itself. These rules specify the process of the authorities
for using their official positions in creating policies.
As the constitution forms the supreme law of India, every policy must be framed in
accordance with the constitutional framework. Being a comprehensive document, it tells
how machinery of government shall work along with the objectives as well as limitations.
As the preamble of the constitution secures justice, liberty and equality for the people, it
supports the will of the people and is the main authority which identifies the framework of
any policy.
Legislature: The parliament of India is the major body that creates laws to implement the
policies laid down in the constitution of India. As the legislature is the declared and
accepted will of the state and its people, it reflects the popular opinion of the citizens. The
role of the legislature is principally to exercise a veto against or control a policy as it cannot
command it. The legislature examines or evaluates the proposals of every policy, but it
doesn’t have the power to take its own lead. General discussions, adjournment motions,

32
and meetings are organized to influence or determine the ideas of policy makers. So, the
parliament of India is the tool for validation of the decisions of the government of India
The Cabinet: The Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister of India, exercises supreme executive
authority and includes the Council of ministers. It is the duty of the executive to decide the
policies before its submission to the parliament. Being the top policy formulation body in
the government, the major proposals are taken to it for its approval or disapproval, whereas
other matters of less significance are rejected by the ministers in charge. The Cabinet along
with Cabinet Secretariat and the network of Cabinet Committees determine the choice of
policies The Cabinet Secretary plays a crucial role in the policy formulation process.
Several committees are formed in order to facilitate the decision-making process, including
political affairs committee, economic affairs committee, parliamentary affairs committee
etc. Many times, temporary committees are also created for specific purposes.
National Development Council: The National Development Council (NDC) or Rashtriya
Vikas Parishad is the apex body for working on the development matters of India. Set up
on 6th August 1952 to strengthen and utilize the resources of the nation in support of the
Five Years Plan made by the Planning Commission, it comprises the Prime Minister, Chief
Ministers of all the states, union territories representatives and the members of the NITI
Aayog. Its major functions include consideration of the important questions of social and
economic policy related to national development along with prescribing guidelines for the
formulation of the National Plan of India. Thus, it is said to have taken the role of ‘supra-
cabinet’.
Planning Commission: The Planning Commission plays an integral role in the
development of a universal approach to policy format in relation to human and economic
development. It also plays the role of a facilitator in matters of policy between the state
government and Union ministries. There are primarily three divisions, which look after the
formulation, monitoring and evaluation of the plans, policies, projects, and programmes:
• Subject Divisions
• General Divisions
• Perspective Planning Division
Being the advisory organ to the Government of India, it holds significant influence over
the process of policy formulation.
Judiciary: Through the advisory power and power of judicial review, the Supreme Court
of India exercises influence on policy matters. Previously the judiciary did not interfere in
the process of policy making, however it has started to participate to examine whether the
policies being formulated adhere to the law or not. For example, the right of women not to
be sexually harassed at workplaces after the case of Vishakha vs State of Rajasthan in 1997
became a court-made policy. Apart from these, judiciary has also taken part in social

33
welfare, economic welfare, equal protection of law, gender equality, women
empowerment, property ownership, employer-employee relationships etc. Judges
announce judgments, which later became the basis of formation of several policies. As a
result, it can be said that the judiciary plays an important role in policy formation.
Political Parties: India, being a democratic country, invites several political parties to
independently put forward their arguments for the welfare of the citizens. These political
parties thus help the general public by forming policies. Through elections, they display
their respective policies and thus make an effort to win and implement the policies. In order
to win the votes of the public, these policies usually reflect concerns deeply rooted in the
requirements of the people.
Apart from the above-mentioned organs, there are various other bodies, which influence
the process of policy making. For example, the Central Advisory Board of Education,
University Grants Commission, Trade Unions, Indian Labor Conference etc. Mass media,
under the current impact of technology, also plays an influential role in the process of
policymaking. All these bodies suggest, influence and many a times protest to demand
changes in regard to a particular policy implemented by the Government of India.

Goals for India: Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable

Development Goals
The world economies, leaders and stakeholders have unified in their efforts to prioritize
and eradicate worldwide spread problems like extreme poverty, hunger, gender inequality,
unmet schooling, environmental degradation and many more. This is not in line with the
earlier approaches where individual governments pursued goals for the growth and
development of their respective economies. The idea is to develop a set of universally
adopted goals, which can meet the urgent challenges faced by the world in relation to
environment, politics and economy.

Millennium Development Goals

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) form a set of 8 goals that United Nations
Member Countries agreed to achieve by the year 2015. Declared in September 2000, these
goals allowed the world leaders to commit to combat poverty, disease, illiteracy, hunger,
inequality in society and environmental degradation. Each Millennium development goal
had targets set for 2015 and indicators to check the progress from 1900. The goals were
also subdivided into 18 targets, which were further measured by means of 40 indicators.
Health remains the principal focus of these MDGs. Three out of the eight goals are directly
based on health, the other five focus on the factors that influence health. Thus, the goals
and targets are inter-related in several ways.

34
India included all the eight goals, 12 out of 18 targets and 35 indicators in relation to the
targets in their framework. India contributed in huge proportion to attainment of the
universal goals to discard poverty, hunger and malnutrition, illiteracy, diseases, gender
discrimination, environmental degradation.
Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty
• Target 1: Halve the proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a
day
• Target 2: Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all,
including women and young people
• Target 3: Halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
India’s Poverty head count ratio reduced from 47.8% in 1990 to 21.9% in 2011-12 with the
target of 23.9% in 2015. The poverty gap ratio of India saw nearly 50% decline as it moved
from 9.64 in 2004-05 to 5.05 in 2011- 12 among rural areas and from 6.08 to 2.70 in urban
areas. The share of the poorest quintile in national consumption decreased from 9.6% in
1993- 94 to 9.1% in 2011-12 for the rural population and 8% to 7.1% for the urban.
About 895 million people are undernourished globally of which majority (785 million)
belong to developing countries. There was a half reduction in the proportion of
undernourished people from 23.3% in 1990- 92 to 12.9% in 2014-15. In India specifically,
the proportion of underweight children below 5 years decreased from 42.5% in 2005-06 to
35.7% in 2015-16.
India could achieve the target of bringing the proportion of people below poverty to half
before due time with credit to the increased economic growth at the time and interventions

35
like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and the
National Rural Health Mission (NRHM).
Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education
• Target 4: Ensure children, boys and girls alike, will be able to finish a full course
of primary schooling by 2015.
The net enrollment ratio in primary education increased from 85.5% in 2004-05 to 87.30%
in 2015-16. The ratio of enrollment from grade V to grade I increased from 78.98 in 2009-
10 to 86.05 in 2011-12. The youth literacy rate (15-24 years) increased from 61.9% in 1991
to 86.14% in 2011.
India was able to make a moderate progress in achieving the goal of universal primary
education, however poor quality of the education still remained a matter of major concern.
Enrolling children to school is not enough but to give them a better education there is a
need for proper infrastructure, qualified educators, universal standard course curriculum
and several other things.
Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women
• Target 5: Eliminate gender disparity in primary, secondary education, preferably
by 2005, and in all levels of education, not later than 2015
India could achieve the target of eliminating gender disparity at all levels of education,
which is the ratio of the number of female students enrolled at primary, secondary, and
tertiary levels of education to the number of male students in each level. The Indian Prime
Minister’s campaign “Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (Save daughter, educate daughter)”
intensified the girl education drive. Two other targeted schemes for girls were also initiated
under the SSA; the National Programme for the Education of Girls at the Elementary Level
(NPEGEL) and Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV). Another program was the
Mahila Samakhya (MS), and its evaluation has pointed to its success in laying down the
foundation of woman empowerment, which was much needed to promote gender equality.
Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Education

Gender Parity 1991 2014

Primary level 0.71 1.03

Secondary level 0.06 1.00
Tertiary level 0.54 0.89

Ratio of literate women to men (15- 24 years old) saw a rise from 0.67% in 1990 to 0.91%
2011. The share of women in wage employment in the non- agricultural sector increased

36
from 18.6 % in 2004-05 to 19.3% in 2011-12. The Proportion of seats held by women in
the National Parliament also increased from 9.7% in 1991 to 12.24 % in 2014.

Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality

• Target 6: Reduce under-five mortality rate by two thirds between 1990 and 2015
The government of India introduced intensive efforts to improve child health through the
child health interventions under the Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) Programme. It
included Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illnesses (IMNCI), Home-
Based Newborn Care (HBNC), New Born Care Scheme (NBCS), immunization and
promotion of infant and young child feeding.
The under-five mortality ratio reduced from 125 per 1000 live births in 1990 to 43 per 1000
live births in 2015. The infant mortality rate reduced from 80 per 1,000 live births in 1990
to 40 in 2013 and 34 in 2016. The proportion of one year old children immunized against
measles increased from 42% 1992-93 to 74% 2009.

Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health

• Target 7: Reduce the Maternal Mortality Ratio by three quarters between 1990 and
2015
• Target 8: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health
The government intensified the maternal health care facilities with specific initiatives like
Essential Obstetric care and Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY). The maternal mortality rate
reduced from 437 per 1,00,000 live births in 1990 to 167 in 2011-13. The proportion of
births attended by skilled health personnel was 76.2% in 2009. It reached the level of 81.4%
in 2015-16.

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases

• Target 9: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
• Target 10: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for those
who need it.
• Target 11: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and
other major diseases
India made significant efforts in eradicating the trends of HIV/AIDS, Malaria, Tuberculosis
prevalence and spread. The government had to make strenuous efforts to cover each and
every individual suffering from such severe diseases through proper medication and
treatment. HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24 years declined from 0.89
% in 2005 to 0.32% in 2012- 13. Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate was
only 5.2 % in 2005-06. Condom use at last high-risk sex has increased from 51.9% (2001)

37
to 74% (2010). The percentage of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct
knowledge of HIV/AIDS has climbed from 22.2% in 2001 to 32.9% in 2006. Also,
prevalence and death rates associated with Malaria declined from 2.12 per thousand in 2001
to 0.72 per thousand in 2013. Tuberculosis mortality per lakh population decreased from
38 in 1990 to 19 in 2013.

Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability

• Target 12: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies
and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources
• Target 13: Biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate
of loss
• Target 14: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable
access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
• Target 15: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at
least 100 million slum dwellers
In regard to the Proportion of land area covered by forest, 5872 sq.KM area was increased
under forest during 2011-13 and constituted 21.23% of the country's geographical area in
2013. The ratio of area protected to maintain biological diversity to surface area also
expanded from 155475.63 sq.KM to 158645.05 sq.KM during the period of 2000-14. The
Carbon Dioxide emission per capita and consumption of Ozone - depleting Chlorofluoro
Carbons (ODP tons) multiplied by 235.57% in 2014, since 1990. The proportion of
households using solid fuels decreased from 74.3% in 2001 to 67.3 % in 2011.
In relation to target 14 and 15, 89.3% households in rural and 91.1% households in urban
areas and overall, 89.9% of households were having improved sources of drinking water
during 2015-16. In urban areas, the proportion of households without sanitation facilities
reduced from 10.74% in 2015 and in rural areas it reduced to 60.96%.

Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership of Development

India's varied economy ranges from conventional village farms to a huge range of modern
industries, and a plethora of services. India achieved 8.5% GDP growth in 2006, 9.0% in
2007, and 7.3% in 2008. Data released by the statistics department showed India’s gross
domestic product (GDP) grew 7.9% in 2015-16 against a previous estimation of 7.6%.
India's increasing participation in the world economy is evident from the trade to GDP
ratio, which increased from 22.5% of GDP in 2000-2001 to 34.8% of GDP in 2006-2007.
India's merchandise export and import is also reported to have grown by 22.6% and 24.5%
during 2006-2007. The overall tele density grew swiftly from just 0.67% in 1991 to over
18% in early 2007.

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From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals
The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro, taken place
in June 2012, put forward a process to develop a new set of goals, which can carry on the
purpose generated by MDGs and support the global development framework beyond 2015.
Then in July 2014, the United Nations General Assembly Open Working Group (OWG)
proposed a document consisting of 17 sustainable development goals, which were
approved by the General Assembly in September 2015. Sustainable development has been
adopted as a governing principle for global cooperation which reflects the world’s move
toward synergic achievement of economic development, social inclusion and
environmental sustainability. The document set the base for the new SDGs and the agenda
of global development from 2015 to 2030.

Goal 1 : End poverty in all its forms everywhere

Goal 2 : End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and
promote sustainable agriculture

Goal 3 : Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages

Goal 4 : Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-
long learning opportunities for all

Goal 5 : Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

39
 Goal 6 : Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation for all

Goal 7 : Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern

energy for all

Goal 8 : Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full

and productive employment, and decent work for all

Goal 9 : Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable

industrialization, and foster innovation

Goal 10 : Reduce inequality within and among countries

Goal 11 : Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable

Goal 12 : Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

Goal 13 : Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

Goal 14 : Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources
for sustainable development

Goal 15 : Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial

ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt
and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss

Goal 16 : Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable

development, provide access to justice for all, and build effective,
accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels

Goal 17 : Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global

partnership for sustainable development

Steps taken by the Government of India to Implement SDGs

Strengthening India’s commitment to the national development agenda and SDGs, the
Parliament planned various forums, including the South Asian Speakers' Summit in
February 2017 that emphasized poverty eradication, gender equality, climate change, and
resource mobilization for SDGs. The Speakers’ Research Initiative was also launched to
provide SDG-related insights to Members of Parliament.

40
 • NITI Aayog, the Government of India’s premier think tank, has been responsible
for managing the on-going countrywide formal and informal communication
process with the commitment to achieve the SDGs in a timely manner. It has carried
out a descriptive mapping of all the 17 Goals and 169 targets to Nodal Central
Ministries, Centrally Sponsored Schemes and major government initiatives.
• An important role is being played by Civil Society Organizations, which have been
working on SDG-related issues from the grassroots to the national level. Their
initiatives include Highlighting issues of sustainable energy management and
climate justice for necessary policy action, conducting research and documentation
on SDGs, conducting capacity building workshops and awareness campaigns.
• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) is the world’s most substantial financial
inclusion programme. Through PMJDY, the government has been able to expend a
cumulative amount of INR 1.6 trillion (USD 25 billion at INR 64 per USD) to 329
million beneficiaries through Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT). This is a huge step
for enhancing the efficiency of government programmes.
• The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA),
a significant anti-poverty program, has focused on generating employment through
public works that contribute to the development of agricultural infrastructure,
productive assets and entrepreneurship-based livelihood opportunities. The
initiative offers a legal guarantee of a minimum 100 days of wage employment per
household every year for unskilled workers in rural areas.
• The Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana, the National Livelihoods Mission, has the
purpose of creating skilled employment for the poor. The Mission aims to bring one
female member each from a large number of poor households in rural areas into
Self-Help Groups in a phased manner.

Conclusion
In this lesson, the process of policy formation in India was discussed thoroughly along with
several techniques, which are involved in the process of forming a policy for a specific
purpose and goal. Every technique gives insight about the steps which will be implemented
after the policy comes into action. As India is a democracy, there are several agencies and
departments, which take part in the creation of a policy – legislature, judiciary, executive,
etc. Apart from the process of policy formation, India has made consistent efforts to reach
millennium development goals by 2015 and is currently developing several policies to
attain sustainable development goals as a part of the 2030 global agenda. NITI Aayog,
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana are some of the initiatives taken by the
government of India to make its efforts result driven.

41
Chapter at a Glance
✓ The process of policy formation includes the identification of a problem and a set of
solutions or alternatives to address the same, leading toward narrowing down the
alternatives to reach a final policy model.
✓ Several techniques and tools are put into use for enhancing the process of policy
formulation and making it smooth. Some of the techniques include analysis of cost
and benefit, forecasting of economic factors, PPBS analysis and operations research
and systems Analysis.
✓ Multiple agencies are involved in formulation and development of a policy. In India.
The agencies which play the role of policy formation include Cabinet, legislature,
judiciary, political parties, NGOs, planning commissions, bureaucrats and citizens.
✓ The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are a set of 8 goals that United Nations
Member Countries agreed to combat poverty, disease, illiteracy, hunger, inequality
in society and environmental degradation by the year 2015.
✓ Sustainable development goals were formed with the purpose generated by MDGs
and support the global development framework beyond 2015. 17 goals were
approved by the General Assembly in 2015 to make sustainable development the
governing principle for global cooperation which reflects the world’s move toward
synergic achievement of economic development, social inclusion and environmental
sustainability.

Do and Learn
❖ Mention any recent policy decided by the government of India, which received
massive disapproval from the people of the country? Describe reasons too.
❖ Observe a few parliament meetings and identify a few challenges faced every now
and then to reach a conclusion by the government.
❖ Analyze sustainable development goals and give suggestions to meet the same
keeping in mind the realistic approach for the government.

Self-Assessment
1. What is the role of Parliament in policy formulation in India?
2. What are the techniques involved in the process of policy formulation?
3. Why do different organizations take part in policy formation? Mention a few with
their purposes.
4. To what extent, was India successful in meeting the millennium development goals
by 2015?

42
 5. What are the recent steps taken by the government of India to meet sustainable
development goals for the global agenda 2030?
6. What was the need of the global leaders to move from millennium development goals
to sustainable development goals?

References and Suggested Readings

• Agarwal, O.P and Somanathan, T.V. 2005. Public Policy Making in India: Issues and
Remedies, available at http://floatingsun.net/udai/files/Agarwal-Somanathan.pdf
• Parsons, Wayne. 1995. Public Policy, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK.
• Ferdous Arfina, ‘Public Policy Making: Theories and their Implications in
Developing Countries’, Asian Affairs, 2002. Available at
http://www.cdrb.org/journal/2002/3/3.pdf.
• Joshi P K. 2016. Pathways to improve food security and reduce poverty in emerging
India. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 29 (2).
• Ghinwa H. 2015. Lessons from the millennium development goals era, paving the
way for the 2015 sustainable development goals. Available at
http://dmeforpeace.org/learn/lessons- mdg-era-how-pave-way-sdgs
• Revanna, H. 2016, (March 12). India Inc first to formally adopt UN's sustainable
goals. International Business Times. Retrieved from http://www.ibtimes.co.in/india-
inc-first- formally-adopt-uns-sustainablegoals-670430
• Basnett Y, Bhattacharya D. 2015.Exploring spaces for economic transformation in
the sustainable development goals. Available at https://www.odi.org/sites/
odi.org.uk/files/odi- assets/publications-opinion-files/9651.pdf
• FAO. 2015. World's 2030 goals put hunger and agriculture at the center of global
policy. Available at http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/331906/icode/
• United Nations. 2015.Transforming world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable
development Available at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/
transformingourworld/publication/

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 Lesson-4
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND FINANCING IN INDIA
Dimpal Kumari

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Understand basic concepts of educational planning and financing.
• Explain the approaches of planning.
• To enlist the sources of educational financing.
• To discuss the problems of educational financing: Internal & External
• Acquire necessary knowledge of the indicators of education.
• Describes the Constraints/Trends in Educational Planning.

Introduction
Education is a basic human need and a key factor in development. Investment in education
will directly raise the well-being of individuals, but it will also raise their `human capital'
and capacity to acquire means for the satisfaction of other basic needs. Education is also
seen as a means of reducing inequality, as a mechanism of making other investments more
productive and is the most vital lever for social, economic and political transformation. A
well-educated population, equipped with the relevant knowledge, attitudes and skills is
essential for economic and social development in the twenty-first century.
In India after independence and mainly in 1980’s education has been assigned a high
priority in the development of policy objectives in India. Provisions in education both for
its coverage as well as quality - requires significant number of financial resources and for
that aim educational planning plays crucial roles. UNESCO defines educational planning
as “the application of rational, methodical analysis to the process of educational
development with the purpose of making education more effective and efficient in
responding to the needs and goals of its students and society in its broadest sense.”
The process of creating goals and choosing how to accomplish them is known as planning.
Planning is proactive in nature and establishes priorities. Rather of being reactive, it is
proactive.
The following are some of the questions that planning asks: What? When? Where? Who is
it that is doing this? and how?

44
Importance of Educational Planning
• It aids in the identification of educational goals and objectives, as well as the
equitable and efficient distribution of limited resources. It aids decision making in
education.
• It is required for educational administrative decision-making.
• Educational planning is a smart approach of avoiding the trial-and-error method of
tackling educational challenges.
• Educational planning reduces waste and failure by ensuring that the administrative
process in the field of education runs smoothly, easily, and efficiently.
• Education, with adequate planning, can be the most effective means of preserving
and developing society’s future value system, individual way of life, knowledge,
skills and applications, and culture of the nation.
• The means and ends of society can be adequately interacted through the educational
system with proper educational planning. It means that the educational system
employs a considerable proportion of the country's educated talent and consumes a
significant amount of public funds.
• Educational planning is critical for creating a blueprint or action plan for any
educational institution or organization’s programme.
• Education planning is required to make one's educational path goal-oriented and
purposeful.
• Maintaining, sustaining, and improving a person's, institution's, or organization's
thinking process is crucial.
• Education planning is vital to highlight the universal educational goals that every
nation must achieve in order to flourish in every way.
• To bring a nation’s overall growth in time, including educational development as
one of its many facets.
• To reflect modern trends such as the explosion of knowledge, the expansion of
science and technology, the development of research and innovation, while
reformulating the educational goals and objectives in light of the specific scenario
that a country is experiencing.
• It investigates and proposes the most effective methods for maximising the use of
available resources in order to achieve educational objectives.
• Educational planning permits the assembly of educational specialists, teachers,
supervisors and administrators to make decisions about achieving the educational
program’s objectives.
• The goals of various classes of professionals, such as sociologists, economists,
scientists, legislators and educators are all given equal weightage in educational
planning.

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Types of Planning
In India's five-year plans, educational planning is one of the most important concerns. As
a result of globalization, there is a larger demand for education at all levels. The
government has put in place a number of policies to improve adult literacy and education.
According to analysts, high dropout rates, low levels of learning achievement, low
participation of female students, insufficient school infrastructure, teacher absenteeism,
large-scale teacher vacancies, inadequate teaching/learning material, lack of public
involvement in the provision of educational services, variation in literacy rates for special
groups of citizens, and variation in interstate literacy rates are among the major problems
in India's educational planning. Planners should place a greater emphasis on filling these
gaps.

Consequently, in India, there are a variety of 'approaches’ used for the educational
planning. Let's have a look at what they have to offer. These enables government officials
to direct educational growth and prioritise initiatives.
Macro Planning: Macro-planning [in education] focuses on the broad dimensions of the
system and its relationships with the economy and society.
Micro planning: Micro-planning is defined by its relationship with macro-planning. It is
the expression of a desire to improve the operation of the education system by
strengthening the planning work done at regional and local levels. It is a planning process
that focuses on local characteristics and needs and builds local capacities.
Decentralized Planning: Decentralization implies increasing responsibilities for efficient
resource management and education quality improvements at levels below the central level.
Rolling Plan: A plan which is designed to continue over a period of time and is subject
to regular review and updating
Strategic planning: In its most basic form, strategic planning is the process of establishing
objectives, deciding on actions to accomplish those objectives, and mobilising the
resources required to carry out those activities. A strategic plan outlines how objectives
will be met through the application of existing resources.
Institutional Planning: Institutional planning is a programme of development and
improvement prepared by an educational institution on the basis of it’s felt needs and the
resources available or likely to be available, with a view to improving the school
programme and school practices.

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Indicators of Education
Educational indicators are statistics that describe key aspects of schooling which permit the
evaluation and monitoring of schools, teachers, programs, and students. It is suggested that
the extent to which information offered by each indicator can demonstrate effects on
student and learning outcomes should be considered while validating educational
indicators.
1. Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER): It refers to the entire enrolment in a specific level of
education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the eligible official school-age
population in a given school year.

Purpose: The gross enrolment rate depicts the overall degree of formal schooling
participation among children. A gross enrolment rate value of 100 percent indicates that a
country is, in principle, able to accommodate all of its school-aged population.
A comparable metric is the Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER). The primary GER shows how
many children, regardless of age, are enrolled in primary school as a percentage of the total
population of children of primary school age.

Number of children enrolled in primary school

Primary GER =
Number of children of primary school age

The GER can have a value of more than 100%. When a percentage is greater than 100
percent, it means that some children who are older or younger than primary school age are
enrolled in primary school. Overage enrollment, such as owing to repetition or late arrival,
is usually indicated by a GER exceeding 100%.
In a particular year, the India’s Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is the student enrolment as
a percentage of the corresponding eligible age group. In primary school, the GER was close
to 100% in 2018-19. However, in the secondary level, the GER drops to 77%, and at the
senior secondary level, it drops to 50%. This suggests that reducing educational dropouts
will continue to be a struggle. Between 2010-11 and 2018-19, the GER for upper
elementary, intermediate, and senior secondary education increased by 1 percent, 2 percent,
and 4 percent, respectively. Between these two periods, the GER for primary education fell
by 1% year.
2. Net Enrolment Rate (NER): The net enrolment rate is the proportion of children of
official primary school age enrolled in primary school to the total number of children of
official primary school age, as defined by the national education system.

47
Purpose: The net primary enrolment rate is the percentage of primary school-aged
children who are enrolled in primary school. Gross enrolment covers children of any age,
whereas net enrolment only includes children of formal school age. Net primary enrolment
rates below 100% indicate the number of school-aged children not enrolled in primary
school. Because some children may be enrolled in other levels of education, this disparity
does not necessarily imply the percentage of pupils who are not enrolled.

Number of children of primary school age enrolled in

Primary NER =
primary school

Number of children of primary school age

The basic NER is 100 percent if all children of primary school age are enrolled in primary
school. A primary NER of less than 100 percent indicates that not all children of primary
school age are enrolled in primary school; some may be absent, while others may be
enrolled in preschool, secondary school, or other forms of education. The NER cannot
exceed 100 percent by definition.

According to recent NER data, during the 2019 fiscal year, 89 out of every 100 children
under the age of primary education were enrolled in school in India. At the upper
elementary school level, the ratio was less.
3. Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR): The pupil-teacher ratio is a measure of the average number
of students per teacher in a given school year at the primary school level. Teachers are
described as individuals whose professional activity entails the transmission of knowledge,
attitudes, and abilities to students enrolled in a formal educational institution as outlined in
a formal curriculum programme.

Purpose: This statistic is used to calculate the human resource input in terms of the number
of teachers compared to the number of students. A high pupil-to-teacher ratio indicates that
each teacher is in charge of a big group of students. Students will have access to teachers.
A low pupil-to-teacher ratio is commonly considered to indicate smaller classrooms, which
allow the instructor to give more attention to individual students, resulting in greater long-
term pupil performance.

The number of teachers in the educational system has increased in recent years (from nearly
82 lakhs in 2013-14 to nearly 89 lakhs in 2016-17). As a result, the Pupil-Teacher Ratio
(PTR) has decreased across the educational spectrum (from 31.3 in 2013-14 to 28.4 in
2016-17). The number of students per teacher is known as PTR. The PTR should ideally
be less than 30:1 at the primary level and 35:1 at the upper primary level, according to the

48
RTE Act of 2009. Only Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, with PTRs of 39 and 36, respectively, do
not satisfy the RTE-mandated PTRs at the primary level.

Experts have recognised a number of difficulties relating to teachers' roles in addressing

the challenges that face primary education. These includes:

(i) Low teacher accountability and appraisal.

(ii) Poor quality of teacher-education content and changes required in the curriculum
of B. Ed and D. Ed courses.
(iii) The need for continuous in-service teacher training and skill set upgradation.
(iv) An insufficient pupil-teacher ratio and the deployment of teachers for non-
educational purposes.
(v) High amount of teacher vacancies.
(vi) Excessive recruitment of contract/para teachers.

India’s Educational Financing Sources

The process of evaluating the capital necessary and regulating its utilization is known as
financial planning. It is the process of establishing financial regulations for an
organization's sourcing, investment, and administration of funds.
Education in India can be funded from a variety of financing sources. External, internal,
and domestic sources of financing can be roughly classified. In India, external funding does
not make up a large percentage of the educational budget. Domestic funding sources are
separated into two categories: Among the public sources are contributions from the federal,
state, and local governments. Private or non-governmental sources include fees and other
everyday costs spent by direct beneficiaries (students/parents) of education, as well as
endowments and gifts provided by individuals, trusts, and other non-governmental sources.
Fees are mandatory payments among private sources, while others are optional
contributions. However, despite private sector involvement, education in India is
essentially a government-sponsored enterprise. As a result, the pattern of educational
development is heavily influenced by the availability of governmental educational
resources.
In India, the growth of overall education expenditure, which includes government
expenditure and a tiny portion of private expenditure — primarily fees and voluntary
donations has been spectacular over the last several decades. The government's education
spending in India is divided into two categories. The sources of financing education in India
are depicted in bellow picture:

49
Total government expenditure as a percentage of GDP: The total government
expenditure on education demonstrates the importance of education in the government's
overall strategy. The overall government education investment increased from 7.92 percent
in 1952 to 15.7 percent in 2014.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Percentage: The GDP education expenditure represents
the entire amount of money spent on the country's educational development. The overall
GDP percentage increased from 0.64 to 4.13 between 1952 and 2014.

Role of Government and Quasi-government organizations in Planning

and Financing education
Both the central and state governments provide fund for education in India. Governments
at various levels give financing for its own organisations as well as institutions established
by private people or organisations to whom grants are granted in accordance with the
government’s grants-in-aid policies. The funding of state governments differs in terms of
funding systems, as well as in terms of educational levels. Private institutions that fall under
the grants-in-aid code are typically provided recurrent and non-recurring funds.
The 7th Schedule of the Indian Constitution deals with the division of powers between the
Union government and State governments. It is a part of 12 Schedules of Indian
Constitutions. The division of powers between Union and State is notified through three
kinds of the list mentioned in the seventh schedule:

50
 1. Union List – List 1
2. State List – List 2
3. Concurrent List – List 3
The functions of government in India are divided into these three categories, according to
the Indian Constitution: List 1 contain a list of functions performed by the Union
government; List 2 contains a list of functions performed by the states; and List 3 has a list
of concurrent functions. In the case of concurrent functions, the central and state
governments have equal legislative power, subject to a provision that safeguards and
defends the central government's superiority in the event of a conflict. Except for a few
areas of education, which were placed under List 1 (Centre functions), education was
placed under List 2 (state functions). Central universities, Union agencies and institutions
for professional and technical education, Union agencies for co-ordination and
determination of standards in institutions of higher education, and any other institution
declared by the Parliament to be an institution of national importance were listed as
functions of the central government (List 1). The Central Board of Secondary Education
(CBSE), the University Grants Commission (UGC), Deemed Universities, the National
Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), and the National Institute of
Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) were all founded as a result of the
Constitution's provisions. The parallel functions included vocational and technical labour
training.
Education was moved from the state list to the concurrent list (List 3) following a
constitutional amendment in 1976. The central government's involvement and domination
in educational development was therefore legitimised. The addition of education on the
concurrent list was resisted by many state governments. Despite the fact that education was
included on the concurrent list, there was no difference in the way it was organised or
funded in India. Even though education is still on the concurrent list, Education
(Department of Education: 1986) emphasises decentralised planning and management of
education. Concurrency in education has yet to be proven to have any good impacts.
Central Governments' Role in Educational Financing:
The Central government provides grants to states, universities, and special institutions to
assist them in meeting their educational responsibilities. It gives backward states extra
grants to help them move ahead with other states. It funds centrally governed areas and
distributes scholarships and stipends through various scholarship programmes.
Central Government intervenes in education in three ways:
A) It has its own central sector in education, which includes, in addition to the sectors
listed in the Union List (List 1), Central schools, Regional Colleges of Education,

51
 National Scholarships, and University Grants Commission (UGC) programmes
such as the establishment of Centres for Advanced Study, among others. This
sector's administrative and financial functions are entirely under the control of the
federal government. The Centre is solely responsible for planning, implementing,
and financing these activities. The central government is in charge of developing
and implementing educational policies and legislation. The Indian Central
Government alters pre-existing constitutional provisions and crafts new policies to
strengthen the country's education sector. The revised plans call for a National
System of Education to provide educational uniformity, universal access, retention,
and quality in primary school, the foundation of pace-setting schools such as
Navodaya Vidyalayas in each district, and the vocationalization of secondary
education. The NCERT, UGC, Central Universities, and Central Schools
organisations all undertake educational tasks for the Central Government.
B) Second, The Central Government funds initiatives that are implemented by the
States.
C) Some programmes designed and conducted by state governments are partially
funded by the national government.
State Governments' Role in Educational Financing:
The Finance Commission transfers adequate resources at the end of each Five-year Plan to
each State under: Share in Income-tax, Share in excise, and Lump-sum grant-in-aid. These
resources used by states government in funding educational sector in their respective states,
such as:
A) The state government is primarily responsible for elementary education. Various
states have established and maintain a number of high and higher secondary
schools, industrial and technical institutes, Polytechnique, colleges and universities
to prepare their citizens for careers in administration, industry, commerce,
medicine, engineering, agriculture, and other fields.
B) The state government establishes training schools and colleges in order to provide
qualified teachers to educational institutions. For various educational classes and
grades, the state provides a syllabus and course of study. The State Government
determines the length of each course, working days, working hours, and vacations.
C) States also create commissions and committees to discuss various elements of
education and educational activity. These committees make recommendations
about how to enhance the educational system.
D) The state acknowledges private-sector schools and other institutions that follow
established norms and regulations. It also supplies them with the necessary

52
 resources and grants in order for them to operate properly and effectively.
Universities operating in the state are also awarded financial aid.
Local Governments' Role in Educational Funding:
Municipalities, Boards, District Bodies, Zilla Parisads, and Panchayats are all responsible
for running schools in their respective areas. They hire teachers, provide equipment, and
fund these schools using local taxes and funds from the state government. These Local
Bodies have direct responsibility over such educational institutes.
State grants to local governments for elementary education should be a mix of proportional
grants, special funds for underserved areas, and special purpose grants. Making it
mandatory for towns to set aside a certain percentage of their net earnings for elementary
education would be in the best interests of education. According to the rules, all money
allocated to Primary Education should be eligible for grant-in-aid.

Recent Developments
According to the Economic Survey 2020-21, the union government's education spending
as a percentage of GDP has been around 3% from 2014-15 to 2018-19. The National
Education Policy (NEP) of 1968 recommended that education investment be 6% of GDP.
This recommendation has been confirmed by NEP 2020. According to the NEP 2020,
important components of education will receive financial support as soon as possible in
order to meet the aim of public spending on education of 6% of GDP. These elements
include (i) a suitable number of teachers and personnel, (ii) teacher development, and
(iii) learning resource development. Long-term, the strategy encourages expenditures in
major education thrust areas such as (i) teacher education and development, (ii) college and
university renovations, (iii) research promotion, (iv) fundamental literacy, and (v) high-
quality early childhood care education. Furthermore, to avoid underutilization of
allocations, the Policy encourages efficient use of funds. This will aid in meeting targets
under various schooling initiatives on time.

Conclusion
Several concerns related to educational planning and financing in India were covered in
this chapter. Starting with the rationale for educational planning, the process of educational
planning, the approach to educational planning, the financing requirements and
developments in educational planning, the benefits of educational planning, and the
constraints to educational planning in India are all discussed. By implication, it has been
demonstrated that each educational system is well-defined by an educational plan that
includes the educational initiative’s aims, objectives, philosophy, and programme.

53
Chapter at a Glance
✓ Educational planning is the process of putting together a collection of decisions
regarding an educational initiative in such a way that the aims and objectives of
education can be met in the future with the existing resources.
✓ Educational planning is the use of a rational and methodical examination of the
educational production process, whether past or contemporary, with the goal of
recommending methods to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of education
output.
✓ The interaction of three diverse bodies in the process of educational planning is
complex, involving the legislature, the professional planner, and the administration.
✓ There are a variety of ‘approaches’ used for educational planning. These enables
government officials to direct educational growth and prioritise initiatives.
✓ Educational indicators are data that reflect fundamental characteristics of education
and allow schools, teachers, programmes, and students to be evaluated and
monitored. Also, they will help in building strategies for educational planning and
financing accordingly.
✓ The process of evaluating the capital necessary and determining its utilization is
known as financial planning. It is the process of establishing financial regulations for
an organization's sourcing, investment, and administration of funds.
✓ Education in India can be funded from a variety of financing sources. External,
internal, and domestic sources of financing can be roughly classified.

Do and Learn
❖ Prepare assignments on factors affecting the educational planning and financing.
❖ Collect data and analyse five-year plans and budget reports with respect of
educational planning and finance allocations and list out the trends and its impacts
on educational system in India.
❖ Prepare an Institutional plan for school in your locality.
❖ Prepare assignments on how external aids of educational financing impacts Indian
education system.

Self-Assessment
1. Define educational planning and financing.
2. What is the need of educational planning and financing?

54
 3. Discuss types and functions of various educational planning approaches and which
approaches of educational planning is more suitable in Indian context and why?
4. List out various educational financing resources.
5. Discuss types of Organizations associated with educational planning and financing
in detail.

References and Suggested Readings

• Aggarwal, Y. P., & Thakur, R. S. (2003). Concepts and terms in educational
planning: A guidebook. New Delhi: National Institute of Educational Planning and
Administration.
• Bray, M., & Varghese, N. V. (Eds.). (2011). Directions in educational planning:
International experiences and perspectives. Unesco Pub.
• Haddad, W. D., & Demsky, T. (1995). Education Policy-Planning Process: An
Applied Framework. Fundamentals of Educational Planning 51. UNESCO, 7 Place
de Fontenoy, 75700, Paris France.
• Jha, J., Saxena, K. B. C., & Baxi, C. V. (2001). Management processes in elementary
education: a study of existing practices in selected states in India. European
Commission.
• Mathur, S. P. (2001). Financial Administration and Management.
• Naik, J. P. (1965). Educational planning in India. Allied Publishers.
• Prasad, J. (1995). School Organization and Management. Kanishka Publishers.
• Tilak, J. B. (1986). Educational finances in India. Indian Journal of Public
Administration, 32(3), 581-589.
• Tilak, J. B. (1989). Education and Its Relation to Economic Growth, Poverty, and
Income Distribution: Past Evidence and Further Analysis. World Bank Discussion
Paper 46. Publications Sales Unit, Department F, World Bank, 1818 H Street NW,
Washington, DC 20433.
• Varghese, N. V. (1996). Decentralisation of educational planning in India: The case
of the district primary education programme. International journal of educational
development, 16(4), 355-365.

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 Lesson-5 Unit-II
KOTHARI COMMISSION REPORT AND VISION OF
COMMON SCHOOLING
Sheela Rajeshwari

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Understand the vision of the Kothari Commission.
• Explain the objectives of the Kothari Commission.
• Analyze the recommendation of the Kothari Commission.
• Comprehend the concept of the Common School System.
• Understand the significance of common school system in contemporary education.

Introduction
On 14th July 1964, the government of India set up the National Education Commission to
restructure the entire education system of the country. This commission was popularly
known as the “Kothari Commission”. After the independence of India, it was realized that
the country’s education was not in sync with the existing needs of society. This was also
accompanied by a large number of defects in the education system of that time. It was not
connected with the social needs of the masses of India. The curriculum had less space for
activities, and it was more academically inclined. This type of education system was a
barrier in itself which was not beneficial for the development of the country. Therefore, the
Kothari Commission was formed to revisit and restructure the education system of India.
It was shaped in a view to analyze the whole education system of India and provide
suggestions to the government for making the National Education Policy. It was the first
commission post-independence which looked upon the entire education system in a
comprehensive manner and gave recommendation as per the need of the existing society.
This commission was chaired by Dr. Daulat Sigh Kothari who was the then chairmen of
the University Grants Commission hence named the Kothari commission. The Indian
education system had many flaws and little emphasis was given to non-academic
curriculum such as agriculture, sports, value education and vocational education. The
urgent need for restructuring education system to address the local issues of India became
the utmost priority for the government. It was felt that reformation in education and relating
it with the daily life and aspiration of Indian people would lead to an independent and
developed nation. So, in a nutshell the key objectives behind setting up of Kothari
Commission were as follows:
• To review the existing education system in India

56
 • To examine every feature of the education structure of India
• To analyze the educational need of independent India.
• To provide suggestions to the government for restructuring the educational scenario
in India
• To provide recommendation for the National Education Policy of India.
This commission not only focused on school education, but also emphasized on vocational,
adult education, language, sports, examination system etc. It also advocated for common
school system in the education sector in India. Core group of 20 members were formed
with 12 task forces. The commission took suggestions from various experts form foreign
educational consultants. “Experts from USA, UK, Japan, France, Sweden such as Prof P.
M. S. Blackett, President of the Royal Society, UK; Lord Robbins, Chairman of the
Committee on Higher Education (1961-63), UK; Sir Christopher Cox, Educational
Adviser, Ministry of Overseas Development, UK; Sir Willis Jackson, Professor of
Electrical Engineering, Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of
London; Professor C. A. Moser, London School of Economics; Professor Frederick Spitz,
President, National Academy of Sciences and many more were consulted” (kothari
commission). It took months for them to collect data from various part of the country. Nine
thousand people including educators, scholars, scientists, industrialists were interviewed to
examine the status of education in India. The commission envisioned the Indian education
system as a source of productivity and creator of modern scientific and sound cultivated
society. The Kothari Commission submitted report to M.C Chagla, on 29th June 1966. The
Commission established twelve Task Forces and 7 Working Groups to study the current
educational issues and make a comprehensive report on

Task Forces Working Groups

• Women's Education
• School Education
• Education of Backward Classes
• Higher Education
• School Buildings
• Technical Education
• School-Community Relations
• Agricultural Education
• Statistics
• Adult Education
• Pre-Primary Education
• Science Education and Research
• School Curriculum
• Teacher Training and Teacher Status
• Student Welfare
• New Techniques and Methods
• Manpower
• Educational Administration and
• Educational Finance

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 Kothari Commission was divided into four sections

Source: https://physicscatalyst.com/graduation/kothari-commission/

Major Recommendation of Kothari Commission

Aims and Objectives of Education: According to Kothari commission the aims and
objectives of education must be:
• To increase productivity
• To modernise society
• To relate education with the local needs of the society
• To develop idea of national integration
• To develop social, moral and spiritual values.
According to the Kothari commission, the aims and objectives of the education should be
to increase productivity in the country. India is a diverse country and has enough human
and material resources. These resources would have been used to address the issues of
diverse society. Since independence the curriculum in education was not in sync with the
daily needs of Indian people. There was urgent need to rethink the structure as well as
content of the education. This commission suggested to utilise local resources to make
Indian education more productive and resourceful. Introduction of work experience and
science education as essential part of education was also recommended for Productivity

58
and modernisation. This would lead to a self-sustainable nation. According to the
commission, for increasing productivity through education few components must be
restructured and should be of high urgency in educational planning.
• Integrating science, a basic component of education
• Work-experience should be integral part of general education
• Introduction of vocational education at secondary school level to fulfil the
requirement of industry, agriculture and trade
• Emphasis should be given to upgrading of scientific and technological education
• Emphasis should be given to research, agriculture and allied sciences.
Education must inculcate morals and values to create a Morden and productive society in
future. The Kothari commission also advocated developing social, moral and spiritual
values among children.
Providing Equal Educational Opportunity: Education is a tool for a successful nation.
India has various socioeconomic issues in the country. Sometimes people don’t get
opportunities due to being a disadvantaged group of society. Therefore, social injustice
became a barrier in the development of the country. For removing this barrier, education
should be accessible to each one in the country irrespective of caste, creed, gender etc. We
cannot achieve this goal of development easily until we provide social justice to everyone.
To come out with solution, the Kothari commission recommended the Provision of Free
and Compulsory Education for children aged 6 to 14 years. This commission also
highlighted the issues of girl’s education, education of people with disability, education of
backward castes and classes. The idea was to disseminate education to each and every
corner of the country and to promote social inclusion and justice. For integrating special
education in general education commission recommended programmes to enhance
facilities for children with disabilities including physical and mental disabilities. It was also
recommended to reduce the wastage and stagnation in schools for various reason and
ensure retention of enrolled students in schools
Structure of Education: The commission visioned a broad uniform educational structure
throughout the country. It was recommended to execute 10+2+3 pattern in education, with
2 years of higher secondary stage can be located in schools. Common School System was
recommended for entire schools in country. It was also emphasised the need of investment
in education to increase by 6% of national income. The following educational structure was
suggested by the commission.
• The Pre-school education stage should be of 1 to 3 years in total.
• The Lower primary education stage should be of 4 to 5 years.
• The Upper Primary Education stage should be up to a period of 4 years.
• The Secondary stage should be of 2 years.
• The Higher Secondary Education should be Up to 2 years.

59
 • The Undergraduate education should be up to 3 years.
• The Masters Education should be up to 2-3 years.
Kothari Commission Suggestions for Syllabus: According to the commission, the entire
nation should follow same curriculum and primary education should be taught through
mother tongue and curriculum should be related to environment at this stage. Secondary
education should have core-curriculum and have vocational education as an important part.
The commission divided the syllabus into four bases:
• Curriculum of Pre-primary Education: Pre-primary education should include
teaching developed skills related to cleanliness, eating, hygiene, communication,
making social regulations and participating in hands on activities.
• Curriculum of Primary Education: Primary education should include mother
tongue, general mathematics, environment, health education, functional work, and
creative work.
• Curriculum of Secondary Education: Secondary education should include
subjects such as, Hindi, English, Mathematics, Science, Art, Social-Service, Social
Studies and Moral-Values etc.
• Syllabus of Higher Secondary Education: Higher Secondary Education should
include subjects like History, Geography, Economics, Psychology, Social-Science,
Mathematics, Science etc.
Science Education: The Kothari commission pointed out that modern societies can be
developed by incorporating science and technology in education. Traditional societies were
based on trial and error which did not progress through scientific reasoning. To develop an
industrial and agricultural society, incorporation of science and technology in education is
of utmost importance. The commission strongly recommended the integration of science
as a subject in school education. It was also suggested that science education be part of all
humanities and social science courses at university level. Greater emphasis must be given
to the method of teaching science which should be child cantered and inquiry based. There
should ideally be set, proper objectives of teaching science which should include
developing problem-solving skills, analytic thinking, creativity and experimentation
among learners. The commission suggested to merge science and spiritualty in Indian
education so that a Morden Indian society, with high moral values can be developed. It was
suggested to expand enrolment in engineering, agriculture and pure science subjects at post
graduate level to rise national economy. Greater emphasis was given to research at
university level especially on agriculture and allied sciences. “In the sphere of higher
education and scientific research, the report strongly urged the necessity of rooting our
science on indigenous ethos and priorities, maintaining highest autonomy in academic
matters in our institutions of higher education, making our universities the arena of high-
quality teaching and research, maintaining high efficiency in the utilization of scarce
resources including that of our scientific manpower, selectively encouraging certain centres

60
of excellence so as to bring them at par with international institutions of repute and, above
all, nurturing a value system in our scientific temperament, so that we draw nourishment
from our rich cultural and spiritual heritage” (Mukhopadhaya, 2017)
Work Experience: According to the Kothari commission, work-experience should be
defined as “participation in productive work in the school, in the home, in a workshop, on
a farm, in a factory or in any other productive situation. In our opinion, all good and
purposeful education should consist of at least four basic elements: - 'literacy' or a study of
languages, the humanities and the social sciences, 'numeracy' or a study of mathematics
and the natural sciences, work-experience and social service”. (Kothari commission 1964).
It was thought that integration of work in education is essential for developing modern
Indian societies, which are progressing through science and technologies. Encouraging
programmes where community and formal education together participate in work
experience would enhance the productivity of the society. The idea of basic education given
by Mahatma Gandhi was applauded by the commission and redefined his idea for
developing an industrial country. It was suggested to make firm efforts to link programmes
to industrialization, science technology and agriculture.
Benefits of Integration of Work Experiences in Formal Education:
• It can help to fill the gap between intellectual and less noticeable manual work in
the society.
• It can provide opportunities for employment to the youth of India by preparing them
for different skill-based work.
• It increases the productivity of the country
• It can also develop a sense of responsibility amongst the students
• It can provide opportunities to progress through the application of science and
technology.
• It can help in developing the national integration by strengthening relationships
between educated people and common people in society.
• It can help students to earn and meet their expenditure during their education.
• The concept of ‘earn and learn’ can be promoted by integrating work experience in
education.
• It would also help in developing the value of responsibilities in young students
which would be beneficial for the economic growth of the country.
Vocational Education: The Kothari commission pointed out the significance of vocational
education for the development of India. The Indian education system had been training
people mostly for government jobs or white- collar jobs, therefore urgent need to introduce
practical subjects in secondary schools became significant. Vocational education at
secondary level was strongly recommended by this commission on the basis that, it would
be a great help in increasing productivity of the nation.

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Language Policy: There was no proper language policy in the country since independence.
Adequate language policy could have been contributed in development of national
integration. Commission realised the urgent need of proper language policy in the country
for various reasons including political and cultural. They recommended an evolved
common language policy in the country which included:
• Morden Indian languages: Commission emphasised, urgency in the development
of Indian languages, to make scientific and technical knowledge more easily
accessible to the common people in their own languages. It was argued that
development of Modern Indian languages not only help in industrialization, but also
develop scientific temperament among people. Scientific and technical literature
should be available for people in their regional languages.
• Medium of Education at School and College: Commission emphasized to make
suitable language policy for medium of education in schools and colleges. Mother
tongue as a media of education at school and higher education was claimed.
Commission believed that promoting regional languages as a media of education
could be useful to bring national integration. It was argued that Learning through
foreign medium compels students to focus on stuffing of knowledge instead of
mastering the subject-matter. It was also suggested that one language should be
used in higher education throughout the country for uniformity. Greater emphasis
was given to the Hindi language especially in non-Hindi speaking states. They
suggested to continue all India institutes to practice English language as a media of
education for time being and eventually replaced by Hindi, keeping in mind that
non-Hindi speaking learner should not be suffered. Therefore, a clear-cut policy
should be framed by UGC to avoid any ambiguity in media of education.
Promotion of National Consciousness: Development of National consciousness should
be encouraged among students at the school level. It can be done by incorporating cultural
heritage of India as a part of syllabus. Kothari commission suggested following ways to
promote national consciousness among students:
• Teaching the languages, literatures, philosophy, religions, and history of India in
schools.
• Introduction of Indian architecture, sculpture, painting, music, dance and drama in
schools.
• Introduction of knowledge, understanding and appreciation of the different parts of
India to students and should be included in their curriculum.
• Exchange of teachers wherever possible in different parts of the country.
• Development of friendly relations and collaboration between educational
institutions in different parts of the country by organization of interstate holiday
camps and summer schools.

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Teacher Education in India: Teacher education programs plays a significant role in the
development of sound educational quality of the country. Therefore, it becomes essential
to provide quality training to teacher professional in the institutions. Kothari commission
highly emphasized on revisiting traditional teaching education programs. It was suggested
that the institutes which are training teacher professional needs to upgrade the
methodology. Teaching learning process should be according to the progressing societal
needs. Post-independence teacher education institutes were completely running in isolated
environment. The gap between training institutes and academic lives of primary, secondary
and university is enormous which needs to be filled. There should be collaboration between
academic intuitions at primary and secondary levels and teacher training institutions.
According to the commission, “A comprehensive programme of improvement is urgently
needed in teacher education, and we propose to discuss this under the following heads:
• Teacher training institutes can be merged or mainstreamed with university life as
well as school environment to remove seclusion of training institutions and for
preparation of quality teachers and different school levels.
• Improving the quality of training programmes and institutions
• Escalating training facilities: - Making adequate provision for the continuing
professional education of all teachers
• For the maintenance of standards in teacher education, adequate activities must be
created both at centre and state level.”
Inaccessibility of these teacher education institutes has been recognised by the commission
in three different stages. Firstly, isolation from university life: universities and training
institutes were working in aloof, without knowing the professional needs of teacher
especially for primary schools. Secondly, isolation from school academic life: the current
needs and development at the school levels were not integrated in teacher education
programs. Thirdly lack of collaboration among other institutions: there was no
collaboration among various teacher training institutions. All of them were working in an
isolated manner. To remove concept of working in isolated environment, Kothari
commission recommended that “We, therefore, recommend that, in view of its increasing
scope and importance, 'education' should be recognized as a social science or an
independent discipline. We also recommend that 'education' as an elective subject should
be introduced at the undergraduate and postgraduate stages on the lines”. It was
recommended that UGC should establish teacher education programmes and department
of school of education in selected universities. Existing teacher education programs were
traditional, rigid and unconnected to the real school experiences. Commission suggested to
restructure those programs according to the current need of the country.
Duration of Training Course for teacher professionals was suggested to be of two years
for primary teachers who have completed the secondary school course. Course and one

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year for the graduate students. Number of working days in a year was suggested to be of
230 days.
In-Service Education of School Teachers. It was suggested that in-service training
programs should be organised in large scale to enhance the professional development of
teachers. These programs should be organised by universities and teacher training
organisations and should involve teachers at all levels. At least two to three months of in-
service training should be provided to teachers in every five years.
Teacher Status: Kothari commission highlighted the significance of high-quality teachers
in schools and higher education. Intensive programme to prepare and recruit teacher
professionals in schools was among the high priority program of the commission. It was
argued that, to achieve quality teachers in education at all levels, there is a need to raise the
economic, social and professional status of teachers. Following recommendations were
given by the commission regarding status of teachers in the country.
• Renumeration: It was observed that continuous effort was made to increase the
renumeration of teachers at all levels and had been part of all plans since
independence. But somehow it was not implemented, especially in case of primary
teachers. Renumeration of the teachers was very low and far from satisfactory. For
the Pre-primary teachers the situation was even worst because most of the pre-
schools were unaided and were located at urban areas.
• Recruitment of School Teachers: it was suggested that Professional training
should be mandatory for all teachers at secondary school. The process of selection
procedure and qualification for recruitment teachers for government schools as well
as schools run by private management should be prescribed by State Boards of
School Education and the State Education Departments.
• Promotions of Teachers: it was recommended that proper steps should be taken
for the promotional aspect of teachers at all levels in education. This would
encourage and motivate them not only for good qualification but also for virtuous
teaching.
• Welfare Services for Teachers. suggestions were given to provide welfare
services to teachers at various levels. These services included funding of free
housing, free schooling for children, and subsidized medical services. These
suggestions were made to provide better facilities for teachers.
• Conditions of Work: an adequate working environment is necessary for a teacher
to stimulate their creativity. Right opportunity and professional development play a
very significant role in teaching profession. Workplace of a teacher should be
equipped with facilities to conduct researches and academic activities. Commission
recommended the need of minimum facilities in the classroom, so that teachers can
bring out maximum of their efficiency. These facilities included library, laboratory,
teaching aids and adequate pupil-teacher ratio.

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 • Women Teachers: Kothari commission highly recommended the need of
employment of women teachers at all levels of education. It was suggested to
provide part-time employment for women teachers, so that they can look after their
children and can-do job also. Provision of Residential accommodation especially
for women teachers in rural areas was suggested. Also, it was demanded to expand
the scheme of condensed courses for adult women in rural areas. Provision of
scholarships and facilities like private study, correspondence education was also
suggested to encourage women to select teaching profession. Provision of special
allowances was suggested for women teachers working in rural areas. It was
suggested to appoint women teachers in rural areas as they would bring more girls
in schools.
• National Awards for School Teachers: Kothari commission encouraged and
appreciated the scheme of national awards for school teachers operated by the
Ministry of Education. This award had been granted to acknowledge the
outstanding work of school teachers in their professional fields. Commission
provided some suggestions to ministry of education for increasing the effectiveness
of awards, such as to increase the number of national awards, strengthening the
selection committee and to increase the travelling allowance of the awardees.
Teachers for Tribal Areas: Kothari commission suggested the need of tribal young men
and women in teaching profession, especially in tribal areas where they can be appointed
locally. There was an urgent need of good teachers in tribal areas, therefore it was suggested
to give special allowances to the teachers in tribal areas because they live in tiresome
conditions. It was also suggested to provide residential accommodation to these teachers
as they didn’t have any rented houses in those areas. Special training of tribal languages
and culture should be given to teachers to make them easily blend with the tribal culture.
States having more tribal areas were suggested to provide orientation courses and special
training to the teachers posted to Tribal areas.
Children with Disabilities: Kothari commission recognized the difficulties of ‘handicap
children’ now called children with disabilities. Commission argued that little work has been
done for the education of children with disabilities since post-independence. The
segregated approach for the education of children with disabilities was followed throughout
the country. Kothari commission suggested proposals for different programs to address the
needs of children with disabilities. Following suggestions were made to identify the task
of education for children with disability:
• Education for children with disabilities should be to prepare them for adjustment in
socio-cultural environment.
• Curriculum should be designed to meet the needs of every child including child
with disability.

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 • Commission suggested the integration of special education in general education to
provide inclusive education for all. Different methodology was also suggested to
teach child with disability.
• It was argued that most of the programes were running for special institution. This
would promote the isolation of children with disabilities from general education.
• Therefore, suggestions were given to experiment with integrated programes and to
bring these children in integrated programs quickly.
• Suggestions were given to government for setting up pilot projects to assist these
children and to revise these programs after 10 years.
• More emphasis was given to the researches in this field and it was suggested,
NCERT to have special cell for studying education of children with disabilities.
Girl Education: Kothari commission accepted and appreciated the recommendation of the
National Committee on the Education of Women under the chairmanship of Smt. Durgabai
Deshmukh, the Committee on Differentiation of Curricula between Boys and Girls under
the chairmanship of Smt. Hansa Mehta and the Committee under the chairmanship of Shri
M. Bhaktavatsalam. These commission were working on the status of girl education in
India. Commission endorsed the commendation of these committees.
The Role of Universities and Colleges: The Kothari commission always pointed out the
isolated working of educational institutions. To upgrade the standards of education system,
collaboration among various institution was necessary. The responsibility lied upon the
higher education to improve the standards of school education. Following recommendation
had been given by the commission to improvise the collaboration among higher institution
and schools.
• The universities and colleges should support the secondary schools in various ways,
so that their productivity can be improved.
• “Each college can be functionally related to a number of secondary schools in the
neighbourhood and enabled to provide extension services and guidance to them to
improve their standards”.
• Universities and colleges should develop programs for collaborative learning.
• Universities were advised to organise diploma courses for pre-service and in-
service, for taming the capability of secondary teachers.
• The universities could collaborate with experimental secondary or primary schools
for the advancement of researches in teaching techniques.
• The university and college teachers together can work on improvising the learning
materials including textbooks and teaching learning materials.
• The universities and colleges could identify talented students from the schools in
different subjects and provide individual guidance in their field of choice.

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Vision of the Common School System
India is a democratic country; therefore, every child has a right to access quality education
without any barrier. Education plays a significant role in creating social and national
integration; however, due to various reasons, India faced lot of problems in the path of
becoming an egalitarian society. The reason being a diverse country and its education itself
was influenced by the hierarchical system of colonial era. Even post-independence our
education system suffered a lot and created a huge gap between poor and upper-class
people. This was a large problem so only the so-called good quality education was
accessible to only middle and upper class of the society. The primary schools were
governed by government and local authorities which received poor quality of education.
Some of the private schools were good but fees were too high which meant that they
couldn’t be afforded by common masses. Only middle class and upper-class people were
able to send their children in these schools. This type of education created a segregated
society which became a hurdle in the progress of inclusive and egalitarian modern society.
The Kothari commission stressed on the responsibility of education to fill the gap and bring
the social classes together and to encourage the advent of integrated society. They also
pointed out the loopholes of current education system which itself were widening the gap
of social classes in India. Some of the drawbacks of education system in India were
highlighted by Kothari commission:
• Generally, masses send their children to free schools that are maintained by
government and these schools have poor education quality.
• Some of the private schools are better in quality, but their fee structure is very high
which is out of reach of poor families.
• The traditional English education system which itself was criticized in England was
being imposed to India which had created hierarchical society.
• Many of the middleclass parents send their children to the private schools at
secondary stage, which were good, but they had to sacrifice a lot for paying that
much fees.
• “There is thus segregation in education itself-the minority of private, fee-charging,
better schools meeting the needs of the upper classes and the vast bulk of free,
publicly maintained, but poor schools being utilized by the rest”.
• Good education was not available to all children of society. The criteria for selection
of children in good private schools was on the basis of fees rather than their talent.
• “If these evils are to be eliminated and the educational system is to become a
powerful instrument of national development in general, and social and national
integration in particular”.

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Common School System
Keeping above observations in mind, Kothari Commission realised that there should be
some commonness in education to bring entire nation in one setting. The idea behind the
common school system was to promote equality and social justice in India.
Kothari commission believed that a vision of common school system in India can eliminate
the social gap and can be helpful in developing national integration. USA and many
Scandinavian countries had developed this kind of education system and it had contributed
to their progress also. Common school system creates an environment of productive and
integrated education for all children in all schools. The vision was that all schools should
be funded by government and all children should be eligible to access free education. The
key idea for Common School System was:
• The main idea of Common school system was, where education is open to all
irrespective of caste, creed, religion and socioeconomic status. The Commission
stated that if “the education system is to become a powerful instrument of national
development in general, and social and national integration in particular, we must
move towards the goal of a common school system of public education.”
• Minimum infrastructure should be provided to schools which includes building,
furniture, toilets, drinking water, playground etc.
• Infrastructure of the school should be disabled friendly.
• Teaching methodology should be flexible and child centric with wholistic
development approach.
• Common school system will provide good quality education which will depend
only on talent not on money and class
• No tuition fee will be charged from the students and education will meet the need
of common people.
• Common Curriculum Framework with a core component will be developed for all
schools.
• Suitable flexibility will be given for creating textbooks, teaching aids, pedagogy,
evaluation and assessment procedures.
• A common language policy in education should be created for the entire country.
Adoption of Indian languages for the media of education should be promoted.
• Common school system advocated the concept of neighborhood schools. Each child
in common school system must attend school in the neighborhood.
In Lieu of above ideas of common school system Kothari commission have given so many
recommendations which justify the need of commonness in education of India.

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Conclusion
Kothari Commission is one of the most fundamental commissions, which analyzed the
post-independence education of India. It provided a comprehensive educational scenario
of India after independence. This commission with great task force did a praiseworthy job
and projected, the reality of Indian education system which was highly influenced by
British education system. Commission almost labelled Indian education as ‘ill education’
which was creating a huge social gap in India, rather than promoting national integration.
This commission thoroughly revised each and every aspect of the education and
highlighted flaws and issues in it. Recommendation given by the commission were highly
appreciated by government and submitted its Report on 29 June 1966. India's first national
policy of education in 1968 accommodated recommendation of Kothari commission.
Kothari commission advocated education as tool for promoting national integration and
social justice, however even after so many decades, India is still struggling to make
education as an instrument for social justice and integration. The idea of common school
system suggested by Kothari commission was appreciable and relevance even in today’s
scenario. Still lot of children are out of school and parents are not able to afford fees in
private schools. This is widening already existing socio economical gap in society.
Common School System can bring back these children in schools and can become a great
tool in education to provide social justice and equity. Although India has good educational
policies in place now, but efforts are needed to rethink on the implementation of these
policies at ground level. Without implementation we cannot built socially and
economically productive society.

Chapter at a Glance
✓ On 14th July 1964 government of India set up Indian National Education
Commission to restructure entire education system in country. This commission is
popularly known as “Kothari commission”.
✓ It was the first commission which looked upon entire education system of India
comprehensively and gave recommendations as per need of the existing society.
✓ This commission was chaired by Dr. Daulat Singh Kothari who was then chairman
of University Grants Commission hence named Kothari commission.
✓ The Objective for setting up Kothari commission was to review the existing
education system of India and to provide recommendations for the national education
policy of India.
✓ According to Kothari commission the aims and objectives of the education should be
to increase productivity and promote social and national integration.
✓ For providing equal opportunity to all, Kothari commission recommended the
Provision of Free and Compulsory Education for children aged 6 to 14 years.

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 ✓ This commission also highlighted the issues of girl’s education, education of people
with disability, education of backward castes and classes.
✓ According to the commission, the curriculum of primary education should be the
same for the entire nation, and according to the commission, special importance
should be given to the study of the mother tongue and environment of primary
education.
✓ For secondary education, there should be a core-curriculum in the entire nation and
vocational education should be included as per the needs of the society.
✓ The idea of common school system was highly recommended. This kind of education
is accessible to all irrespective of caste, creed, religion and socioeconomic status.
✓ Common school system will provide good quality education which will depend only
on talent not on money and class.
✓ Kothari commission recommended an evolved common language policy in the
country which included modern Indian languages and mother tongue as priority.
✓ The universities and colleges should support the secondary schools in various ways,
so that their productivity can be improved.
✓ Kothari commission highly recommended the need of employment of women
teachers at all levels of education. It was suggested to provide part-time employment
for women teachers so that they can look after their children and can-do job also.

Do and Learn
❖ Identify the merits and demerits of Kothari Commission.
❖ Justify the relevance of Common School System in contemporary education of India.

Self-Assessment
1. What were the major objectives of setting up Kothari Commission?
2. What do you understand by Common School System? Explain why Common School
System was suggested for post-independence education of India?
3. Why integration of science education and vocational education is necessary for
increasing national productivity?

References and Suggested Readings

• Chaudhary.S.2014.Kothari Commission, 1964-66 on Language Education: In
Retrospect. Language and Language Teaching. Vol. 3, No. 2.
• Education and national development report of the education commission, 1964-66,
Vol i: general problems. NCERT. 1970.

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• Jandhyala B. G. & Tilak 2007.The Kothari Commission and Financing of Education,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 42, No. 10.pp. 874-882
• Kothari committee: summary of report, Indian journal of public administration,
Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0019556119770433
• Mukhopadhyay.D. 2017.Revisiting the Kothari Commission (1964–66) Report from
the perspective of strengthening our science education and research enterprise,
Current Science, vol.113, No.12.pp.2258-2261.current science association.
• https://ncert.infrexa.com/kothari-commission-objectives-
andmajorrecommendations/

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 Lesson-6
SYSTEM OF SCHOOLS: TYPES AND AFFILIATION
Preeti Sharma

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Analyze various types of systems of schools in action in India.
• Distinguish between government and private schools, central and state schools.
• Differentiate among different boards/affiliating agencies functional in India.
• Analyze necessity and problems to be addressed by 10th and 12th board exam
conducting institutions.

Introduction
A variety of questions about the school come in mind when people think of taking
admission, joining as a teacher, or opening a school. One ponders about the affiliating
agency of the school, related board of school education, management type of the school
(government, private or autonomous body), adopted curriculum and textbooks of the
school, medium of instructions, examination system, fee structure etc. All these factors not
only impact the learning outcome but also shape future prospectus of the learner. Therefore,
it becomes essential to know and understand about existing school systems and affiliating
agencies in India. In this lesson we will learn about different systems of schools and
affiliating boards of these schools functional in India. Affiliating institutions prepare,
monitor and support implementation of policies, curriculum, and budget by affiliated
schools. We will also come to know about government departments which are running,
managing and funding schools for different sections of the society, like schools governed
by Tribal Welfare Department, Social welfare Department, Ministry of Railway, Ministry
of Labour, Central Tibetan Schools. Adding to it we will explore about schools
administered by autonomous bodies across the country e.g., Navodaya Vidayalays and
Sainik Schools.

Evolution of School System in India: Overview

The system of education in India has traversed a long evolutionary journey starting from
times of Rigveda. The prevailing education system focused on physical, intellectual, moral
& spiritual development i.e., nurturing the inner and outer self of learner. Homes, temples,
pathshalas, tols, chatuspadis, gurukuls and ashrams used to be the centers of formal and
informal education. Pupils went to vihars and universities for higher knowledge. One can

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also witness growth of monasteries, madarasas and maktab in later period. Later on, British
rule influenced Indian education system. Lord Bentinck’s resolution of 1835 was in
concurrence to minutes of Macaulay that set the clear course of British policy for education
in India. It aimed at promoting Western arts and sciences in English medium apart from
stopping the printing of oriental literature and new grants or stipends to students of oriental
institution (Purohit, 2018). Many other initiatives of British government could not bring
desired result due to lack of intent & other reasons. Post-independence many committees
and commissions were constituted for the universalization of elementary education and
upgradation of the secondary and higher education, to develop technical and vocational
education at various levels and to restructure educational administration. To these effect
adequate articles like Articles 15, 17, 28(1), 28(2), 28(3), 29, 30, 45 and 46 were inserted
in the new constitution adopted by India. But the overall administrative policy of the
country more or less remained the same. Accountability of education was primarily on the
state governments, while the central government continued with the responsibility of
coordination of educational amenities and overhauling the standards in tertiary education,
research work, scientific and technical education. Until 1976, education was a state subject
but the 42nd amendment to the constitution in 1976 made education a ‘concurrent subject’.
Hence forth both federal and state governments shouldered the formal responsibility of
funding and administrating education. In a geographically, culturally, religiously, and
linguistically diverse country like India that is organized into 28 states and 8 union
territories at present, it is natural to have variations among the policies, plans, programs,
and initiatives of government for education sector.

Overview of School System in India: Statistics

As per UDISE+ 2019-20 report published by GOI out of 1507708 schools in India, 2.49
Lakhs are located in urban area and 12.58 Lakhs in rural areas. Level wise 12.22 Lakhs
(81.1%) are elementary schools, 1.51 Lakhs (10.0%) secondary schools and 1.33 Lakhs
(8.9%) senior secondary schools. If we analyze management wise then 68.5% schools are
government, 22.4% private, 5.6% aided and 3.5% schools comes in other category. The
microscopic categorization of schools in the report describes that there are schools which
are managed by Department of Education (785106 schools), Tribal Welfare Department
(46279 schools), Local body (196040 schools), Government Aided (84362 schools),
Private Unaided Recognized (337499 schools), Other Govt. managed schools (939
schools), Unrecognized (29600 schools), Social welfare Department (1717 schools),
Ministry of Labor (353 schools), Kendriya Vidyalaya / Central School (1259 schools),
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya (626 schools), Sainik School (67 schools), Railway School
(85 schools), Central Tibetan School (16 schools), Madarsa recognized {by Wakf
board/Madarsa Board} (19538 schools), Madarsa unrecognized (4139 schools) and Other
Central Govt. Schools (83 schools). The table inserted below retrieved from the website of
Department of School Education & Literacy, Ministry of Education GOI show number of

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schools grade/standard wise under various management types. Majority of schools are Co-
Education i.e., 97.2%, whereas percentage of exclusively boys’ and girls’ school is 0.9 &
1.9 respectively.

According to this report nationwide there are 96, 87,577 teachers out of which 53.97 Lakhs
(55.7%) are elementary teachers, 16.66 Lakhs (17.2%) secondary teachers and 26.22 Lakhs
(27.1%) higher secondary teachers. Gender wise 49.12 Lakhs teachers are female, and
47.71 Lakhs teachers are male. Percentage of male teachers is greater than the female
teachers in government schools whereas number of female teachers is higher than male
teachers in private schools. Across India 26 crores students’ study out which 12.71 Crores
are girls and 13.74 Crores are boys. 74.3% of the students’ study at elementary level, 15.3%
at secondary level and 10.3% at higher secondary level. Management wise 51.1% students

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are enrolled in govt. schools, 10.85 in aided schools, 35.4% in private schools and 2.8% in
other schools. As per the website of Data.gov.in, Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) is defined as
“Average number of pupils (students) per teacher at a specific level of education in a given
school year”. To calculate PTR, we need to divide the total number of pupils enrolled at
the specific level of education by the number of teachers teaching pre-dominantly at that
level(Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR), 2014). As per UDISE+ report of 2019-20, Pupil-Teacher
Ratio at primary & higher secondary level is 27:1 whereas at upper primary and secondary
level it 19:1.
From this analysis of school data one can imagine the mammoth size of school system in
India. Variety of schools level wise, locality wise (rural/urban), management wise, student
wise (Co. Ed/boys/girls), school education board wise, who is running the school
autonomous body, or religious or linguistic organization reflects complexity of this system.
In order to understand, strengthen and improve this continuously evolving system we need
to understand various managing and affiliating agencies shaping and controlling it. This
will comprise policy makers, affiliating body, curriculum designers, funding agencies,
textbook writing and evaluating institutions.

Types of Schools
Public/Government/State Schools: These schools are administered and funded by the
local, state, or national government. These schools are funded in whole or in part by
taxation. These schools either do not charge fee from the students or fee is nominal.
Curriculum of these schools is decided at state or national level therefore all government
schools follow the same curriculum. The criterion of admissions and testing are decided
and managed by the government. The important decisive factor for admission is the address
of the student it means the house of child should be located within a certain radius of the
school. Highly qualified teachers, proficient in their subject and fulfilling all state-
mandated requirements are absorbed to work in government schools. Apart from schemes
run and sponsored by state/UTs in their respective jurisdiction more than 22 centrally
funded programs and projects are undergoing in government schools for the girls, students
from marginalized section. Major goal of these schemes, programs, and projects on one
side is to universalize quality education and on the other side to bridge the gender, social
and economic gaps. Some of the nationwide implemented and union sponsored schemes
are: Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya
Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), Scheme of ICT @ School, Pre-matric Scholarship
Scheme, Eklavya Model Residential School (EMRS). Schools run by Department of
Education, Local bodies, tribal welfare department, social welfare department, Ministry of
labour, by autonomous bodies come under the category of government schools.
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS): NIOS is an ‘Open School’ which provides
education up to the higher secondary level to the children whose schooling has been
interrupted and therefore unable to complete formal education. Formerly known as

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National Open School (NOS), it was started as pilot project with in-built flexibilities by
CBSE in 1979. In July 2002 Ministry of Education renamed NOS as National Institute of
Open Schooling (NIOS). An alternative to formal system NIOS offers five different types
of courses to the interested learners.
• Open Basic Education (OBE) Programme for 14+ years age group, adolescents and
adults at A, B and C levels that are equivalent to classes III, V and VIII of the formal
school system.
• Secondary Education Course
• Senior Secondary Education Course
• Vocational Education Courses/Programmes
• Life Enrichment Programmes
The Kendriya Vidyalayas (KV)/ Central Schools: It is a network of 1259 central
government schools, which was started in 1963 with the sole objective of educating
children of the Indian Defence Services personnel. With the launch of army Public Schools
by army, the services of these schools have been stretched and but not limited to all central
government employees. It means preference is given to the children of central government
employees, but these are open for general public also. The central government, Defence
and Para-military personnel are distributed throughout the country and get transferred
regularly. These transfers may create disturbance in the studies of their wards. To avoid
any study loss and to provide quality education to these kids with same syllabus at same
pace these schools play a crucial role regardless of the location. All Kendriya Vidyalayas
are affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). Throughout India all
KVs prescribe common textbooks and follow same medium of instructions. All are co-
educational, composite schools in which Sanskrit is taught from class VI – VIII (KVS -
Vision and Mission | KVS- Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan | Government of India, n.d.).
The functioning of these schools is regulated by Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan or ‘Central
School Organization’ established under the guidance of the Ministry of Education, GOI.
This chain of schools is administered by 25 Regional Offices and 05 ZIETs under
Sangathan with its headquarters in New Delhi.
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs) is a system of fully residential schools for
providing free and quality education to gifted and talented children primarily from rural
regions of India. The National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 visualized setting up of
these vidyalayas in rural areas with provision of free lodging, boarding and education
facilities to selected students. 80 students are admitted in Class-VI every year in each
Navodaya Vidyalaya, on the basis of a merit test. These selected students take education
till class XII, with added provision of lateral entry in IX and XI class. All JNVs are co-
educational schools affiliated to Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). 626
Navodaya Vidyalays exist all over India except in Tamil Nadu. All are Co-Ed schools
following Three Language Formula. All vidyalayas are managed by an autonomous

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organization under Ministry of Education (MOE), GOI called Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti
situated in New Delhi. For effective administration and functioning, Samiti works through
eight regional centers.
Sainik Schools: This is a system of schools run by Sainik Schools Society under Ministry
of Defence (GOI). The society has established and been administering these educational
institutions across India. These schools were envisioned in 1961 by then Defence Minister
V.K. Menon for preparing mainly rural but deserving boys mentally and physically for
serving as officers in Indian Armed forces. At present there are 33 sainik schools across
India. The curriculum followed by these Schools is "CBSE Plus" i.e., apart from adopting
CBSE curriculum it aims at nurturing children for entering into NDA and INA. The
medium of instructions in all School is English and all are residential schools. Students get
admission in class VI after clearing a screening test and continue to study till class XII. In
2021 PM Modi announced that every Sainik school in India will now be open for girls also.
Railway Schools: These schools were part of railway colonies with houses and other
facilities for the resident Europeans to enjoy middle-class life. The schools were established
by British, adjoining to railway lines for the members and staff of railways. Post-
Independence this legacy has been carried forwarded by Ministry of Railway. It is a system
of schools run by Ministry of Railway Government of India. Currently there are 114i such
schools across India. The schools were later on opened to the general public also.
According to an order in black and white by the principal executive director
(establishments) railway board to the general managers of all zonal railways and production
units on October 25, 2021, relatively small railway schools can be shut down or
amalgamated with adjoining schools. In due course of time, the probable time of shutting/
amalgamation may be suggested. All the effected students can be shifted to either Kendriya
Vidyalayas or state government schools.
Central Tibetan School: Government of India established Central Tibetan School
Administration (CTSA) in 1961, an autonomous organization under Ministry of Education.
The objective of this body was to start, administer and assist schools in India for providing
modern education to Tibetan children living in India. The purpose behind it was to support
conservation and promotion of the culture, legacy, and language of Tibetan people. As per
order of Ministry of HRD 55 schools under CTSA have been transferred to STSS, DOE,
Dharamshala. (33 Pre-Primary, 9 Primary, 5 Middle, 5 Secondary & 3 Sr. Secondary level
schools). Department of Education (DOE) currently manages 63 schools with around
15,155 students and 2,033 staff members.
Tribal Welfare Department Schools/ Eklavya Model Schools: Ministry started
residential schools in 1997-98 for the quality education of scheduled tribe children residing
in remote areas of India. As per data retrieved from the website of ministry on 01.01.2022,
there are 367 functional schools educating 85700 students (41245 male and 44455 female)

77
in areas wherever density of ST population is higher. Catering students from class VI-XII
Eklavya Model Residential Schools are at par with Navodaya Vidyalayas. There is proposal
for Eklavya Model Day Boarding Schools (EMDBS) for the ST students seeking to avail
school education without residential facility. The total number of sanctioned schools for
STs is 652.
The Special schools/Rehabilitation Centres under Ministry of Labor: These schools
have been run by Ministry of Labor (GOI) under the National Child Labour Project (NCLP)
Scheme. Children in the age group of 9-14 years are withdrawn from work and put into
NCLP Special Training Centres, where they are provided with bridge education, vocational
training, mid-day meal, stipend, health care etc. before being mainstreamed into formal
education system. The children in the age group of 5-8 years are directly linked to the
formal education system through a close coordination with the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.
Government Aided Schools: An educational organization that gets aids from government
is called aided institution. The aid/ grant can be in cash or kind form e.g., getting land at a
subsidized rate. The aid received can be utilized for various purposes like infrastructure
development & academic activities. Fees charged by these institutions are predetermined
by the government. Government pays salaries & other benefits to teachers and staff of the
aided school, whose services are protected. As per UDISE+ report 2019-20 number of
aided schools in India is 84362.
Unaided Educational Institution/Private schools: These schools are neither funded nor
administered by government. Adding to it, these schools are administered by a private body
and partially or fully funded by student’s tuition fee. These unaided educational institutions
can be “recognized” or “non-recognized” by the Indian government. Admission criterion,
number of admissions, fee structure, curriculum, salaries, and terms & conditions of work
for teachers & staff are majorly decided and controlled by school management and
administration. According to UDISE+ 2019-20 reports, number of recognized and
unrecognized schools in India is 337499 and 29600 respectively. Private schools need
affiliations and therefore they need to follow the guidelines of the affiliating agency.
Unrecognized Schools: schools that are established and administered without government
permission/license, mostly due to un-fulfillment of requirements related to infrastructure,
remuneration and other benefits for the teachers that are predetermined by government. As
per UDISE+ report 2019-20 the number of unrecognized schools in India in 29600.
International Schools: International schools follow integrated curriculum of various
countries along with the home country in spite of following national curriculum of the host
Country. These schools promote international education, in an international environment.
They adopt curriculum either of the International Baccalaureate, Edexcel, Cambridge
Assessment International Education or the International Primary Curriculum, or blended

78
courses of various countries. These schools primarily cater to the needs of children of the
staff of foreign embassies, international organizations, international businesses, missions,
or missionary programs. Local students who wish to stand out at global level or aspire to
obtain qualifications for employment or higher education in a foreign country also study
here. GEMS World Academy, Singapore, Shanghai Japanese School, Jakarta Intercultural
School (JIS), formerly the Jakarta International School are some international schools.
Special Needs Schools/ Schools for Persons with Disability: This is a programme of the
Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. Learners with multiple disabilities, having
complexity in coping with common schools are usually referred to special schools where
non-formal education and vocational training is provided. Run by voluntary organizations
majority of these schools are situated in urban areas. There are eight National Institutes
(NIS) and sixteen Composite Regional Centers (CRCs) functioning in the country and
310 districts have been identified and approved for starting District Disability
Rehabilitation Centers. There are more than 2,500 schools for children with special needs
in India. Some are run or supported by the government, while many are registered NGOs
or private institutions. Currently schooling for students with disabilities in India either
takes place in integrated schools or in special schools. Integrated/ inclusive schools are the
public schools that permit pupils with disabilities to attend the school, with limited support
(Byrd, 2010). Census data, 2011 on disability shows that there are 2.68 Crore persons with
disabilities in India, which constitute 2.21% of the total population. These include persons
with Hearing, Seeing, Speech, Movement, Mental Retardation, Mental Illness, Multiple
Disability, and any other disabilities. From the statistics, one can ascertain the inadequacy
of the required institutions for persons with disability.
Madarsas: It is an Arabic word which means an educational institution. As per Cambridge
Dictionary it is a school where people go to learn about the religion of Islam. In Egypt and
Lebanon, It means any state-sponsored, private, secular, or religious educational institution,
whereas in Pakistan and Bangladesh, It normally refers to Islamic religious school(Islamic
Religious Schools, Madrasas, n.d.). Free education is provided in madarsas to all sections
of society. They are the center of the educational and cultural
life of Muslims. In medieval usage the term referred to an institution
providing intermediate and advanced instruction in Islamic law and related subjects
(Madrasa | Encyclopedia.Com, n.d.). On the other side an elementary school with the aim
of learning to read and manual skills is known as a Maktab. Students study there from 6-
14 years According to Asma & Shazli(2015) poor segment of Muslim community are
sending their children to Madarsas as free boarding, lodging and education is provided to
them here. According to UDISE+ report number of Madarsas recognized by Wakf
Board/Madarasa Board is 19538, whereas that of unrecognized is 4139.

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Board of School Education: Need and Functions
With the enhancement in the rate of education and awareness about education among
masses, the question of quality of education, standard of learning outcomes and cost of
education become pivotal. This necessitates establishment of an agency which can develop,
supervise, and facilitate implementation of policies, curriculum, and the budget by
affiliated schools. This led to emergence of various boards of school education in India that
make sure quality and widespread of education. Thus, we can say that boards have been
envisioned and established to ensure quality of education, standardization of examination
and enhancement of academic activities. Adding to that boards aim at desired learning
outcome, curriculum reforms, and quality of syllabus & course materials in accordance
with National Curriculum Framework (NCF) - 2005 prepared by NCERT. At present a total
of 69 boards are functional in India, which includes 3 National boards, 44 State boards, 7
Sanskrit boards, 4 Madarsa boards, 4 University boards, 6 International boards and 1
Government recognized private board. All these boards have distinctive pedagogy,
curriculum, study material and assessment system for the all-round development of
learners. All boards derive their power and authority from the government and work in
close cooperation with their communities to improve learning outcomes. In compliance
with union and state laws, school boards form policies and regulations for the governance
of schools affiliated with them. 10th and 12th board exams are of huge significance for the
policy makers, school managements, teachers, parents, students, and society at large. All
the stakeholders leave no stone unturned in the preparations of the board exams and then
in the critical analysis of the results. Students are judged on the basis of the board results;
these results also shape the future course of action for large number of students. Great
expectations, creates an atmosphere of stress and anxiety in minds of parents and students.
All this led some students towards depression, frustration, and disturbance. Some other
associated concerns like gap in the syllabus of class X and XI. In the light these concerns
different boards are adopting a range of strategies to release out the pressure from students.
Some of the measures include no detention policy till class VIII, framing of question papers
keeping in mind a wide range of students, provision of practical and internal assessment,
grading system etc.

National Boards
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE): It is a national board that acts as an
autonomous body under Ministry of Education, GOI. The Central Board was reconstituted
on 1st July 1962 by merging the erstwhile Delhi Board of Higher Secondary Education
with the then existing Central Board. All the recognized educational institutions by the
Delhi Board were deemed as institutions recognized by the Central Board. The prime
objective of this board was interstate integration and cooperation in the vital field of

80
secondary education, to serve educational institutions across India and to meet the
academic requirements of students who had to shift, from one state to another apart from
conducting examinations at the 10th and 12th standards that are called as board exams. As
per the Annual Report 2019-20 of CBSE, 22799 schools affiliated to CBSE out which 238
including 3 Kendriya Vidyalayas are located in 26 countries. This total tally comprises of
1144 Kendriya Vidyalayas, 598 Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas, 18347 Independent
Schools, 2696 Government/Government aided schools and 14 Central Tibetan Schools in
India.
The Council of Indian School Certificate Examination (CISCE): Established in 1958
CISCE is a private National Board of School Education which aimed at substituting
Cambridge School Certificate Examination and tailoring it as per the needs of the country.
Presently board conducts three examinations, namely, the Indian Certificate of Secondary
Education (ICSE - Class/Grade 10); The Indian School Certificate (ISC - Class/Grade 12)
and the Certificate in Vocational Education (CVE - Class/Grade 12). Both ICSE and ISC
have been designed in compliance with the recommendations of the New Education Policy
1986, through the medium of English. CVE has been fabricated in compliance to the
recommendations of Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) through the
Joint Council of Vocational Education (JCVE) established under the National Policy of
Education 1986. The medium of instruction for CVE is English. The Three Language
Formula has been adopted by the council that is all students would study two Indian
languages besides English. At present 2,651 schools are affiliated to CISCE in India and
abroad (7) in Singapore, UAE, Thailand and Indonesia.
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS): NIOS serves diverse group of learners up
to the higher secondary level through an alternative learning system. It offers pertinent
continuing education on the basis of need assessments of the target group through Open
and Distance Learning System. In this way it plays an important part towards
universalization of education, in upholding equity and justice in society and in evolution of
a learning society. CBSE launched Open school as pilot project in 1979 with its own
curriculum and examination leading to certification. In compliance to the recommendations
of National Policy on Education (1986) Ministry of Education (MOE), GOI set up the
National Open School (NOS) in November 1989. In July 2002 Ministry of Education
changed the nomenclature of NOS as National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). It
performs through a system of five Departments, 23 Regional Centers, 4 sub centers and
more than 7400 Study Centres (AIs/AVIs) scattered throughout India and abroad. With its
headquarters in Noida, Uttar Pradesh it functions via 4469 Accredited Institutes, 1762
Accredited Vocational Institutes, 1462 Accredited Agencies and also operational in 187
jails. NIOS is registering its presence in 6 countries with 24 Accredited Institutes, 4
Accredited Vocational Institutes and 1 study center for Open Basic Education. It is vested

81
with the authority to register, examine and certify students registered with it. Mandated
activities of NIOS can be categorized under four programs
1. Academic programs for Secondary and Senior Secondary
2. Open Basic Education (OBE) Programme for 14+ years age group, adolescents and
adults at A, B and C levels that are equivalent to classes III, V and VIII of the formal
school system.
3. Vocational and Skill Development Courses/Programmes
4. Teacher Education Programs.
The board proposes 28 subjects in eight languages (Hindi, English, Marathi, Telugu, Urdu,
Gujarati, Odia, and Malayalam) for Secondary Examinations and similarly for Senior
Secondary Examinations learners can chose from 28 subjects in four languages namely
Hindi, English, Urdu, Bengali and Odia. NIOS also offers Vocational subjects in
combination with Academic subjects at both stages. In year 2020, 398042 learners took
admission in academic and vocational courses.

State Boards
School Education in India varies from state to state in accordance with the linguistic,
cultural, geographical, climate and terrain diversity. Consequently, States have instituted
single or multiple State Boards in their jurisdiction, which follow distinctive syllabus and
ranking criteria. The adopted educational strategy of the boards is also unique that breeds
variation in the curriculum from state to state. Boards accentuate on state-level subjects and
material of local interest that lets students know and understand various features of the
language, culture, geography, climate, terrain and environment specific to their state.
Regional languages and heritage play important role in the curriculum and educational
activities prepared by State Boards. In order to understand national diversity and crack pan-
India exams, few state boards have recently guided affiliated schools to implement NCERT
books exclusively.

International Boards
Six International boards are working in India whose names are: Bhutan Council for School
Examinations & Assessment; Cambridge International Examinations; Mauritius
Examination Syndicate; National Examinations Board, Nepal; The Aga Khan University
Examination Board and Inter Board Committee of Chairmen (IBCC). These boards are
flexible as they offer a range of subjects to students to select from. Boards like Cambridge
International Examinations emphasize on ushering local culture and economies to world
context which help learners in gaining wider perspective at the same time appreciating their
immediate environment. The aim is to nurture a curious and balanced mind. The board

82
prescribes multiple mode of assessment round the year like written and oral exams.
Pupils are also evaluated on problem-solving and analytical skills .

Other Boards
Sanskrit Boards: These boards’ functions for the development of Sanskrit studies. They
prepare and apply numerous plans and schemes to this effect. Sanskrit boards functional in
India are: Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, Maharishi Patanjali Sanskrit Sansthan, Chhattisgarh
Sanskrit Board, Raipur, Bihar Sanskrit Shiksha Board, U.P. Board of Sec. Sanskrit
Education Sanskrit Bhawan, Assam Sanskrit Board, and Indian Council for Hindi &
Sanskrit Education.
Madarsa Boards: These boards prepare policies, programs, and curriculum to be followed
in Madarsa or Maktabs affiliated to them. Other functions include supervision, support in
implementation and providing funds in some cases. Names of Madarsa Boards are State
Madrassa Education Board, Assam; Bihar State Madrasa Education Board; West Bengal
Board of Madrasa Education; Chhattisgarh Madrasa Board.
University Boards: Boards of School Education have been established under university,
which empower them to establish and maintain senior secondary schools. These boards are
called university boards. Like via Aligarh Muslim University Act, 1920, AMU board was
instituted which authorized university “to establish and maintain high schools and other
institutions” within a “15-mile radius from the university mosque. It got due recognition UGC
in 1984. Currently four university boards are operational in India: Aligarh Muslim University
Board of Secondary & Sr. Secondary Education; Jamia Milia Islamia; Dayalbagh
Educational Institute (Deemed University); Banasthali Vidyapith P.O.
Government Recognized Private Boards: Urdu Education Board (UEB) comes in this
category, which was founded by an Act XXI of 1860 of Govt. of India (Societies
Registration Act). UEB is an autonomous body established under Article 29 & 30 of
Constitution of India aiming at the advancement of Urdu education throughout India. The
board works for helping and supporting students from Muslim Minority Community and
marginalized segments of the Society giving adequate stress.

Conclusion
In this chapter we overviewed the evolutionary history of education system in India. Then
microscopic analysis of Unified District Information System for Education (UDISE+)
2019-20 report helped us to appreciate voluminous size of network of school education in
India. This will help students in developing their understanding about classification of
schools on the basis of area (rural/urban), level (pre-primary, primary, elementary,
secondary, senior secondary), student type (Co. Ed/boys/girls), management
(government/private/aided). Various systems of school education operational in India have

83
been discussed like Government schools, Schools run by various departments, autonomous
bodies, international schools, aided, madarasa and unaided schools. The necessity and
functions of agencies of affiliation i.e., boards of school education have been discussed.
Followed by deliberation on national, state, madaras, Sanskrit, international, private
government recognized boards working in India.

Chapter at a Glance
✓ School system in India has a long evolutionary journey starting from ancient times,
it has transcended thousands of years in this process. A brief description of its
various features has been attempted.
✓ According to UDISE+ 2019-20 report published by GOI out of 1507708 schools in
India, 2.49 Lakhs are located in urban area and 12.58 Lakhs in rural areas. The
report gives number of schools on the basis of management (Govt./private), level
(pre-primary, primary, elementary, secondary, senior secondary), student type (Co.
Ed/boys/girls)
✓ In order to understand the voluminous size of this system data about teachers and
students has also been analyzed.
✓ The schools in India can be broadly categorized into Government or private schools.
Government schools are regulated by various departments like Department of
Education, Tribal Welfare Department, Social welfare Department, Ministry of
Railway, and Ministry of Labour.
✓ Government schools are administered and funded by the local, state, or national
government. These schools are funded in whole or in part by taxation. These
schools either do not charge fee from students or the fee is nominal. Curriculum of
these schools is decided at state or national level therefore all government schools
follow the same curriculum.
✓ In order to provide quality education to talented students in rural India, residential
schools Navodaya Vidayalays have been established under Ministry of Education.
These schools provide free lodging, boarding, education to gifted students selected
on the basis of entrance exam. There is provision of opening a Navodaya
Vidayalaya in each district.
✓ National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) is an ‘Open School’ which provides
education up to the higher secondary level to the children whose schooling has been
interrupted and therefore unable to complete formal education.
✓ With the enhancement in the rate of education and awareness about education
among masses, the question of standard of learning outcomes, quality of education
and cost of education have become crucial. Various boards have been envisioned
and established to ensure quality of education, standardization of examination and

84
 enhancement of academic activities. Different boards operational in India can be
categorized as national, state, Sanskrit, Madarsa, university and international.

Do and Learn
❖ Find out number of schools in your city, and then categorize them on the basis of
level, management, students (Co. Ed/boys/girls).
❖ Find out the names of different boards functional in your state/UT. Also explore
number of schools affiliated to these boards in your state/UT.
❖ Find out the differences and similarities in the working of these boards (in your
state/UT)

Self-Assessment
1. What do you mean by system of schools? What are the different systems of school
operational in India? Explain them.
2. Evaluate the difference between government and private schools?
3. In the era of privatization, according to you what is the importance of government
schools?
4. Do you think there is gap between the syllabus of class X and XI? Critically analyze
it.
5. Critically examine the prevalent examination system in India at 10th and
12thstandard.
6. What is the need and functions of Board of School Education? Examine various
boards functional in India.
7. Write short notes on CBSE and NIOS.

References and Suggested Readings

• Asma, S., & Shazli, T. (2015). Role of Madarsa Education in Empowerment of
Muslims in India. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 20, PP 10-15.
https://doi.org/10.9790/0837-20251015
• Byrd, E. S. (2010). India, Families, and a Special School. 11.
• Islamic Religious Schools, Madrasas: Background. (n.d.). Retrieved February 4,
2022, from https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RS21654.html
• List of Recognized Boards /Councils in India 2021 COBSE New Delhi. (n.d.).
Original Website of COBSE. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.
cobse.net.in/list-of-boards.html

85
• Madrasa | Encyclopedia.com. (n.d.). Retrieved January 24, 2022, from
https://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/art-and-architecture/
architecture/ madrasa
• Pupil teacher ratio (PTR). (2014, June 6). [Text]. Open Government Data (OGD)
Platform India. https://data.gov.in/catalog/pupil-teacher-ratio-ptr
• Purohit, P. (2018). The History and Evolution Of The Indian Education System. 16.
• https://www.nios.ac.in/about-us/profile.aspx
• https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics
new/Selected%20Information%20on%20School%20Education%20%282%29.pdf
• https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics-
new/ESAG2018.pdf
• https://udiseplus.gov.in/#/home
• https://www.education.gov.in/en/statistics-
new?shs_term_node_tid_depth=379&Apply=Apply
• https://dsel.education.gov.in/shagun
• https://kvsangathan.nic.in/about-kvs/mission
• https://navodaya.gov.in/nvs/en/About-Us/Vision-Mission/
• https://www.ccvs.in/about-us/
• https://www.ccvs.in/school-under-ctsa/
• https://tribal.nic.in/EMRS.aspx
• https://dashboard.tribal.gov.in/
• https://sw.kar.nic.in/edn_files/ednSchemes3.htm
• https://labour.gov.in/childlabour/nclp
• https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1593410
• https://repository.iimb.ac.in/handle/2074/10192
• https://www.cbse.gov.in/cbsenew/history.html
• https://www.cbse.gov.in/cbsenew/annual-report/Annual_Report_2019_20.pdf
• https://www.cisce.org/Default.aspx
• https://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/NIOS_PROFILE%20FINAL_eng_2022.
pdf

86
 Lesson-7
SCHOOL EDUCATION IN INDIA
Jasmeet Kaur

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Understand the role of various national, state, and local level bodies in school
education, area of curriculum and assessment.
• Know about the role and the constituent units of National Council for Education
Research and Training (NCERT).
• Discuss the functions of NCERT.
• Understand about the role and functioning of State Council of Education Research
and Training (SCERT).
• Develop an understanding about District Institute for Education and Training
(DIET).
• Distinguish between the boards of Education: National, International and State
boards and National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS).

Introduction
The education system in India has been very rich and fascinating, in ancient times the
people used to send their children for studying in the Gurukuls. In the medieval period the
universities like Nalanda, Takshila flourished. However, in the 18th century the education
was widespread with a school with every temple, mosque or a village. In the 20th century,
the present education system was introduced by the British, who brought the concept of
modern economy, modern state and modern education. Kothari Commission (1964-66)
came with a coherent education policy for India. The main pillar was free and compulsory
education for all children up to the age of 14 years. The National Policy on Education
(NPE) was intended to prepare India for 21st century.
India has the second largest education system in the world (after China) with more than
one billion residents. The present education structure follows the 10+2 pattern (covering 6-
18 years). The first ten years in school is the secondary level (up to class 10th), next two
years are senior secondary level (Class11and 12th). However, with the first education policy
of 21st century NEP (National Education Policy) 2020, the transformation is radical. The
policy suggested for a restructuring of education system (5+3+3+4 covering 3-18 years)
which comprises of Foundational (5 years, in which 3 years in Balvatika, Preschool,

87
Anganvadi and 2 years in class1 and 2), Preparatory (3 years, Class 3,4 and 5) Middle
(3 years, Class 6-8) and Secondary (4 years, Class 9-12) Education.
In India, there are various types of schools such as government schools, government aided
schools, private schools, open schools and home schooling. The education policy is
prepared by the Central Government and State Governments at national and state levels
respectively. The curriculum, textbooks, teacher training, examination is conducted by
various organisations. The role of various bodies involved in preparing curriculum,
textbooks, conducting exams, preparing e resources etc. will be discussed in this lesson.

National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)

In 1961, the Government of India had set up an autonomous organization called National
Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). The headquarters are located at
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi. The main purpose was to support and advise the Central
and State Governments on policies and programmes for improvement in school education.
The logo of NCERT (shown below) is seen on all the textbooks and other published
material by the organization.

The intertwined hansas in the logo symbolizes the three aspects of work of NCERT. The
three features are-
• Research and development
• Training
• Extension.
Objectives of NCERT
The main purpose of NCERT and its constituent units are represented diagrammatically
and explained below.

88
 Research

Distribution
Training
of activities

NCERT
Development
Publication
of material

Collaborate
& exchange
programs

• Monitor the administration of NIE / Regional colleges of Education.

• Undertake, promote, and coordinate research in all branches of education for
improving school education
• Organize pre-service and in-service training for teachers
• Prepare and publish textbooks, supplementary material, newsletters, journals etc.
• Collaborate with NGOs, universities, state educational departments and other
institutes, to develop and share innovative educational techniques and practices.
• Organize cultural exchange programmes with other countries in the field of school
education.
• Development of educational kits, digital materials(videos) etc.
• Conduct research studies, surveys, and investigations
• Award of scholarship in science, technology, and social sciences.

Major Constituents of NCERT

NCERT has the following constituent units which are located in different parts of India

89
 Regional Institute National Institute
Central Institute of Education of Education
(RIE), Bhopal (NIE), New Delhi
of Educational
Technology
(CIET), New Delhi

Regional Institute North-East

of Education Regional Institute
(RIE), Ajmer of Education
(NERIE), Shillong
Pandit Sundarlal
Sharma Central
Institute of
Vocational Regional Institute
Education of Education Regional Institute
(PSSCIVE), Bhopal (RIE), of Education
Bhubaneswar (RIE), Mysore

Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET): The CIET was set up by merging
the Centre for Educational Technology and Department of Teaching Aids at the NCERT.
The main functions of CIET are to-
• Develop an alternate system of education
• Promote the use of educational technology
• Improve and spread education in the country with the help of mass media
• Develop software depending on the educational needs
• Train people in the field of educational technology
• Circulate information concerning educational media and technology
• Conduct technology related competitions for teachers and students
National Institute of Education (NIE): National Institute of Education has a very
important role. The main activities of NIE are-
• Research and development
• In service training of the teachers

90
 • Publishing and propagation of the various programmes. From pre-primary to
higher secondary stage of education covering all subjects, it also includes the
vocational stream at the higher secondary stage
• They undertake the development of programmes, the evaluation of curriculum,
instructional materials, learning resources and instructional strategies.
• Development of science kits is done, these can be used in the schools
• They also work for the non-formal education for out of school children, early
childhood education (ECE), education of the specially disabled (Divyang) and
programmes for the educationally backward minorities
• They manage the storage and retrieval of data
• They conduct educational surveys to understand the educational facilities and
needs
• The national library of tests (educational and physiological) is also located here
• Diploma in Educational and Vocational Guidance a regular Pre-service course is
also offered for training of school counsellors
Regional Institutes of Education (RIEs): NCERT has four Regional Colleges of
Education (RIEs) located at Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, and Mysore.

Bhopal

Regional
Ajmer Institute of
Mysore
Education
(RIE)

Bhubaneswar

.
The regions covered under Regional Institutes of Education (RIEs)
1. Regional Institute of Education (Bhopal), it looks after teacher education and
other educational requirements in the central region of India. The state of
Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Union territories
of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu are covered under it

91
 2. Regional Institute of Education (Ajmer), it looks after teacher education and
other educational requirements in the northern region of India. The state of Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
Kashmir, Ladakh and union territory of Delhi and Chandigarh are covered under
it.
3. Regional Institute of Education (Mysuru), it looks after teacher education and
other educational requirements in the southern region of India. The state of Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and union territories of Pondicherry and
Lakshadweep are covered under it.
4. Regional Institute of Education (Bhubaneswar), it looks after teacher education
and other educational requirements in the eastern region of India. The state of
Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal and the UT of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. are covered under it.
5. North-East Regional Institute of Education (NERIE) caters to the inservice
educational needs of North-Eastern States of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. However, the pre-
service teacher preparation programmes for the North-East Region are still under
RIE, Bhubaneswar.
Further, the main purpose of setting up RIEs was as follows-
• To act as resource centre for conducting research, training and development of
school education and teacher education in a particular region of India.
• To prepare quality teachers and teacher educators at all levels of school education.
• To teach and train innovatively by conducting pre-service courses. These courses
are four-year integrated B.Sc.B.Ed., B.A.B.Ed., two year B.Ed., two year M.Ed.,
Ph.D. and Diploma in Guidance and Counselling,
• To conduct in-service teacher training programmes for teachers, teacher
educators, supervisors and administrators concerned with school education and
according to the needs of the States/Union Territories of the region.
• To produce instructional material for school education.
• To advise state departments of education on policies and programmes related to
various aspects of school education.
• To provide consultancy services and extension programmes at national and
international level.
• To undertake research studies related to school education and teacher education
by the faculty and research scholars of the institute.

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 • To develop competency and create an atmosphere of imparting quality education
to students.
• To adapt and make the students succeed in increasingly diverse and ever-changing
world.
These campus colleges have the demonstration multipurpose schools attached to
them. These schools support the faculty to develop methodologies and test them in the
actual classroom situation. Each college has modern laboratories, well-equipped library
and residential quarters.
Pandit Sundarlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE)
In 1993, an apex research and development organization in the field of vocational education
known as Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE)
was established as a constituent of NCERT by the Ministry of Education (MoE),
Government of India. This Institute is located in Bhopal.
The Institute is UNESCO-UNEVOC which means it is UNESCO’s specialized centre for
technical and vocational education and training (TVET) network centre in India. It
coordinates all the activities, including communication with UNESCO-UNEVOC
International Centre, Bonn, Germany. The PSSCIVE centre shares knowledge and
experiences related to all aspects of technical and vocational education and training,
exchange country experiences, and discuss issues of common relevance
It comprises six academic disciplines
• Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
• Business and Commerce
• Engineering and Technology
• Health and Paramedical Science
• Home Science and Hospitality Management and Humanities
• Science, Education and Research
E initiatives of NCERT
The E initiatives of NCERT are very beneficial for the students and the teachers to teach
and understand things in the online mode. Some of the e-resources are as follows:
• DIKSHA
• NROER
• NISHTHA
• ePathshala
• Swayam Prabha
• DTH Channels (Kishor Manch, Swayam Prabha, YouTube Channel)

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Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing (DIKSHA): In 2017, a national platform
for school education called DIKSHA was launched. This platform offers teachers, students
and parents engaging learning material relevant to the prescribed school curriculum. It
supports 18+ languages. Teachers have access to learning aids like lesson plans, worksheets
and activities for making classroom experiences pleasurable. Students are able to
understand concepts, revise lessons and do practice exercises. Since the outbreak of the
pandemic COVID19, the schools were shut down completely so this portal was used by
students to access digital textbooks and other material from home. The QR codes placed in
textbooks provide a ready gateway for any new/modified content to be uploaded on
DIKSHA.
National Repository of Open Educational Resources (NROER): The National
Repository of Open Educational Resources (NROER) is an initiative of Ministry of Human
Resource Development (MHRD)now Ministry of Education, Government of India and
CIET-NCERT. The main aim was to bring together all digital and digitisable resources
across all stages of school education and teacher education. All members of the school
community through a variety of events and interactions are connected through this
platform. Resources are available in about 29 languages, and it includes textbooks, audios,
videos, images (photographs, charts and maps), interactive objects and games etc.
National Initiative for School Heads and Teachers Holistic Advancement
(NISHTHA): National Initiative for School Heads and Teachers Holistic Advancement
(NISHTHA) was started by NCERT under the aegis of Ministry of Education (MoE),
Government of India. It is an integrated training programme for the following-
• Teachers
• Principals
• Stakeholders in educational management and administration.
Different Stages of School Education
• NISHTHA 1.0 is for classes I to VIII (Elementary Level)
• NISHTHA 2.0 is for classes IX to XII (Secondary Level)
• NISHTHA 3.0 is for classes ECCE to V (NIPUN Bharat)
ePathshala: This portal and mobile app is a storehouse of audios, videos, flipbooks etc. In
2018, it won the best mobile app in Digital India Award. The main advantage is that it can
be accessed through laptop, desktop, tablets and smart phones etc. These resources are
available in Hindi, English and Urdu.
• It allows users to download and transfer as many books as their device can support.
• The users can read offline as per their convenience
• The users can select, zoom, bookmark, highlight, navigate, search, read in day/night
mode and make notes digitally.

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SWAYAMPRABHA: The SWAYAM PRABHA has been conceived by the Ministry of
Education (MOE), Government of India and was formally inaugurated in 2017 by the
Hon’ble President of India. It is a project to run 32 DTH channels to telecast high quality
educational programs on 24 x 7 basis. The subscribers of Free DTH service of Doordarshan
can view these educational channels using the same set top box and TV without any extra
cost. These channels cover -
• Curriculum based course contents covering diverse disciplines (arts, science,
commerce, performing arts, social sciences, languages and humanities)
• School education modules for teacher training
• Learning aids for children to help them comprehend the subjects better
• Preparation for competitive examinations
DTH Channel: Curriculum based educational TV programmes for students and teachers
of classes IX - XII and teacher educators are done through DTH-TV channel. The contents
of the programme are based on NCERT syllabus and textbooks. On the channel Kishore
Manch, every day, there is new content of six hours which is repeated three times a day,
which helps the students to choose the time according to their convenience.

State Council Education Research and Training (SCERT)

In 1986, the National Policy of Education (NPE) recommended the creation of State
Council for Educational Research and Training (SCERT) in each state for proper and
decentralised functioning for quality education, research and training. The main purpose
was to improve the standard of education in the state. The SCERTs generally follow
strategies established by the NCERT, with flexibility according to the need of their state.
The main functions of SCERT are-
• Academic support for school education which can be as educational strategies,
curriculum, pedagogical and evaluation methods
• Development of curricular material of various types. For example- textbooks,
supplementary material, teachers’ handbooks, manuals and modules, audio and
visual material etc.
• In-service training for different categories of teachers, inspecting officers and
teacher educators and coordinate the work of other agencies operating at the state
level.
• Advise to the state government on policy matters relating to school education
• Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)in every possible way.
• Evaluate the adult and non-formal education programmes started by the
Government.
• To engage in research and experimentation to deal with specific problems related
to school education in the state.

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Various departments, units or cells carryout the academic activities and programmes for
continuing education of teachers, development of appropriate material for teachers and
students.
The SCERT has typically the following departments-
• Department of Pre-School and Elementary Education.
• Department of Science and Mathematics Education.
• Department of Population Education.
• Department of Art and Aesthetic Education.
• Department of Educational Technology.
• Department of Teacher and Inservice Education.
• Department of Examination Reform and Guidance.
• Department of Research coordination.
• Department of Non-formal Education.
• Department of Curriculum Research and Special Curriculum Renewal Projects.
• Department of Adult Education and Education for Weaker Sections.
• Department of Publication.

District Institute of Education and Training (DIET)

The government has established district level institutes known as District Institutes for
Education and Training in each district of India. The DIET is supported by the State
Council of Education Research and Training (SCERT).DIET aids in coordinating and
implementing the government policies at district level. The main purpose of setting these
institutes in the early 1990’s was to strengthen the elementary education system in India.
The main functions of DIET are
• To strengthen the in-service and pre-service teacher education program. The
training provided is activity based, participatory, focus on peer group interaction.
Online programs on Capacity building have also been conducted.
• Development of material for teachers and students for various topics.
• To undertake research on the problems related to school education in a state.
• To conduct a two-year diploma course for pre-service teachers.
• To provide academic support to the Department of Education in formulation of
policies and planning procedures.
• It also helps in development of various types of curricular material. This includes
Textbooks, handbooks for teachers, Books, Manuals, Modules and Audio and
Visual material.

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The various departments operational in DIET are-
• WE: Work Experience
• ET: Educational Technology
• CMDE: Curriculum Material Development and Evaluation
• PM: Planning and Management
• PSTE: Pre-service Teacher Education
• DRU: District Resource Unit
• IFIC: Inservice programmes, Field interaction, Innovation and Coordination

National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)

The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) was earlier known as National Open
School (NOS). In fulfilment of National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 by the Ministry
of Education (MOE), Government of India, NIOS was established in 1989 as an
autonomous organisation. The main purpose was for learning and providing flexible access
to quality school education and skill development. It also provides relevant, continuing
and holistic education up to pre-degree level through open and distance learning system.
For secondary and senior secondary level, NIOS provides general and academic courses.
It also provides a number of vocational, life enrichment and community-oriented courses.
It also offers elementary level courses through Open Education Programmes (OBE).
The main objectives of NIOS are as follows-
• To take steps for developing plans for promoting and improving the open schooling
programme in India
• To provide technical and financial support to state governments in India for setting
up and improving of State Open Schools (SOSs)
• To develop a plan for making education equitable and inclusive for the
marginalized and disadvantaged groups like girl/women, minorities, differently
abled (Divyang)
• To offer a wide range of courses of study in general, vocational and continuing
education and life enrichment courses up to pre-degree level
• To develop need-based curricula and Self Learning Materials (SLM) for Open
Basic Education (OBE), secondary and senior secondary Education, Vocational
Education and Training (VET) programmes with focus on skill development
• To develop multi-media and multi-channel delivery modes for effective transaction
of the curriculum and also for the support courses and programmes

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 • To set up study centres through agencies, organizations and institutions in India and
abroad so as to help students in providing support in every possible way
• To conduct examinations and issue certificates on completion of the course
• To promote quality of learning distance learning through monitoring, supervision
and evaluation, maintaining equivalence of standards with the formal education
system, while retaining its own distinct character
• To undertake research, innovation and development activities in the area of open
schooling and show the findings to all in this area
• To act as resource organization and capacity building centre in open schooling at
national as well as international level
• To collaborate with national and international organizations for promotion of open
schooling
NIOS has a three-tier system of working as mentioned below

NIOS Headquaters

Regional Centres

Accredited Vocational
institutes(AVI)

• NIOS headquarters helps in policy support, implementation, translation of courses,

supply of study material, examination and certification
• Regional centres help in promotion of courses in the region, monitoring the AVI
and providing them support
• AVI provide promotion of the course, counselling, admission, distribution of study
material, skill training, practical exam, placement assistance
The features of NIOS are-
• It offers Open Basic Education (OBE) which refers to primary education which is
equal to class 3 to 8. It offers fundamental mathematics, earth sciences and
computer knowledge
• For class 12, there are opportunities available in trade, science and humanities. The
NOIS Board also conducts vocational (commerce) training.

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 • The board always conducts the OBE exams and also the two primary exams for the
Secondary and Upper Secondary curriculum.
• Students may take up to five years to finish their exams

Boards of Education
In India, the public examination is conducted at the end of class 10th and is called
Secondary School Certificate examination (SSC) or All India Secondary School Certificate
Examination (AISSC) or Matriculation. The exam is conducted at the end of class 12th is
called Higher Secondary Certificate examination (HSC) or +2 or Intermediate or All India
Senior School Certificate Examination (AISSCE). The scores achieved in these exams are
important for seeking admission in some universities, professional courses etc.
There are three broad categories of boards -
• State Board
• National Board
✓ Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
✓ Council for the Indian School Certificate Examination (CISCE)
✓ National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
• International Board
✓ International Baccalaureate (IB)
✓ Cambridge International Examinations (CIE)
The exam conducted at the state level is offered by the state board and at national level is
offered by Central board of Secondary Education (CBSE), Indian Certificate of Secondary
Education (ICSE), Council of the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE),
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) and Board of Open Schooling and Skill
Education (BOSSE)Sikkim. At International level is conducted by International
Baccalaureate (IB) and Cambridge International Examinations (CIE).

State Board
The state board works under and follows the policies set by state for the school education.
In each state they follow separate syllabus and ranking criteria. The first state board to enter
into the education system was in 1922 – UP boards of High Schools and Intermediate
Education. In the current scenario, almost all the states in the country have their own board.
They have an affiliation with most of the local and public schools. They emphasize on
state-level subjects and material of local interest. Regional languages and heritage have a
key role in the curriculum.

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Features of a State Board
• Affordable fees and preferred by parents staying in one state
• Mostly they teach or use state language as a component and a medium of instruction
• Local culture and traditions are taught
• Textbooks are readily available
• Easy to follow the curriculum
• No extra pressure on students
• Children get more leisure time to follow their interests
• For higher education there is seat reservation within colleges affiliated with the
state.

National Board
India has three national boards and other state boards which conduct board examinations
for students in classes X and XII. These three national boards are
A. Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
B. Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE)
C. National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)

A. Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)

The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) was established in 1929 as a national
level board of education for public and private schools. It is controlled and managed by the
Government of India. In India, there are approximately 26,054 schools and in foreign
countries there are approximately 240 schools affiliated to the CBSE.
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas, Kendriya Vidhyalas, private schools and most of the
schools approved by the central government of India take affiliation from CBSE. Every
year CBSE conducts board exams for regular as well as private students studying in class
10 and class 12 It offers various subjects (Science, Commerce and Humanities stream) to
its students after class 10th. Some other national level entrance tests like Jawahar Navodaya
Vidyalaya Selection Test (JNVST), Central Teacher Eligibility Test (CTET) etc are also
conducted by CBSE.
CBSE outlines appropriate approaches of academic activities to provide stress free, child
centered and holistic quality education to all children. Various innovative approaches are
followed to achieve academic excellence in conformity with psychological and
pedagogical principles.

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Objectives of CBSE
CBSE attempts to achieve academic excellence by following the undermentioned.
• Conceptualises policies and effective planning
• Following the scheme of studies, curriculum, academic guidelines, support
material, enrichment activities and capacity building programs are as per the
broader objectives set in the National Curriculum Framework-2005 and in
consonance with various policies and acts of the Government of India.
• A student friendly board provides flexibility in choice of subjects and combination
of courses It offers 72 subjects at the secondary level (class X) and 142 subjects at
senior secondary level (class XII). Every year lakhs of students appear for these
exams.
• Has a high level of objectivity, uniformity, and reliability in the examination system
• Offers special facilities for Children with Special Needs (CWSN) under 21
categories of disabilities.
Facilities offered by CBSE for Children with Special Needs (CWSN)
A wide range of facilities are offered to children covered under the 21 categories of
disabilities.
• Facility of scribe(writer), provision of reader in case the student does not want the
facility of a scribe
• Compensatory time (20 minutes per hour)
• Assistive devices like hearing aid, special chair
• Use of computer or laptop for writing
• Relaxation in mandatory attendance
• Separate question paper and questions in place of practical component
• Flexibility in choosing subjects
Digital Initiatives By CBSE
CBSE has taken up a number of steps towards “Environment Protection through Green
Initiatives”. Some of the initiates are -
• Online applications are accepted for verifications, photocopies of answer books and
re-evaluation for Class X and XII examinations and checking the online status is
also available.
• The online pre and post exam processing has resulted in hazzle free declaration of
results of all regions together. The students can access their results from anywhere.

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 • The exam related ICT innovations and implementations have resulted in less
workforce and saving paper, trees, water, and controlling carbon emissions. It has
been a very smooth process for students living in remote areas and across the globe.
• Parinam Manjusha is an online academic repository from which the students can
download marksheets, migration certificates and pass certificates
• Academic documents are made available through digital lockers to each and every
student.
• CBSE-Shiksha Vani is the podcast platform to broadcast crucial information related
to the board’s activities in a timely, educative, lucid and seamless manner. This
gives all type of information related to examinations and other important areas.

Recent Initiatives
Aryabhata Ganit Challenge: A joyful mathematics competency assessment was
conducted for the students of classes VIII to X. It was computer-based test, which focused
on the extent to which children are able to apply mathematics in their daily lives.
Science Exhibition: Science Fair/Exhibition at regional and national level is organised to
provide a common platform to students, teachers and schools to exhibit innovative ideas
and learn from each other’s understandings. This also offers a means of popularizing
Science and increasing mindfulness about the close relationship between Science,
Technology and Society.
Swachhata Pakhwada: For shaping an attitude of collective consciousness towards
environmental sustainability and to develop a proactive approach towards healthy living a
15 days programme is organised in schools. The schools undertake different activities and
programmes -Swachhata Shapath Day, awareness day, green school drive, Hand Wash Day
(HWD), personal Hygiene Day, Swachhata Hi Seva (SHS) Day, school exhibition day,
Swachhata Action Day, letter writing day and celebration of reading week.
Vidya Daan: It is a program based on donation of e-content by CBSE teachers. The
purpose of this program is to help schools and teachers in urban and rural areas with good
quality e-content that can be used anytime, anywhere at no cost. The content can be viewed
on www.diksha.gov.in/cbse or on DIKSHA App.
Skill Education and Training: Skill Education is an important aspect of the nation’s
education initiative. While exploring the new domain of knowledge and skills that, CBSE
has offered various skill courses for classes VIII, IX and XI. These courses are -Artificial
Intelligence, Early Childhood Care Education (ECCE) and Yoga. These skill subjects in
class X and XII will enhance and empower the learning capacity of students. have bright
employment projections as well as career openings.

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B. Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE)
CISCE is a privately run national-level board of school education in India. It was
established in 1958 and conducts the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) and
the Indian School Certificate (ISC) examinations for Class 10th and Class 12th respectively.
Over two thousand schools in India and abroad are affiliated to the CISCE. The council
conducts board examinations very year for regular students only.
The features of CISCE are-
• It reflects on the principles and fundamentals of theories
• It is a private practical education board in India which focuses on overall
development of the student
• The curriculum provides equal emphasis to all subjects and also provides flexibility
in the selection of subjects
• It offers a wide range of subjects to select from and equal weightage is given to
languages, arts and humanities
• Practical and application-based tasks are done instead of on text/rote learning
• It is more economical than CIE
• Helpful for the children whose parents have a transferable job in India or abroad,
they can adjust in different schools.
C. National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
National Institute of Open Schooling is the world’s largest and third largest board after
CBSE and ICSE in India. It has an equivalent weightage in comparison to any board. It
caters to the specific learning needs of students, offers a wide range of subjects to choose
from, focusses on self-paced learning and has examinations twice a year. It offers an
individual a holistic mode of learning with absolute autonomy.

International Board
International board is the most recent entrance into the education board in India. The quality
of education and curriculum followed here is of international level. This board has become
very popular amongst parents in recent times specially the ones who want their children to
study in foreign universities. Many parents admit their child in an international boarding
school.
The main features of an International Board are-
• The quality of education is recognized from international colleges and universities.
• It is a good option for children whose parents have a transferable job in various
countries
• There are many subjects which the students are offered so they get to choose from
them

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 • Students have to perform highly in critical analysis
• Students are able to deal with challenging academic work
• It helps in overall development of personality of a child along with academics
• Numerous facilities are offered by the school
This board is classified into two groups:

Cambridge
International International
Baccalaureate Examinations
( IB)
(CIE)

International
Board

International Baccalaureate (IB): This board is prevalent in other countries since 1968.
The schools of the IB are considered prestigious, at the same time very costly. It is a
privately-run multinational academic organization with headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland. It holds the examination in academics and other test areas of personality
through co-curricular activities. The topics are taught in an interconnected manner rather
than a segregated approach.
The curriculum here is in three steps –
• Primary Years Program (PYP): It is offered for students from 3 to 11 years. The
subjects introduced are algebra, physics, natural sciences and languages
• Middle Years Program (MYP): It is offered for students from 11 to 16 years. It has
8 content classes- languages, physics, mathematics, art and architecture. Students
are required to have a minimum of 50 hours of instruction in each and also do a
specific assignment
• Diploma Program (DP): It is offered for students from 16 to 18 years. They are
required to cover three main modules- a thesis article, a critical thought project and
the youth service program
Cambridge International Examinations (CIE): It caters for international level of
education since 1858 as a department in University of Cambridge. They cater to schools
all across the globe wherein the examination is similar with the assessment level of
Cambridge. There are about three hundred Cambridge schools under its belt in India. It
offers globally accredited certificates and examinations in more than 150 countries around
the world. The credentials are accepted for entry in top-most universities in United
Kingdom and United States of America and other countries also.

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The main features are –
• Teaching methods are different and very useful for children to learn and develop.
• It promotes creativity at a higher level, encourages the student to look and
understand things beyond the classrooms.
• Academic subjects are taught in a fun filled manner for learners. The teachers use
numerous resources in the classes
• The main examinations are IGCSE, the AS level and the A level exams.

Conclusion
In this chapter we cover various bodies which are of prime importance in the Indian
Education system. The National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT) is
an autonomous body with focus on three areas-Research and development, Training and
Extension. Whereas State Council for Educational Research and Training (SCERT) works
to improve the standard of education in the state. CBSE board is an autonomous apex body
of education at school level. It is considered very important in Indian education system
because it focuses to impart a common education in a country with diversity. Besides this,
the three broad categories of boards are State Board, National Board and International
Board. The functioning of each body is different, yet they are linked in some ways or the
other.

Chapter at a Glance
✓ National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT) is an autonomous
body with focus on three areas-Research and development, Training and Extension.
✓ State Council for Educational Research and Training (SCERT) has been established
in each state for proper and decentralized functioning for quality education,
research and training. The main purpose was to improve the standard of education
in the state.
✓ The three broad categories of boards are State Board, National Board and
International Board
✓ CBSE board is an autonomous apex body of education at school level. It is
considered very important in Indian education system because it focuses to impart
a common education in this land of diverse culture and heritage. It conducts the two
major exams every year for class 10, All India Secondary School Certificate
Examination (AISSCE) and All India Senior Secondary School Examination
(AISSSE)
✓ The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) is an autonomous organisation.
The main purpose is for learning and providing flexible access to quality school

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 education and skill development. The main objectives of NIOS to take steps for
developing plans for promoting and improving the open schooling programme in
India

Do and Learn
❖ Visit the website of NCERT, CBSE, NIOS and SCERT to see the digital initiatives
of these organization

Self-Assessment
1. Which constituent units of NCERT undertake research programmes?
2. Discuss about NCERT and explain about its constituent units.
3. What are the functions of NCERT?
4. Explain the functions of CBSE.
5. Discuss the role of NIOS?
6. Explain the various types of education boards.

References and Suggested Readings

• Chandra, B. (2005). Modern India, NCERT, New Delhi.
• Dash, M. (2000). Education in India: Problems and Perspectives. Atlantic, New
Delhi
• Anand, C L and et al (1993) Teacher and Education in the Emerging Indian
Society, NCERT, New Delhi.
• Aggarwal, J .(2007).Development of Education System in India.Shipra, New
Delhi.w
• www.cbse.gov.in
• www.ncert.gov.in
• www.nios.ac.in

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 Lesson-8
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES FOR SCHOOL
EDUCATION
Nidhi Goel

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Acquaint with various government educational programs.
• Aware of various government initiatives.
• Discuss a variety of government initiatives.
• Understand and explain Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA).
• Understand and explain the purpose of the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan
(RMSA)
• Understand and explain the concept of the Mid-Day Meal Program
• Understand the nature of integration under the concept of Samagra Shiksha
Abhiyan.
• Differentiate among all major State Educational initiatives.
• Explain the various steps being taken by the government in the field of education.

Introduction
Education is a social process, and the child receives it from the society and school. The
right education enables the individual to adjust in every situation. The national campaigns
have been run by the Government of India keeping these objectives of education in origin.
Education being a part of the concurrent list in India undergoes legislation from both the
centre and the state governments. The Ministry of Human Resource and Development
under the central government has introduced several initiatives over the years, including
the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), Mid-
day meal scheme, Samagra Shiksha Yojana, etc. to address the problem of quality issues
at elementary education, secondary and higher education levels. Bodies such as District
Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs), State Councils of Educational Research and
Training (SCERTs), Block Resource Centres (BRCs), Cluster Resource Centers (CRC),
etc. are also set up by the state government in close coordination with the centre to make
the system robust. Let us discuss here the major educational schemes which have been
created by the government.

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Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) was launched by the Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD), Government of India. This campaign was launched by the former
Prime Minister of India, Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee, in the year 2002. This program was
jointly supported by the Central and State Governments on an 85:15 basis during the ninth
plan, at 75:25 during the tenth plan, and 50:50 thereafter. The main focus in this campaign
was to make the objective of Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) successful
within a stipulated time interval. The SSA follows the 86th amendment made by the
Constitution.
The 86th Amendment Bill of the Constitution (2002) - December 12, 2002, through Article
21A (Part 3) suggested the right to free and compulsory education by the state to all children
in the age group of 6 to 14 years is a fundamental right. The main objective of SSA has
been to make the universalization of elementary education successful in India along with
to increase the enrolment of students in schools, to increase the access of students to school
and to reduce the dropout of students from school, etc. The program covers the entire
country except for the state of Goa with a special focus on the educational needs of girls,
SC and ST, and other children in different circumstances.
Objectives of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
Alternative school system: Alternative schools are outlined to educate those students who
have not been accessible in regular schools, often because of socio-cultural and
psychological concerns. An alternative school may involve a range of flexibility other than
the traditional school setting. Providing alternative schools for all children in the Education
Trust centers on addressing regional and gender disparities and various educational
obstacles.
All children in schools: Education should not be denied to any student on the behalf of
any socio-cultural aspect. It should be provided to all levels of the society such as
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Muslim Minorities, Special Agricultural Laborers or
to any gender. So SSA mandates each and every child should be in school according to the
appropriateness of age and all the children have par educational rights apart from any socio-
cultural bias.
Back to school: To develop values and national spirit in the students through education
and to attain the long-term goal of development in India, Inclusion is the only key, and it
can be achieved only through ensuring re-admission of all out-of-school children in the
schools and in the mainstream education. In this challenging task, the special focus has
been on the children who have been left out of the schooling process due to various reasons.

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Bridge all gender and social category gaps: The gender and social gap reflect inequality
among people on the basis of their caste, class, gender, etc. To make the fundamental right
of education accessible to all sections of society and to promote primary education
accessible for all students there is a need to bridge the gap at the elementary education level
without any discrimination based on gender and social category. Ensure equal opportunities
of education to all the students based on the objectives of equality.
Universal retention: Retention means children should remain in schools till they complete
their elementary education. In order to achieve the objective of universal retention, the
number of schools has been increased and the schools have been accessible for each and
every child nearest to their places within a radius of 1 km from their home. Schools in
nearby locations and accessible increased the rate of enrolment and retention. Universal
Retention has paved the way for long-term objectives of education
Focus on elementary education with satisfactory qualitative results: To improve the
quality of results in primary education at the national level and to provide eight years of
quality primary education to all Indian students, it was mandatory to lay down many
educational facilities to the schools by selecting qualified teachers, Pre-service and in-
service training are expected to be given to all teachers so that the teachers can be made
aware of the new changes taking place in the field of education. Also, schools and teachers
can get various types of educational aids and materials on time. Grants are given to all
teachers for developing teaching-learning material. Government contribution in providing
various types of educational resources to schools, teachers, and students to achieve the
prescribed educational achievement level. An increasing number of classes in the schools
can be maintained the student-teacher ratio as per the prescribed plan. Give away free
textbooks and uniforms to all children without any bias.
Out of above, some of the notable objectives of SSA are as follows:
• To maintain teacher-student ratio of 1:40 in the class.
• To provide a school for children within a radius of 1 km from their home.
• To promote access to primary education of students by removing social and
regional differences.
• To increase community participation through education.
• To integrate children with their natural environment.
• To provide many educational facilities to the schools by selecting qualified
teachers.
• To build national integration so that the benefits of quality primary education can
reach as many people as possible.
• To walk to establish social justice.
• To make the fundamental right of education accessible to all sections of society
without any discrimination.
• To achieve the goal of equity along with improving quality education.

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 • To make the scheme a success through mixed cooperation of the Central and State
Governments.
• To improve the Panchayati Raj system's effectiveness, so that education can be
made accessible to the students of rural areas as well.
• To develop values and national spirit in the students through education, so that the
long-term goal of development in India can be achieved.

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)

Secondary education plays a pivotal role in shaping the future of children in a country. It
is a gateway for prosperity, for transforming the economy and establishing social justice in
any country. It is a crucial stage in the educational hierarchy as it prepares students for
higher education and also for the world of work. So, after the progress of elementary
education in the country, the task of publicising secondary education was set. Rashtriya
Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) is a part of the Samagra Shiksha Yojana, which has
been run to reach all the children from pre-school to class 12th level and to ensure the goal
of inclusive and quality education. RMSA was implemented in 2009. It is a national scheme
run by the Ministry of Human Resource Development with the goal to ensure the quality
and development of secondary education in both government and public schools of India.
The key objectives of this scheme were to make overall development of secondary
education by increasing enrolment in schools, by ensuring quality and proper education of
children in the age group of 14-18 years. This scheme ensures to reach education to all the
children, especially the schedule caste and tribe, backward villages, urban areas, and all the
girls deprived of education due to gender-based discrimination.
Objectives of Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
Enable children to face global competition through secondary education: One of the
vision objectives of the RMSA is that the future child can give his cooperation and
participation fully in the development of the country and this will happen when good and
quality secondary education is provided free of cost to children of all genders and castes,
religious sects, physical and mental disabilities and socio-economically weaker families in
the age group of 14-18 years. By doing this, these children will not only progress socially
in the future, but along with this they will also become economically active citizens and
will be able to make their positive contribution to the development of the state and the
country.
Multi-directional development of secondary education: A good curriculum, teacher
training programs, and a variety of teaching-learning methods including all required
resources played a vital role in the quality of secondary education. Induction of additional
courses in secondary classes for the children who have completed elementary education,
so that their educational level can increase, and their education can develop in all four
directions.

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Maintaining the physical facilities in schools: Provision of various infrastructure
facilities which include blackboard, furniture, science and maths laboratories, computer
classes, separate construction for boys and girls (construction of separate girls' toilets in the
school) and school staff and to provide basic facilities for the activities to be conducted on
lesson basis. To lay special emphasis on maintaining the physical facilities, staff supply,
the ratio of children and teachers which has been fixed according to the norms set by the
National Secondary Education Campaign.
Providing Financial assistance to students: Financial assistance to government and
government-aided schools and to promote public and private partnerships in various ways.
Appropriate funds should be used for funding the schools and children of the educationally
backward areas with the provision of cash incentives (in the form of rewards for good
marks), uniforms, books, cycles, etc., As well as Provision of proper scholarship to the
meritorious students coming from diverse economic and social backgrounds.
Arrangements for Teachers: Provision of Residential Accommodation for teachers from
far-away places especially for women teachers working in hilly and remote areas. Make
maximum efforts to provide necessary facilities to the teachers who are from far places. In-
service training of teachers along with the appointment of additional teachers also paved
the way for secondary education in schools.
Promote Inclusion: It should also be taken care that no child should be deprived of
secondary education due to any kind of poverty, casteism, gender, color, socio-economic,
or any other kind of barriers. The curriculum has been reviewed to meet the norms of the
National Curriculum Framework and to see that with the help of which pedagogy, we can
get maximum benefit for the children coming from different classes, groups, tribes,
religious, and linguistic minorities, and children with physical and mental disabilities.
Provision of adequate food and lodging facilities for the Scheduled Castes and Tribes,
Other Backward Classes, and girls, etc. also encouraged inclusion.
Facilitate open and distance education: Open and distance education is more flexible,
and child centered. In other words, this type of education is learner’s friendly and more
convenient for children who were not able to complete their studies through regular
schooling. So open and distance education should be expanded for children who cannot get
pre-secondary education on regular basis due to some social constraints. Suggestions of
open learning should be given in the form of provision so that the child can complete his
secondary education without any barrier related to socio-cultural and regional constraints.
Out of above, RMSA also suggested for followings things:
• In-service training of teachers along with the appointment of additional teachers.
• Review of the curriculum to meet the norms of National Curriculum Framework.
• To provide residential accommodation to teachers especially women teachers in
hilly areas like villages and such areas.

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 • To provide adequate food and lodging facilities for the Scheduled Castes and
Tribes, OBC, Other Backward Classes, and girls.
• To provide cash incentives (in the form of rewards for good marks), uniforms,
books, cycles, etc., as well as the construction of separate girls' toilets in the school.
• To give proper scholarship to the meritorious students coming from economic and
social backgrounds.
• To make maximum efforts to provide necessary facilities to the students who are
mentally and physically disabled in all the schools.
• Cameras should be installed to assess and monitor children's learning.

Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan

By Samagra Shiksha, we mean the latest campaign whose main objective is to make the
standard of school education better. This campaign is mainly built by a combination of
three already established schemes. These three schemes are the main schemes established
by the Indian government for the improvement of different areas of education. Therefore,
the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan has been started by integrating the following three schemes.
i. Sarva-Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
ii. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
iii. Teacher Education Scheme (TE)
The importance of improving the quality of Indian education of all the three schemes often
mentioned is indescribable. But the purpose of doing all the three schemes is to integrate
each and every aspect of education with a new dimension, through a new scheme.
The Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan was launched in the year 2018 by the Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Government of India. The main program of this campaign was
developed by the Department of Education, NIOS. The program of Samagra Shiksha is
mainly designed keeping in mind NCF-2005, RTE-2009, and NCFTE-2010. Samagra
Shiksha Abhiyan was established with the goal of completeness under which the effort was
made to bring completeness without any division so that the level and quality of education
could be raised at all levels from pre-nursery to the twelfth standard. The objective of
developing the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan has been broader than ever to provide equal
opportunities of learning to all students by increasing the effective standard of school
education and this has often been the main goal of making them accessible without any
discrimination.
Salient Features of Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan
• To provide equal educational opportunities to all without any discrimination, and
special focus on quality.
• To provide special focus on the outcomes of the learning system along with
qualitative improvement in the learning system of school education.

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 • Efforts to connect the teacher with technology so that multidimensional
empowerment of students can be possible.
• Incorporation of the concept of holistic and inclusive education.
• Prepare students for employment by promoting vocationalization in school
education.
• Strong focus on Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE).
• The plan has been made so that every student can develop in an improved
environment and a more advanced and safer environment provided to students than
before.
• For qualitative improvement upgradation of the State Council of Educational
Research and Training (SCERT) and District Institute of Education and Training
(DIET) with more strength.
The Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan 2.0
The first session of the Samagra Shiksha Yojana was launched on May 24, 2018. The
deadline for this scheme was initially kept till August 31, 2020, but this campaign was once
again approved for an extension by the cabinet committee called named "Samagra Shiksha
Abhiyan 2.0". This is the second session of the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, for which the
quality of school education was again validated from April 1, 2021, to March 31, 2026. In
other words, this Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan 2.0 is expansion of an already ongoing
campaign which has re-launched with new features. The current session of Samagra
Shiksha Abhiyan 2.0 has been started by the Center to improve the quality of school
education more than before, from the Samagra Shiksha Yojana established in the year 2018.
Under which the “Sustainable Development Goal (SDG-4)” and “New National Education
Policy 2020” have been upgraded with the inclusion of suggestions to ensure the success
of Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan 2.0 with greater impact. The scheme of Samagra Shiksha
Abhiyan 2.0 now covers 1.16 million schools, about 156 million students, and 5.7 million
teachers of government and government-aided schools.

Mid-day Meal Scheme

The mid-day meal scheme is the biggest scheme run by the Government of India at the
school level under which a one-time meal (lunch) will be arranged by the schools for the
children of primary and upper primary level. There were many objectives behind
implementing this plan, out of which the biggest reason was that after the independence of
the country the only means to take the country towards development was education.
Therefore, schools were opened in cities, villages, and different places but on observation
by government commissions it was found that even after opening schools near homes,
parents are not enrolling their children in schools. So, when an attempt was made to know
their reasons, it came to know that the parents of the children are so poor that they were not
able to provide even two times meals to their children. So how do parents enrol their

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children in schools? In this way, a scheme was started with the support of the Government
of India (State + Central) which was implemented as a scheme in the country from 15th
August 1995.
Initially, this scheme started in Madras in 1925, after the Tamil Nadu government
implemented this scheme to increase the attendance of children in schools. By
implementing this scheme, the Tamil Nadu government got good results. There was an
increase in the enrolment of children in schools, after which this scheme was implemented
in 12 more states, and in 1995 this scheme was implemented by the central government in
the name of the National Program of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE)
all over the country.
The Supreme Court has played an important role in implementing the mid-day meals in all
states. Under a petition, it was said that our fundamental rights also include the right to live,
under which food comes under our primary need. Considering this petition to be correct,
the Supreme Court on November 28, 2001, ordered it to be implemented in government
schools across the country. Initially, when this scheme was implemented, the children were
given rice and wheat (without cooked) in schools. But after observing the government, it
was found that the children are not getting their full benefits given by the school, after
which this scheme was amended, and children were given cooked food in schools from
2004 onwards.
Initially, the number of calories and protein in the postic diet of children was about 8 to
10 grams, after which it was increased. In 2008-09, the scheme was again amended, this
scheme was implemented in the children from (I to VIII). The number of calories and
protein given to children at primary and upper primary level: -

No. of calories and protein Primary level Upper primary level

Calories 480 720

Protein (Grams) 12 20

The Mid-Day Meal Scheme was implemented in three phases: (i) decentralised model, (ii)
centralised model, and (iii) international model.
• Decentralised Model: Food is prepared by supporting groups inside the school
premises in the local kitchen.
• Centralised Model: Under this, an external organization is made the food and
delivered it to the school.
• International Aid: This international organization helps many types of schools
financially or by providing raw vegetables, grains, rice, etc. to the school.

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Objectives of Mid-Day Meal Scheme
Increase school enrolment: Where earlier the parents of the children used to prevent the
children from going to school, they felt that it is better to send the child to work, there has
been a change in such ideology, the parents register the names of the children in the school.
Another advantage was the rapid increase in the enrollment of girls. They were also started
getting opportunities for education. Along with this, the Midday meal scheme provides
nutritious food to girls and they are also taking advantage of many schemes in schools,
which are proving to be helpful financially.
Increase school attendance: There was a drastic increase that appeared in attendance
after the implementation of the midday meal scheme. After ensuring 80% attendance in the
school, the child will get the benefit of a mid-day meal. Along with this, they will be given
food according to the working days of the school.
Reduce discrimination based on caste and religion: The Mid-Day Meal Scheme has
played an important role in reducing or eradicating the discrimination, prejudice that was
going on in the society due to caste, religion, gender color, etc.
The child started becoming stronger mentally and physically: Mid-Day meal solves the
problem of malnutrition among the school-going children. Many reports found that 60% to
70% of Indian children were suffering from malnutrition, so how could education progress
when the foundation itself was weak. Children become mentally and physically weak due
to lack of nutritious food in proper quantity. Along with this, diseases were also harming
the children. Then the mid-day meal solved this problem and nutritious food was given to
children with the proper amount of calories and protein according to their age and
requirement. The children started becoming stronger mentally and physically. Government
observations and data also show that the ratio of the height and age of the children who
have taken the benefit of this scheme was higher than that of the children who could not
take the benefit of this scheme.

Conclusion
Undoubtedly, the formulation of major schemes for qualitative improvement in the field of
education by the government is of utmost importance in the Indian context. Through these
schemes, many direct and positive changes have been seen in the field of education. There
has been an increase in the literacy rate of Indian children in the country and due to these
schemes, the access of students in school, enrolment, and retention of students in schools
has been encouraged. The provision of Nutritious food under the midday meal scheme
proves to be helpful in the mental and physical development of the children. Corrective
action is being taken by the government in every aspect of education as per the directions
of “National Policy on Education” and “Right to Free and Compulsory Education.” Which
is proving fruitful and opens the door of higher education for students. A high-quality level
of education enables children to face good and successful competition at the world level.

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Chapter at a Glance
✓ The Ministry of Human Resource and Development under the central government
has introduced several initiatives over the years, including the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), Mid-day meal
scheme, Samagra Shiksha Yojana, etc. to address the problem of quality issues at
elementary education, secondary and higher education levels.
✓ Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), is a flagship program of the Indian government
focused on this campaign to make the objective of Universalization of Elementary
Education (UEE) successful within a stipulated time interval.
✓ The main objective of the SSA program has been to make the universalization of
elementary education successful in India along with the motive of increasing the
enrolment and access of students with the focus of reducing the dropout of students
from school, etc.
✓ The SSA approaches elementary education of all children in the age group of 6-14
years.
✓ Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) is a part of the Samagra Shiksha
Yojana, which has been run to reach all the children from pre-school to class 12th
level and to ensure the goal of inclusive and quality education.
✓ RMSA was implemented in 2009. It is a national scheme run by the Ministry of
Human Resource Development with the goal of ensuring the quality and
development of secondary education in government and public schools of India.
✓ The key objectives of RMSA were to make overall development of secondary
education by increasing enrolment in schools, by ensuring quality and proper
education of children in the age group of 14-18 years.
✓ RMSA ensures to reach education to all the children, especially the schedule caste
and tribe, backward villages, urban areas, and all the girls deprived of education due
to gender-based discrimination.
✓ The Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan was launched in the year 2018 by the Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Government of India.
✓ Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan was established with the goal of completeness under
which the effort was made to bring completeness without any division so that the
level and quality of education could be raised at all levels from pre-nursery to the
twelfth standard.
✓ The objective of developing the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan has been broader than
ever to provide equal opportunities of learning to all students by increasing the

116
 effective standard of school education and this has often been the main goal of
making them accessible without any discrimination.
✓ An initiative was taken by the state and central Government of India to implement a
scheme called “Mid-Day Meal Scheme” in the country commenced on 15th August
1995 to solve the problem of malnutrition among school-going children.

Do and Learn
❖ Visit at your nearest Government/Government-aided school during the mid-day meal
distribution time and list out some points you observe there.
❖ Interview any two students (Age group of 6-14) studying in elementary school
regarding their performance and achievement in school.
❖ Watch Uniform movie and write a reflective analysis in few points.

Self-Assessment
1. What were the main highlights of the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan?
2. What were the main strength and weaknesses of the Mid-day meal scheme?
3. Write a few points in your views that show the effectiveness of Government
Initiatives.

References and Suggested Readings

• Manual for District-level Functionaries. (2017). Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan. http://ssashagun.nic.in
• Ministry of Education and Literacy, Government of India. (n.d.). Samagra Shiksha
Abhiyan. Retrieved January 7, 2022, from http://samagra.education.gov.in
• Mid-day meal scheme to be now called PM POSHAN, To Cover Students of Pre-
primary classes also- The Times of India
• Gursharan Singh Kainth. (2006). A Mission Approach to Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.
Economic and Political Weekly, 41(30), 3288–3291. http://www.jstor.org/
stable/4418492
• Chakrabarti, R., Prakash, K. S., & Arora, M. (2018). Cost-Benefit Analysis of
Education Interventions in Andhra Pradesh: Andhra Pradesh Priorities An India
Consensus Prioritization Project. Copenhagen Consensus Center.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep34185
• Rao, V. S. (2009). Lack of Community Participation in the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan:
A Case Study. Economic and Political Weekly, 44(8), 61–64. http://www.jstor.org/
stable/40278530
• Mishra, R. K. (2015). Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan Takes a Nosedive.
Economic and Political Weekly, 50(43), 25–27. http://www.jstor.org/stable/
44002768

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 Lesson-9 Unit-III
ISSUES IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND RASHTRIYA
UCHCHATAR SHIKSHA ABHIYAN (RUSA)
Ranjan Kumar Sahoo

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Understand the emerging issues in the Indian higher education system.
• Understand the role of RUSA in higher education.
• Know about goals and major provisions of RUSA.
• Understand the various components of RUSA.
• Explain the various guiding principles of RUSA.

Introduction
Higher education of a country is the key to its recognition in the global platform. It is the
most powerful instrument in the progressive transformation and sustainable development
of a country. It prepares its citizen for different walks of life: social, political, economic,
educational, scientific, and technological (Report to the People on Education, 2010-11).
Through higher education, a nation can address the issues relating to equity, accessibility,
quality, values and development. Realizing its importance like many other countries, India
aims to reform higher education in a large way to expand access, improve equity, increase
quality and excellence, and encourage diversity. However, the reality in the discourses of
higher education in India has been the drastic shifts of concerns for aspects and parameters
of quality and standards of higher education and higher education institutions to many
emerging compulsions through the decades. Additionally, the introduction of the new
economic reform in the 1990s, popularly known as neo-liberalization, set the tone for
drastic reform in the higher education sector (Sahoo, 2021). Despite the fact that the
government has taken innumerable initiatives and schemes for the development of higher
education, there are still some serious issues in the higher education sector.

Issues in Higher Education

Education is Expanding Rapidly but Quality is often Low: There is no doubt that the
Central and state governments continue to accord a high priority to expanding the supply
of education and increasing participation. However, our institutional capacity is still low.
We have only near about 900 universities, as against the National Knowledge Commission
(NKC) recommendation of 1,500. Similarly, the GER increased from 15% to 25.8%, which
is still quite low as compared to the developed as well as, other developing countries
(AISHE Report 2017-18). Further, with the increase of enrolments at school level, the

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supply of higher education institutes is insufficient to meet the growing demand in the
country. Coming back to the quality aspects, ensuring quality in higher education is
amongst the foremost challenges being faced in India today. Some of the areas where
quality of higher education still prevailing today are: service quality, infrastructure,
finance, research & publications, curriculum content, process & output, teaching and
learning, ineffective monitoring and evaluation mechanisms, few recognized accreditation
agencies, limited number of accredited colleges and lack of clear framework for private
sector participation etc. However, Government is continuously focusing on the quality
education. But still large number of colleges and universities in India are unable to meet
the minimum requirements laid down by the UGC and our universities are not in a position
to mark its place among the top universities of the world (Sahoo, 2021).
Persisting Social Inequalities in Educational Opportunities: Even as more and more
students are opting to go in for higher or professional education, many continue to be left
behind and inequalities persist. Inequalities persist with respect to access to higher
education, in subject areas and in admissions to elite universities. The higher education
system offers a 'stratified structure of opportunities', with the dominance of hierarchy in
institutional prestige and field of study, which in turn, determines earnings and social
outcomes. It has been observed that those from the privileged backgrounds have greater
access to select institutions and programs of study vis-à-vis the disadvantaged
backgrounds. Further, inequalities in educational opportunities are manifested by under-
representation of the socio-economically disadvantaged and first-generation learners in
elite institutions, and in the science and engineering streams, and a progressive loss of
representation as one moves up the academic ladder. The educational levels of parents,
specifically in terms of graduate education, significantly impacts the students' chances of
participation in higher education, controlling for household economic status, region (state),
location, gender, and socio-religious affiliation (Sahoo, 2021).
Equity: It is important that the increased access to higher education should be inclusive.
But if we look at the enrolment pattern of higher education we can see, there is no equity
in GER among different sects of the society. On one hand GER stands low for the overall
population, while on the other hand there exists large variations among the various
categories of population based on gender, urban or rural habitation and rich and poor.
According to the AISHE Report 2017-18, the GER in higher education in India among
male and female varies to a greater extent. There are regional variations too, such as some
states have high GER whereas as some are quite behind the national GER which reflects
significant imbalances within the higher education system.
Structure of Higher Education: Another challenge of Indian higher education is its
structure. Management of the Indian education faces challenges of over centralization,
bureaucratic structures and lack of accountability, transparency, and professionalism. As a
result of increase in number of affiliated colleges and students, the burden of administrative

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functions of universities has significantly increased and the core focus on academics and
research is diluted (Kumar, 2015).
Trend in Finance: Higher education has generally been recognized as a "public good"
(CABE 2005: 7). The public good nature of higher education warrants that the state should
play a more active role in the financing of higher education. Indeed, the state has been
funding higher education since independence. But with budgets being tightened and other
fiscal problems that both central and state governments are facing, the financing trends
have not been favorable to higher education since the 1990s. The shares of non-
governmental sources such as fees and voluntary contributions have also been declining.
But still, year by year the public expenditure on higher education increasing rapidly.
Further, though higher, and technical education are on the concurrent list, by and large,
financing remains the responsibility of states. The share of the central government has
remained around 20 per cent since 1990-91 with a few exceptions in the present decade,
wherein it increased to a little over 25 per cent but there also a matter of exception that the
priority was given to technical education. Thus, looking at the rapidly growing needs of the
higher education system, it is being increasingly realized that public budgets cannot
adequately fund higher education, particularly when sectors of mass education are starved
of even bare needs (Sahoo, 2021).
Research and Publication: Quantity and quality of research conducted by university will
strengthen the university existence and promote the university to higher level of
qualification. But it’s a matter of satire that the current enrolment pattern shows only 0.77%
students able to reach this stage (UGC Annual Report 2016-17). Further, the researches
conducted should show real contributions to local and national education, economic,
agriculture and assists problem solving in societies and in government policy and
development program. Publications on highly credited international journal are a valuable
credit to increase university qualification. Moreover, many citations quoted from the
publication will be more quality value gained. But it is a matter of irony that there are very
nominal scholars in our country whose writings have been cited by others. There is an
inadequate focus on research in higher education institutes. There are insufficient resources
and facilities, as well as limited numbers of quality faculty to advice students. Most of the
research scholars are without fellowships. Even those who are getting scholarship the
amount is very nominal and are not getting their fellowship on time which directly or
indirectly affects their research (Sheikh, 2017). Thus, we can clearly state that Indian higher
education institutions are poorly connected to research centres. So, this is another most
critical area of challenge to the higher education in India.
Self-Financing Courses: Although, self- financing courses are being introduced solely
with the aim of generating finances for the university and to utilize the same finance for
conducting several activities development programs. But it hits hard on the interest of
especially those who are relatively underprivileged. Though no data are available on the

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nature and extent of self-financing courses and seats, it is generally believed that this
practice is picking up and even the mainstream universities and colleges are adopting it to
generate additional finance. If the trend continues, a time may come when the higher
education system would gradually be restructured to offer only self-financing courses to be
self-reliant. This would not only lead to truncated growth of higher education but may also
weaken our society (Prakash, 2007).
Privatization: A matter of concern is that higher education is now becoming a commodity
for marketing. It is a multi-billion dollar business. Foreign universities are trying to have
a share of Indian educational markets and have prepared for this during the last decade or
more. Due to this privatization mushrooming educational institutions are opened for profit
making. The large growth of these institutions, it is argued, represents commercialization
of higher education (Tilak, 2006). This raises questions of affordability and equity. They
do not even reserve seats for the marginalized groups with severe implications of equity.
These institutions do not hesitate to admit students with poor academic credentials. They
also attempt to be financially efficient by reducing costs on vital components which
adversely affects the quality. The contribution of private sector to research and advanced
level education is also found to be limited (Tilak, 2006).
Weak Linkage of Education with Developmental Processes: One of the most important
emerging issues faced by Indian higher education system is the weak linkage of education
with the developmental process. It creates frustration amongst graduates when they find
that education is not so useful in employment and in work situations. Thus, the big
challenge is to transform the system from its present model of education to developmental
education, linking education to developments in society, industry, and services sectors.
Out of the above, there are also many basic problems facing higher education in
India today. These include inadequate infrastructure and facilities, large vacancies in
faculty positions and poor faculty thereof, outdated curriculum along with outmoded
teaching methods, political interferences, accreditation, ineffective monitoring, and
widespread geographic, income, gender, and ethnic imbalances.

Rashtriya Uchhattar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)

The Rashtriya Uchhtar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) – National Higher Education Mission is
one of the ambitious projects developed by the Govt. of India just like Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA) and Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), to boost Higher
Education Sector in India. The scheme aims at providing strategic funding to eligible state
higher educational Institution. The central funding (in the ratio of 65:35) for general
category States and (in the ratio of 90:10) for special category states. The RUSA comes
into force as like follows:

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History and Developments in the scheme of RUSA

Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) had approved the

November 2012
draft of RUSA in its 60th Meeting held on 8th November 2012.

The President of India announced the Scheme in his address to the

joint sitting of Parliament on 21st February 2013 and Prime Minister
February 2013
also announced the Scheme in the Governors’ conference on 12th
February 2013

Approved by Cabinet on 20th June 2013 as the only Centrally

June 2013
Sponsored Scheme (CSS) from department of Education.

Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC) of planning commission has

September 2013 cleared Scheme on 11th September 2013 and subsequently Hon’ble
Finance Minister cleared Scheme on 23rd September 2013

Cabinet Committee for Economic Affair (CCEA) approved RUSA

October 2013
on 3rd October 2013

Goal of RUSA
The RUSA aims to improve the quality of State Universities and colleges and enhance their
existing capacities so that they become dynamic, demand driven, quality conscious,
efficient and forward looking and responsive to rapid economic and technological
developments occurring at the local, state, national and international levels. The salient
objectives of the scheme can be enumerated as follows:
• Improve the overall quality of existing state institutions by ensuring that all
institutions conform to prescribed norms and standards and adopt accreditation as
a mandatory quality assurance framework.
• Usher transformative reforms in the state higher education system by creating a
facilitating institutional structure for planning and monitoring at the state level,
promoting autonomy in State Universities and improving governance in
institutions.
• Ensure academic and examination reforms in the higher educational institutions.
• Enable conversion of some of the universities into research universities at par with
the best in the world.
• Create opportunities for states to undertake reforms in the affiliation system in
• Order to ensure that the reforms and resource requirements of affiliated colleges are
adequately met.

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 • Ensure adequate availability of quality faculty in all higher educational institutions
and ensure capacity building at all levels of employment.
• Create an enabling atmosphere in the higher educational institutions to devote
themselves to research and innovations.
• Expand the institutional base by creating additional capacity in existing institutions
and establishing new institutions, in order to achieve enrolment targets.
• Correct regional imbalances in access to higher education by facilitating access to
high quality institutions in urban & semi-urban areas, creating opportunities for
students from rural areas to get access to better quality institutions and setting up
institutions in un-served & underserved areas.
• Improve equity in higher education by providing adequate opportunities of higher
education to SC/STs and socially and educationally backward classes; promote
inclusion of women, minorities, and differently abled persons.
Components of RUSA
The RUSA is envisaged as a prime vehicle for strategic funding of state institutions so as
to ensure that issues of access, equity and quality are addressed in an equitable manner with
the state as a composite unit of planning. The following are the primary components of
RUSA that capture the key action and funding areas that must be pursued for the fulfillment
of the targets:
• Establishment of new universities
• Establishment of new model colleges (general)
• Establishment of new colleges (professional)
• Up gradation of existing autonomous colleges to universities
• Up-gradation of existing degree colleges to model colleges
• Conversion of colleges to cluster universities
• Infrastructure grants to universities
• Infrastructure grants to colleges
• Research, innovation and quality improvement
• Equity initiatives
• Faculty recruitment support
• Faculty improvements
• Research universities
• Vocationalisation of higher education
• Leadership development of educational administrators
• Institutional restructuring & reforms
• Capacity building & preparation, data collection & planning
• Management information system

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Major Provisions of RUSA

Provisions for Academics Provisions for Provisions for Quality

Governance
• Reforms at state level • Three-tier institutional
• Consolidating and
and institutional level structure to monitor
developing through
including progress and
capacity addition, usage
‘Accountability implementation of
of ICT and distance
Framework for reforms.
learning.
universities. • All institutions to be
• Model colleges in each
district and integration • Provision for greater linked to a web-based
academic, financial, and Management
of various equity
administrative Information System
schemes currently in
autonomy for (MIS).
place.
universities. • Creation of state level
• States ensure faculty
positions are filled in a • Limit on colleges accreditation agencies.
phased manner. affiliated to a university • Requirement of
and creation of College, mandatory accreditation
• Proactive steps for
Cluster Universities. for HEIs.
faculty recruitment and
development. • Funding to non 12B and • Establishment of
2(f) institutions as well appropriate regulatory
• Choice Based Credit
System across HEIs. • Funding through State framework to set quality
Councils. standards.
• Reform in admission
• Norm and performance- • Creation of enabling
process, curriculum
based funding. conditions to attract
development and
examination process. • Infrastructure up investments - aim to
gradation of existing mobilize 50% of the
• Provision of research
institutions with focus state contribution
and innovation
on quality and equity. through private
grants/funds.
participation.
• Support for state
endeavors to create
Research Universities.

Guiding Principles of RUSA

Focus on Quality and Research: RUSA focuses on better quality of state higher education
institutions. The aim is to achieve mass access to higher education with high quality
standards. States must ensure that all their institutions adopt NAAC accreditation as the
mandatory quality assurance framework, and simultaneously seek to upgrade the overall
academic quality by implementing reforms. They will be encouraged to promote research

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and innovation in their institutions. Since research focus can be judged both from input
efforts and outcome indicators, the State Higher Education Plan (SHEP) are expected to
have a balanced appreciation of both aspects. States and institutions are expected to
honestly declare their present status in this area and outline specific strategies for
improvement, including the use of information and communications technologies (ICT).
There is a need to improve resource allocation for universities to enable good quality
research and innovation. Criteria such as the number of research publications, impact
factors of journals in which papers are published, citations, the amount of research funding
attracted, etc., should be considered for faculty promotions.
Norm-based and Outcome-dependent Funding: The cornerstone around which RUSA
is designed is that funding under it is norm based and future grants are outcome dependent.
The central funding is strategic and based on SHEP, which serve as a benchmark against
which the performance of a state and its institutions is graded. Future funding is decided
on the basis of past achievements and utilization of funds submitted to MHRD.
Incentivizing and Disincentivizing: RUSA incentivizes and disincentivizes state actions.
Not only is compliance to rules, regulations and fulfilment of norms supported by
incentives, but non-performance or non-fulfilment of prerequisites and norms invites
reduced allocations for states and institutions. This is intended to make the scheme not only
demand driven, but also competitive. States and institutions are encouraged to compete
with each other in order to reap the benefits of competition-based formulaic grants.
Apolitical Decision Making: Another basic tenet of RUSA is that the decision making is
done in an unbiased, apolitical, and professional manner, on the basis of the SHEPs and the
performance of the states on the predefined parameters. The process of decision making,
and its result are transparent and the methods impartial. It is expected that the states would
also be as unbiased, apolitical, and professional while planning and ushering governance
reforms at their level. In order to effectively implement these reforms, the selection of
leadership positions in state universities should take into account the imperatives of merit
and performance.
Autonomy: Autonomy is an indispensable condition for quality and accountability. RUSA
envisages greater autonomy for institutions in terms of decision making. The institutions
will have full liberty to plan specific interventions depending on their special needs and
requirements like-institutional leadership, membership of government bodies, revisiting
the acts etc.
Disclosure-based Governance: Disclosure-based governance must be followed by
institutions with regard to their decisions and outcomes. RUSA envisages greater
participation of all stakeholders, where the institutions are responsible for their quality not
just to the regulatory authorities but also to the students, parents and the society. A policy
of full disclosure and clean governance is the first step towards establishing such a system
of higher education.

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Equity-based Development: Equity-based development initiatives must form an essential
part of any development or expansion plans, both at the state and institution levels. Any
growth in the higher education sector must create equal opportunities for women,
disadvantaged classes and the differently abled. Also, development must have a greater
focus on serving the rural and tribal areas. The plan appraisal process would take this aspect
into account while deciding the allocations. Well calibrated equity strategies must be built
into the entire state planning process.

Conclusion
RUSA is an important initiative of government of India after SSA and RMSA. The basic
concept behind RUSA is to bring Indian higher education as par with higher education
system of other developed countries. India has got very unusual growth in higher education
sector. There is an increasing demand for higher education in the growing India. But
unfortunately, the expansion of public higher education has slowed down at a time when it
should have been expanded fast to increase the access. But now, it is necessary that these
trends should be reversed, and the state should come forward to open new institutions,
besides strengthening existing institutions. Further, both quantitative expansion and
qualitative improvement of higher education should also command highest priority in the
policy discourse. RUSA is the primary movement in this regard which has been established
to bring a national mandate to reform higher education. Teachers, students, and principles
are considered the most important components of education among all important
stakeholders of higher education.

Chapter at a Glance
✓ Higher education of a country is the key to its recognition in the global platform. It
is the most powerful instrument in the progressive transformation and sustainable
development of a country. It prepares its citizen for different walks of life: social,
political, economic, educational, scientific, and technological.
✓ There are also many basic problems facing higher education in India today. These
include inadequate infrastructure and facilities, large vacancies in faculty positions
and poor faculty thereof, outdated curriculum along with outmoded teaching
methods, political interferences, accreditation, ineffective monitoring, and
widespread geographic, income, gender, and ethnic imbalances.
✓ The Rashtriya Uchhtar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) – National Higher Education
Mission is one of the ambitious projects developed by the Govt. of India just like
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA),
to boost Higher Education Sector in India.
✓ The RUSA aims to improve the quality of State Universities and colleges and
enhance their existing capacities so that they become dynamic, demand driven,

126
 quality conscious, efficient and forward looking and responsive to rapid economic
and technological developments occurring at the local, state, national and
international levels.
✓ The RUSA is envisaged as a prime vehicle for strategic funding of state institutions
so as to ensure that issues of access, equity and quality are addressed in an equitable
manner with the state as a composite unit of planning.
✓ Some of the guiding principles of RUSA are to focus on quality and research, norm-
based and outcome-dependent funding, apolitical decision making, autonomy,
disclosure-based governance, and equity-based development.

Do and Learn
❖ Visit the RUSA website and explore the provisions suggested there to reform India's
higher education system.

Self-Assessment
1. What are the constraints in achieving equality and quality of education in a
developing society like India?
2. Discuss in detail any five emerging issues that the Indian higher education system is
currently facing.
3. Discuss about RUSA and explain about its guiding principles.
4. What are the major provisions of RUSA?
5. Critically examine the role and functions of RUSA in boosting higher education in
India.

References and Suggested Readings

• All India Survey on Higher Education. (2018). 2017-18 annual status of higher
education report of the All India Survey on Higher Education. Retrieved from
https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics-new/AISHE2017-18.pdf
• Balu, A., & Rajkumar, P. (2015). RUSA-present higher education trends in India,
International Journal of Scientific Research, XI (4), 240-241.
• Bhattacharya, J., & Pal, P. (2016). Higher education in India: Recent issues and
trends, Research Journal of Educational Sciences, IV (1), 10-16.
• Dahal, M., &Behera, S.K. (2016). RUSA: Our Nation’s Dream, American Journal of
Educational Research, 11 (4), 828-833.doi: 10.12691/education4118.
• Kumar, A., & Ambrish. (2015). Higher education: Growth, challenges and
opportunities, International Journal of Arts, Humanities and Management Studies,
01 (02), 19-32.

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• MHRD RashtriyaUchchatarShikshaAbhiyan (RUSA): Draft Guidelines for
Consultation”, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt of India, 2013:
Retrieved from www.mhrd.gov.in/RUSA guidelines 30102013.pdf.
• Ministry of Human Resource Development. (2012). 2010-11 report to the people on
education of Ministry of Human Resource Development. Retrieved from
https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/document-reports/RPE-2010-
11.pdf
• Mitra, C.R. (2005). Higher education in changing scenarios. Samskriti Publication,
New Delhi.
• Pandiya, S. (2015). A study of the various provisions and challenges for RUSA,
International Journal of Human Potential Development, IV (2), 31-37.
• Patra, J.N. & Mete, J. (2016). RUSA: The roadmap and future of higher education
in India, International Journal of Human Potential Development, V (2), 21-26.
• Paul, S., & Singh, R. (2014). RUSA: The roadmap to revamping higher education in
India, Global Journal for Research Analysis, III (7), 79-80.
• Prakash, V. (2007). Trends in growth and financing of higher education in India,
Economic and Political Weekly, 42 (31), 3249-3258.
• Rambilas, (2015). The National Higher Education Mission (RUSA): Challenges and
prospects, International Journal of Innovative Social Science & Humanities
Research, II (3), 51-60.
• RashtriyaUchchatarShikshaAbhiyan (RUSA): National Higher Education Mission”,
University News, Vol. II, 51(39), 2013.
• Sahoo, R.K. (2021). Changing higher education scenario in India: Reflections on
some emerging challenges and redressal. In P. Arora, S. Sharma & Y.
Sharma, Synergizing educational concerns and social needs (1st ed., pp. 151-164).
New Delhi: Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) in association with
Macmillan Publishers.
• Sahu, A. & Jain, P. (2015). Impact of higher education system in India through
RUSA, Voice of Research, IV (2), 30-34.
• Shah, V. (2015). Rashtriya Uchchtar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA): A study,
International Scholarly Research Journal, XIV (3), 23-29.
• Sindhi, S. (2015). RUSA: A fresh hope for higher education in India, Eurasia
Reviewa Journal of Analysis and News.
• Singh, N.R., & Devi, M. (2014). Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)
Current higher education trends in Manipur, International Journal of Social Science
and Humanities Research, II (3), 57-71.
• Tilak, B.G. (2006). Private higher education: Philanthropy to profits. In Global
University Network for Innovation (GUNI) (Ed.), Higher Education in the World
2006: The Financing of Universities (pp. 113-121). United Kingdom: Palgrave
Macmillan Publications.

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 Lesson-10
QUALITY AND REGULATIONS IN HIGHER
EDUCATION: ROLE OF UGC AND NAAC
Bhageshwari Sharma

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Define “Higher Education” and understand its history in India.
• Explain how the element of “quality” in higher education is attained.
• Find out about the challenges of quality in higher education in India.
• Elaborate on the role of UGC and NAAC in checking or maintaining the quality of
higher education in India.

Introduction
“Higher Education” as the word suggests is the education that is more specialized or tertiary
education which is formally imparted in the centres of Higher education which are called
Universities. It encompasses diverse educational courses at graduation, post-graduation
Diverse vocational and technical courses are also offered in universities where students can
pursue their interests. The progress of an individual as well as the growth and development
of a counties’ economy is dependent on the status of higher education as it opens the doors
for better employment opportunities and better or upgraded skills of individuals. It
upgrades the productivity of individuals and hones their skills leading to their overall
growth and development.
History of Higher Education in India
Higher education has a long history in India. In ancient times it was provided in the form
of religious education as well as education of literature, mathematics, astrology, archery
and medicine. The Nalanda and Taxila university of the 5th century were some of the
renowned centres of higher education in those times. These universities attracted students
not only from all over the country but from far off countries like Korea, China, Burma (now
Myanmar), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Tibet and Nepal (UGC, 2020).
“The curriculum at Taksasila appears, to have included the Vedas and the Vedangas as also
the eighteen arts which comprised of medicine and surgery, astronomy and astrology,
agriculture and accountancy, archery and snake charming. Students at Nalanda often spent
as many as twelve years studying the Vedas and the Upanishads, the works of Mahayana
Buddhism and Jainism, the systems of philosophy and logic. Nalanda was a Buddhist centre

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but, the atmosphere and work of the institution appear to have been very similar to those
of the Hindu centres, with a close relationship of the teacher and pupil, with individual
instruction diversified by public discussions. Taksasila probably flourished as an
educational centre till the fifth century A.D. while Nalanda was destroyed towards the close
of the twelfth century. Vallabhi in Kathiawad and Kanchi in the south were great centres
of learning about the same time as Nalanda. We know much less about Vikramasila and
Odantapuri in Bihar, but Nadia in Bengal continues its traditions down to the present day.
Here the students specialised in logic and law and grammar were also studied.” (Report of
University Education Commission, 1949)
During medieval times there was a growth in the establishment of Muslim centres of higher
education or the Madarsas at places like Lahore, Delhi, Rampur, Lucknow, Allahabad,
Jaunpur, Ajmer and Bidar. Subjects of history, philosophy, Arabic and Persian literature
were taught. The curriculum of these institutions also included grammar, rhetoric, logic
and law, geometry and astronomy, natural philosophy, metaphysics and theology while
poetry was a source of pleasure to all.
Modern universities began getting set up with the advent of British Rule. “In the year 1835
Lord Macaulay, in his famous Macaulay minutes, advocated "efforts to make natives of the
country thoroughly good English scholars". Sir Charles Wood`s Dispatch of 1854,
famously known as the ` Magna Carta of English Education in India`, recommended
creating a properly articulated scheme of education from the primary school to the
university. It sought to encourage indigenous education and planned the formulation of a
coherent policy of education. Subsequently, the universities of Calcutta, Bombay (now
Mumbai) and Madras were set up in 1857, followed by the University of Allahabad in
1887” (UGC, 2020). A lot of focus was given to making the Indian natives well versed
with English literature and modern sciences.
“The Inter-University Board (later known as the Association of Indian Universities) was
established in 1925 to promote university activities, by sharing information and
cooperation in the field of education, culture, sports and allied areas (UGC, 2020) The first
attempt to formulate a national system of education in India came in 1944, with the Report
of the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) on Post War Educational
Development in India, also known as the Sargeant Report. It recommended the formation
of a University Grants Committee In 1947, the Committee was entrusted with the
responsibility of dealing with all the then existing Universities” (UGC, 2020). The Sargent
report also focused on the quality of university education, teachers training, adult
education, general education and vocational and technical education.
As India achieved independence the leaders and educational policymakers of the country
realized that attention is to be paid to the system of higher education. Several educational
commissions and governmental policies were framed to strengthen and reform higher
education and improve the quality of higher education and research. In the year 1948, the

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University Education Commission (UGC) was set up under the Chairmanship of then-
President, Dr Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan. The main objective of this commission was “to
report on Indian university education and suggest improvements and extensions that might
be desirable to suit the present and future needs and aspirations of the country”. (University
Education Commission Report, 1949). The UGC got the status of a statutory organisation
of the government of India with the passage of the UGC Act 1956. A statutory organisation
is a significant non-constitutional body that is set up by the parliament to fulfil important
functions. In India, both the Centre and the State look at the system of Higher Education.
The coordination and determination of standards in Universities and Colleges are entrusted
to the UGC and other statutory regulatory bodies.
One of the significant regulatory bodies which take care of the maintenance of standards
in higher education is the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) which
was established in the year 1994 as an autonomous institution of UGC. This was set up to
address the issue of “deterioration in the quality of education” which was the objective and
a recommendation of National Policy of Education, 1986. The Programme of Action
(POA) 1992 came up with a strategic plan to implement the education policies effectively
giving rise to the establishment of an independent national accreditation body which would
focus on the check of the quality of higher education in India.

Challenges of “Quality” in Higher Education

It is important to note here that several checks on higher education institutions are required
to be made from time to time to ensure that the ‘quality’ is maintained. The following are
some of the problems which affect the quality of higher education and pose serious
challenges-
Inadequate number of universities: Although several steps are being taken to set up new
universities in our country, but the number still continues to be low keeping in mind the
population of our country. Currently, we have around 795 universities which is 39 times
from 20 in 1950 (UGC Annual Report 2016-17). But still, our institutional capacity is quite
low. We have only 795 universities, as against the National Knowledge Commission
(NKC) recommendation of 1,500 (Sahoo, 2021).
Mushrooming of unrecognized institutions selling degrees: Another menace which is
creating major concerns of quality in higher education is the establishment and growth of
unrecognized and fake institutions. There institutions are devoid of any formal recognition
which is a quintessential criterion and most of them also do not comply with the criteria of
infrastructural needs, student-teacher ratio, attendance of students and teachers,
qualifications of teachers and many more. There is also a high risk of sudden closure of
these universities due to lack of any check or accountability. So, the degrees given by these
universities hold no value and many people face both financial and educational loss due to
such institutions.

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Unavailability of proper infrastructural facilities: Several institutions of higher
education in our country do not have proper infrastructure. They lack in adequate number
of classes. Some classes are very small in size and are unkempt; there is no proper light
and ventilation. Several institutions are also devoid of adequate space and basic facilities
of toilet and drinking water for the children. In such a scenario ICT based infrastructure
and special provisions of ramps, hand railings and special toilets for the differently able
continues to be completely neglected in many of the institutions.
No linkage between theory and practice: Marks centered teaching-learning with no
emphasis on establishing a link between theoretical knowledge and practical application of
the same. In many of the higher education institutions no emphasis is placed on effective
teaching and understanding of the concepts. Teachers become over dependent on textbooks
and encourage rote memorization of facts. In such a scenario students have no motivation
to critically understand the concepts and their practical application.
Unequal student teacher ratio: The unequal student-teacher ratio and overcrowding of
classes-leading to not paying proper attention to all students. In many of the institutions the
classes are overcrowded because of which teachers are not able to give proper attention to
all students and cater to individual needs. This often leads to improper teacher-learning and
also creates a lot of indiscipline in the classrooms.
Absence of interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches and lack of usage of
innovative ways of teaching-learning: This is another issue which makes students’
knowledge very static and incomplete as they are not able to relate the knowledge of one
subject with the others. Many institutions offer just the conventional courses and take no
efforts in including diverse disciplines or innovative ways of teaching-learning for the
students.
Giving low status to some subjects and streams and not including those subjects and
streams in the institutions: In some institutions of higher education some of the subjects
such as social sciences, arts, language and the vocational streams are not given an equal
status. These institutions propagate and promote the idea that only Maths and Sciences and
related fields are to be taken up by the students. This practice not only de-motivates the
students having interest in social-sciences, arts and vocational subjects but also kills a lot
of talent even before its fully developed.
Teacher absenteeism and lack of motivation to teach and upgrade their knowledge:
This is another major issue being faced in many institutions. A large number of teachers do
not take classes or don’t come to the institutions all together. The attendance is marked on
papers, but the reality is completely different. Such teachers do not respect their profession
and are completely deficient in motivation to teach effectively and contribute towards their
profession.

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Lack of proper content knowledge among the teachers: Many teachers are not proficient
with the knowledge of the content they are teaching. They take no efforts to brush up their
knowledge or get acquainted with the recent developments in their fields. Such teachers
are not able to do justice to their students.
Insecurity of tenure of non-permanent teachers, leading to lack of motivation to teach
effectively: In several higher education institutions all across the country, due to
unavailability of the jobs and resources the teachers are employed on contractual and non-
permanent basis. Many a times these teachers are given very low salaries, and this thereby
increases their stress and de-motivates them to teach effectively.
Unavailability of resources and funds for running the institutions effectively and
conducting good quality research: In order to run institutions a lot of resources and funds
are needed. In our country the availability of these is not evenly spread. Several institutions
are not able to function appropriately due to inadequacy of resources and funds.
In order to curb these problems, certain steps can be taken to attain a better quality in higher
education. These are explained in the next section.

Measures to Attain “Quality” in Higher Education in India

The quality of higher education is achieved when-
• The enrolment ratio in higher education is appropriate and students do not drop out
of their higher education institutions.
• The courses being offered are as per the changing times and needs of the society.
• The training of teachers is effective so that they can attain proper knowledge and
expertise to teach students at higher levels and do not feel demotivated to teach
effectively.
• Proper infrastructural facilities and learning resources such as books and journals
are available to the students so that teaching-learning can take place smoothly and
effectively.
• There are proper facilities for Research and training.
• Prevalence of an effective and transparent system of assessment and evaluation of
students.
• There is a system of exchange of knowledge both within the country and also with
the other countries so get exposed to the global educational trends and
developments and attain expertise.
• Proper finances are resources allocated for the higher education sector.
• There is a proper mechanism to review the functioning of higher education
institutions and there is a strict check to curb unrecognised institutions selling
degrees for money.

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 • The problems of student and teacher absenteeism, granting fake degrees and
certificates are dealt with strictly.
• Students and teachers are not discriminated against on any of the grounds such as
race, caste, religion, region, sex, gender, economic or social status etc.
• The evil practices of corporal punishments and ragging are completely curbed.
• The teaching pedagogy is as per the needs of the students and the course being
undertaken by them.
• Upgradation of the knowledge and skills or continuous professional development
of the teachers take place so that they can get proper exposure to the new pedagogic
techniques and tools and use the same in their classes.
• Scholarships are provided to students belonging to economically backwards classes
so that money doesn’t become an impediment in their pursuit of higher education.
• All disciplines are given equal status and weightage so that students belonging to
all the streams are able to benefit from the system of higher education.
• There is a proper balance between theory and practice so that students not only learn
the theoretical aspects of a subject but also learn about its practical application in
their lives.
It is significant to note here, that several governmental agencies and regulatory bodies are
set up to tackle the problems of quality in higher education and to improve the quality. For
instance, we have the NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) to improve the
quality of teacher education and to regulate the quality of teachers. The AICTE (All India
Council for Technical Education) is there to look at the facilities available for technical
education and promote development in the country. The CABE (Central Advisory Board
of Education) works as the highest advisory body working on several matters of education.
The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) is also there which an
autonomous body set is up by the government to focus on research and innovation.
Similarly, we have the regulatory bodies such as UGC and NAAC which perform the
functions of checking whether the higher education institutions are adhering to the quality
norms and standards.
In the next section, the role of UGC and NAAC is explained in detail.

Role of UGC in checking and maintaining the Quality in Higher

Education
The University Grants Commission plays a pivotal role in checking and maintaining the
Quality in Higher Education. As per the UGC Mandate - The UGC has the unique
distinction of being the only grant-giving agency in the country that has been vested with
two responsibilities 1. providing funds and 2. coordination, determination and maintenance

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of standards in institutions of higher education. The UGC Performs the following functions
for maintenance of standards of quality in higher education institutions-
• It regulates the central, state, deemed and private universities and also checks if any
fake universities or unrecognized institutions are operating in the country.
• Any deemed university gets its educational status only with the advice of the UGC
under section 3 of UGC Act.
• Private universities are approved by the UGC.
• UGC along with the CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research)
conducted NET (National Eligibility Test) for the appointment of teachers in higher
education institutions and ensure that their content knowledge and teaching skills
are appropriate to teach students effectively.
• UGC advice the Central and State governments on the measures necessary for the
improvement of university education. It serves as a vital link between the Union
and state governments and institutions of higher learning.
• UGC Frames the regulations on minimum standards of education.
• It plays the function of determining and maintaining standards of teaching,
examination and research in universities.

Role of NAAC in checking and maintaining the Quality in Higher

Education
The National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) conducts assessment
and accreditation of Higher Educational Institutions (HEI) such as colleges, universities or
other recognised institutions to derive an understanding of the ‘Quality Status’ of the
institution. It adheres to a ‘value framework’ to promote some of the significant core values
among the higher education institutions of the country. These core values are –
1. Contributing to National Development
2. Fostering Global Competencies among Students
3. Inculcating a Value System among Students
4. Promoting the Use of Technology
5. Quest for Excellence

If higher education institution function keeping in mind these core values then they can
undoubtedly have good equality of education. It is also important that there is a continuous
review of the functioning of these institutions to check whether the quality standards are
being maintained and steps are being taken to provide good educational standards to the

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students. In order to evaluate the functioning of the institutions, the NAAC conducts an
evaluation of the institutions and looks at their quality aspects in terms of -

• Educational Processes and Outcomes

• Curriculum Coverage
• Teaching-Learning Processes
• Faculty
• Research
• Infrastructure
• Learning Resources
• Organisation and Governance,
• Financial Wellbeing and
• Student Services.
NAAC arranges for periodic assessment and accreditation of institutions of higher
education or units thereof, or specific academic programmes or projects. It also encourages
self-evaluation of institutions so that the institutions also come to know about their flaws
(if, any) and work for better their functioning. NAAC aims at inculcating a value system in
students so that they can preserve and promote democratic values and national integration.
The elements of self-evaluation, accountability, autonomy and innovations in higher
education are given emphasis by NAAC. It pays emphasis on fostering global competencies
among Students and it promotes the usage of technology.
To achieve this NAAC encourages institutions to undertake quality-related research
studies, consultancy and training programmes, and to collaborate with other stakeholders
of higher education for quality evaluation, promotion and sustenance. NAAC also conducts
workshops, training programmes, seminars etc. and comes out with publications to raise
awareness regarding quality maintenance of higher education institutions and their
involvement in best practices. As per the document titled “Best Practices in Higher
Education for Quality Management” authored by Prof, VS Prasad, Retd. Director of
NAAC, Published by NAAC-
“Best practices are the practices which add commendable value to an institution and its
various stakeholders. These are considered as reliable benchmarks or standards of quality.”
To put it differently, institutional excellence in higher education is the aggregate of the best
practices followed in different areas of institutional performance. The National Assessment
and Accreditation Council (NAAC) is advocating the best practices benchmarking
approach for quality enhancement in higher education. This is a systematic means of
measuring and comparing the work processes of an organization with those of others. It is
widely used in industry and the service sector for quality measurement and improvement.

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The prevailing quality management systems in higher education also can benefit from this
tool. The best practices as benchmarks help institutions to find their anchor for self-
improvement.
The overall purpose and intent of the Best Practices benchmarking is the development of
an understanding of the fundamentals that lead to success, focus on continuous
improvement efforts, and management of the overall change process to close the gap
between an existing practice of the institution and that of the best-in-class institutions with
reference to the most relevant key performance variables” (Prasad, 2008).
Thus, in sum, it can be said that the UGC and NAAC are two significant bodies that are
working for the maintenance and growth of quality standards in higher education.

Conclusion
To conclude, it can be said that in order to make our country develop and prosper we need
to take special steps to upgrade the quality of the education sector. Stringent steps are
required to be taken to deal with the problems of inadequate access to higher education by
the students and to make them motivated to learn and upgrade their knowledge and skills.
To make this goal achievable we need to improve the condition of higher education
institutions in our country. It is significant to note here that in our country we have the two
vital bodies of UGC and NAAC that are already working for the maintenance and growth
of quality standards in higher education.

Chapter at a Glance
✓ “Higher Education” as the word suggests, the education that is more specialized or
tertiary education which is formally imparted in the centres of higher education which
are called Universities.
✓ The progress of an individual as well as the growth and development of a counties’
economy is dependent on the status of higher education as it opens the doors for better
employment opportunities and better or upgraded skills of individuals. It upgrades
the productivity of individuals and hones their skills leading to their overall growth
and development.
✓ As India achieved independence, the leaders and educational policymakers of the
country realized that attention is to be paid to the system of higher education. Several
educational commissions and governmental policies were framed to strengthen and
reform higher education and improve the quality of higher education and research.
✓ In the year 1948, the University Education Commission (UGC) was set up under the
Chairmanship of then President, Dr Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan. The main objective of
this commission was to report on Indian university education and suggest

137
 improvements and extensions that might be desirable to suit the present and future
needs and aspirations of the country.
✓ The UGC got the status of a statutory organisation of the government of India with
the passage of the UGC Act 1956.
✓ One of the significant regulatory bodies which take care of the maintenance of
standards in higher education is the National Assessment and Accreditation Council
(NAAC) which was established in the year 1994 as an autonomous institution of
UGC.
✓ It is important to note that several checks on higher education institutions are required
to be made from time to time to ensure that the ‘quality’ is maintained.
✓ Some of the problems which affect the quality of higher education and pose serious
challenges are-mushrooming of unrecognized institutions selling degrees,
unavailability of proper infrastructural facilities, unequal student-teacher ratio,
giving low status to some subjects and streams and not including those in the
institutions, teacher absenteeism and lack of proper content knowledge, insecurity of
tenure of non-permanent teachers, unavailability of resources and funds for running
the institutions effectively and conducting good quality research.
✓ The regulatory bodies such as UGC and NAAC perform the functions of checking
whether the higher education institutions are adhering to the quality norms. The UGC
has the unique distinction of being the only grant-giving agency in the country that
has been vested with two responsibilities 1. providing funds and 2. coordination,
determination, and maintenance of standards in institutions of higher education.
✓ The NAAC conducts assessment and accreditation of Higher Educational Institutions
(HEI) such as colleges, universities or other recognised institutions to derive an
understanding of the ‘Quality Status’ of the institution. It adheres to a ‘value
framework’ to promote some of the significant core values among the higher
education institutions of the country.
✓ NAAC arranges for periodic assessment and accreditation of institutions of higher
education or units thereof, or specific academic programmes or projects. It also
encourages self-evaluation of institutions so that the institutions also come to know
about their flaws (if, any) and work for better their functioning.

Do and Learn
❖ Find out the names of universities that were identified as “fake universities” by the
UGC recently.
❖ Explore what all steps are taken by your university to achieve “quality standards.”

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Self-Assessment
1. What do you mean by - “quality in education”? What all steps are taken to regulate
the quality standards in higher education?
2. Write short notes on-
• History of UGC in India
• Core Values of NAAC
3. What are the challenges of quality in higher education?
4. Suggest some steps which can be taken by teachers to attain good quality standards
in higher education institutions.

References and Suggested Readings

• University Grants commission: Mandate. (n.d.). Retrieved February 12, 2022, from
https://www.ugc.ac.in/page/mandate.aspx
• Department of Higher Education | Government of India, Ministry of Education.
(2021, February https://www.education.gov.in/en/university-and-higher-education
• Hansen, M. (2018, March 27). Higher education needs dusting off for the 21st
century. World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/03/make-
higher-education-skills-relevant-for-students/
• Patel, K. D. (2021, July 10). Building blocks of learning. The Hindu.
https://www.thehindu.com/education/what-are-cognitive-skills-and-why-are-they-
essential-for-our-functioning/article35247901.ece
• Sahoo, R.K. (2021). Changing higher education scenario in India: Reflections on
some emerging challenges and redressal. In P. Arora, S. Sharma & Y.
Sharma, Synergizing educational concerns and social needs (1st ed., pp. 151-164).
New Delhi: Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) in association with
Macmillan Publishers.
• What are the different types of universities in India? (n.d.). The Economic Times.
Retrieved February 12, 2022, from https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/what-are-
the-different-types-of-universities-in-india/articleshow/1510954.cms

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 Lesson-11
TYPES OF UNIVERSITIES: CENTRAL, STATE,
PRIVATE, OPEN AND DEEMED
Bhageshwari Sharma

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Understand the background and history of University Education in India.
• Define central, state, private, open and deemed universities in India.
• Find out about some of the acts of parliament related to higher education in India.
• Elaborate on some significant government initiatives to reform university education
in India.
• Analyze the differences in central, state, private, open and deemed universities.

Introduction
Education is a process and an experience that nurtures and brings out the best in a human
being. The significance being given to Education and the diversification in the field of
education is a phenomenon that is progressing with time. As human society developed, it
was also realized that human beings are required to acquire the knowledge of certain skills,
values and dispositions to become a member of society. Human beings were also required
to make their contribution to the growth and maintenance of the societal setup and to earn
a living (Sharma, 2020). With this realization, came the understanding that Education plays
a key role in making individuals fit to become a member of society and also become self-
reliant.
There are several agencies of education starting from the family which helps in making a
child acquire the Education which is informal in nature and makes her/him accustomed to
the family and societal customs and values. This kind of education is also fostered with the
help of civil society and the media. Then comes the educational institutions where formal
education is provided. This education is required for attaining a formal degree or
certification. With this education, an individual is able to acquire theoretical knowledge
and practical skills which thereby helps in the overall development of the individual and
makes her/him able to earn a living.
If we look at the formal education which is provided in the educational institutions, then
three broad categories or levels emerge - i.e., primary education, secondary education and
higher education.

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Primary Education is the first step for a child to initiate her/ his formal educational journey
at the age of 6 -14 years. Then comes Secondary education, which leads to helping a child
belonging to the age group of 14-18 years gain more specialized knowledge and also get
an understanding of her/ his potential and interests. It prepares an individual for taking up
Higher education in their areas of interest. Primary and secondary education is provided
formally in Schools where students complete their education up to class 12th. The centres
of Higher education on the other hand are called Universities. These are centres of formal
education where diverse educational programmes are offered and d and degrees/
certificates/ diplomas are awarded for the course which is undertaken. Universities provide
graduate, post-graduate and doctoral studies. Diverse vocational and technical courses are
also offered in universities where students can pursue their interests.
As per the UGC Act 1956- “In India, "University" means a university established or
incorporated by or under a Central Act, a Provincial Act or a State Act and includes any
such institution as may, in consultation with the University concerned, be recognised by
the University Grants Commission (UGC).”
“At present, in our country, there are 47 central universities, 360 state universities, 262
state private universities, 123 deemed to be universities, 102 institutes of national
importance, 3 institutions under the Special State Legislature Act, and 42,338 colleges
functioning in India (p. 74). The number of universities has increased 39 times from 20 in
1950 to 795 in 2017 but despite all this, our institutional capacity is still low. We have only
795 universities, as against the National Knowledge Commission (NKC) recommendation
of 1,500” (Sahoo, 2021).

Sl. No Types of University/Institutions No of Universities/Institutions

1 Central University 47

2 State University 360

3 State Private University 262

4 Deemed University 123

5 Institute of National Importance 101

6 Institutions Establish Through State 03

Legislation

7 Colleges 42,338

(Source: UGC Annual Report 2016-17 as cited in Sahoo,2021)

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History of University Education in India
University education has a long history in India. Universities in ancient times provided
religious education as well as education of literature, mathematics, astrology, archery and
medicine. The Nalanda and Taxila university of the 5th century were some of the renowned
centres of higher education in those times. These universities attracted students not only
from all over the country but from far off countries like Korea, China, Burma (now
Myanmar), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Tibet and Nepal (UGC, 2020).
“The curriculum at Taksasila appears, to have included the Vedas and the Vedangas as also
the eighteen arts which comprised of medicine and surgery, astronomy and astrology,
agriculture and accountancy, archery and snake charming. Students at Nalanda often spent
as many as twelve years studying the Vedas and the Upanishads, the works of Mahayana
Buddhism and Jainism, the systems of philosophy and logic. Nalanda was a Buddhist centre
but, the atmosphere and work of the institution appear to have been very similar to those
of the Hindu centres, with a close relationship of the teacher and pupil, with individual
instruction diversified by public discussions. Taksasila probably flourished as an
educational centre till the fifth century A.D. while Nalanda was destroyed towards the close
of the twelfth century. Vallabhi in Kathiawad and Kanchi in the south were great centres
of learning about the same time as Nalanda. We know much less about Vikramasila and
Odantapuri in Bihar, but Nadia in Bengal continues its traditions down to the present day.
Here the students specialised in logic and law and grammar were also studied.” (Report of
University Education Commission, 1949)
During medieval times there was a growth in the establishment of Muslim centres of higher
education or the Madarsas at places like Lahore, Delhi, Rampur, Lucknow, Allahabad,
Jaunpur, Ajmer and Bidar. Subjects of history, philosophy, Arabic and Persian literature
were taught. The curriculum of these institutions also included grammar, rhetoric, logic
and law, geometry and astronomy, natural philosophy, metaphysics and theology while
poetry was a source of pleasure to all.
“The modern universities began getting set up with the advent of the British Rule. “In the
year 1835 Lord Macaulay, in his famous Macaulay minutes, advocated "efforts to make
natives of the country thoroughly good English scholars". Sir Charles Wood`s Dispatch of
1854, famously known as the ` Magna Carta of English Education in India`, recommended
creating a properly articulated scheme of education from the primary school to the
university. It sought to encourage indigenous education and planned the formulation of a
coherent policy of education. Subsequently, the universities of Calcutta, Bombay (now
Mumbai) and Madras were set up in 1857, followed by the University of Allahabad in
1887” (UGC, 2020). A lot of focus was given to making the Indian natives well versed
with English literature and modern sciences.

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“The Inter-University Board (later known as the Association of Indian Universities) was
established in 1925 to promote university activities, by sharing information and
cooperation in the field of education, culture, sports and allied areas (UGC, 2020)The first
attempt to formulate a national system of education in India came In 1944, with the Report
of the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) on Post War Educational
Development in India, also known as the Sargeant Report. It recommended the formation
of a University Grants Committee In 1947, the Committee was entrusted with the
responsibility of dealing with all the then existing Universities” (UGC, 2020). The Sargent
report also focused on the quality of university education, teachers training, adult
education, general education and vocational and technical education.
As India achieved independence the leaders and educational policymakers of the country
realized that attention is to be paid to the system of university education. Several
educational commissions and governmental policies were framed to strengthen and reform
higher education and improve the quality of higher education and research. In the year
1948, the University Education Commission (UGC) was set up under the Chairmanship of
then-President, Dr Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan. The main objective of this commission was
"to report on Indian university education and suggest improvements and extensions that
might be desirable to suit the present and future needs and aspirations of the country".
(University Education Commission Report, 1949). The UGC got the status of a statutory
organisation of the government of India with the passage of the UGC Act 1956. A statutory
organisation is a significant non-constitutional body that is set up by the parliament to fulfil
important functions. In India, both the Centre and the State look at the system of Higher
Education The coordination and determination of standards in Universities and Colleges
are entrusted to the UGC and other statutory regulatory bodies.
Initially, up to the year1857 three major universities were set up – The Calcutta University,
the University of Bombay and the University of Madras and with growing needs demands
for opening up of new or expansion of existing universities was put forward. Independent
colleges affiliated with the universities also began opening up with entrance examinations
as the criteria of admission. In the year 1882, another significant education commission -
known as the Indian Education Commission or the Hunter Commission emerged. It was
presided by Sir William Hunter and this commission also gave special emphasis on
university education and focused on areas such as formulation of new regulations on
scholarships, altering of rules for taking up government jobs, gradual withdrawal of
government from direct enterprise in secondary education and providing grants in aid by
the government to other private institutions. This commission also recommended having a
varied and vast curriculum that could match the changing times and needs. In the year 1902,
another university commission was formulated to study the condition of the colleges and
come up with suggestions if needed. As time passed by several independent colleges and

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institutions also opened up without the backing of the university and new universities also
came up. It is significant to note here that the progress and development in university
education were taking place with a lot of socio-political happenings which were taking
place during those times, and they had a direct impact on the system of university
education.

Types of Universities in India

As per the report of AISHE (All India Survey of Higher Education, 2020) The higher
education institutions have been classified in the following 3 broad categories
1. University and University Level Institutions i.e., the Institutions which are
empowered to award degrees under some Act of Parliament or State Legislature.
2. Colleges/Institutions which are not empowered to provide degrees in their own
name and therefore are affiliated/recognized with universities.
3. Stand-alone Institutions (not affiliated with universities) are not empowered to
provide degrees and therefore run Diploma Level Programmes (AISHE, 2020).
These Institutions are mainly run by the Private sector (76.2%); Private unaided –
67.1% and Private aided – 9.1%. Only 23.8% of Institutions are in the Government
sector. 56.1% of Institutions are located in Rural Area (AISHE, 2020).
The universities in India are further divided into mainly five types, namely- central
universities, state universities, private universities, open universities and deemed
universities. The basic features of these are elaborated as under:
Central University
A central university is also known as a union university is an institution of higher education
that has been set up by an act of Parliament.
At present, there are around 50 central universities in the country. The President of India is
a visitor at all central universities. The University Grants Commission (UGC) is the agency
that provides funding for the maintenance and development of these universities. The
University of Delhi, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Jamia Milia Islamia, Banaras Hindu
University, Manipur University are the names of some of the state universities in India.
State Universities
As the name suggests “state universities” are those universities that are set up and run by
the state governments of the respective states of India. There are around 438 state
universities in India. Three of the country’s oldest institutions of higher learning, the
University of Calcutta, the University of Madras, and the University of Mumbai are state
universities.

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State governments are responsible for the establishment of state universities and provide
grants for their development and for their maintenance.
Private Universities
Private universities are the institutions of higher learning which are established through a
central or state act by a sponsoring body such as a society registered under the Societies
Registration Act, 1860, or any other corresponding law for the time being in force in a state
or a public trust or a company registered under Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956.
These universities are given their status as a university by the state legislature with the
passing of an act. The recognition given by UGC is also important to add value to the
degrees that these universities award. Some famous private universities of India are
IGNOU in New Delhi, The Birla Institute of Technology and Science at Pilani in Rajasthan,
Amity University with its campus situated in different states of the country (The Economic
Times, 2006)
Open Universities
The word “open” in terms of an educational institution has a connotation of being
“accessible” and “flexible”. The students who are enrolled in these universities are not
required to adhere to a rigid structure in terms of admissions and attendance. The student
can be staying in one state and can be simultaneously taking up a course in an open
university situated in some other states through distance mode. These universities also
adhere to a proper examination/ assessment system and grant degrees, diplomas and
certificates for the various courses which are offered by them. They also provide students
with well-planned reading material and offline and online teacher assistance. Many of the
open universities also provide the facility of regular classes at their regional centres, sub-
regional centres and study centres situated in different regions. In India, we have national
open universities such as the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) which is a
central open university run by the central government of India.
IGNOU: The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) was established by an
Act of Parliament in 1985.This university offers courses through the Open and Distance
Learning (ODL) mode. The contribution of IGNOU to the field of higher education is
immense. The mandate of IGNOU is to provide high quality education, skill up gradation
and research facilities to students belonging to all segments of the society. Over the years,
IGNOU has lived up to the country’s expectations of providing education to the
marginalised sections of society. Free of cost education is being provided to all jail inmates
across the country. A large number of SC/ST students have been admitted to various
programmes of the University, also efforts have been made to reach onto persons working
in the Armed and Security Forces of the Country (IGNOU, 2022). IGNOU has also
developed the National Centre for Disability Studies and National Centre for Innovation in

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Distance Education, to focus on specific learner groups and enrich the distance learning
system.
“The University began by offering two academic programmes in 1987, i.e., Diploma in
Management and Diploma in Distance Education, with a strength of 4,528 students. Today,
it serves the educational aspirations of over 3 million students in India and other countries
through 21 Schools of Studies and a network of 67 Regional Centres, around 2,000 Learner
Support Centres and 20 overseas institutions. The University offers about 200 certificate,
diploma, degree and doctoral programmes” (IGNOU, 2022). It is also significant to note
here that with the launch of EduSat (a satellite dedicated only to education) on 20th
September 2004, and the establishment of the Inter-University Consortium or an
association, the University has ushered in a new era of technology-enabled education in the
country (IGNOU,2022).
State Open Universities
In our country, we also have State open universities (SOUs) which are set up by the
respective state grants. Some of them are Vardhman Mahaveer Open University (VMOU),
Kota, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh Bhoj Open University (MPBOU), Bhopal, M.P. Odisha
State Open University, Odisha.
As per the Department of higher education, MHRD, Government of India- State Open
universities are “single-mode institutions, which means they provide education only in the
distance mode. These universities cater to people who are unable to pursue regular courses
due to various reasons. These Universities are also instrumental in shaping the career
growth of learner who is already employed” (MHRD, 2022).
The open universities in India are regulated by the Distance Education Council of India
(DEC) which looks at the funding and grants in aid as well as the quality regulation of these
universities.
It is important to note here that in addition to Central Open Universities, State Open
Universities and State Private Open Universities we also have Dual-mode Universities,
which offer education through both regular and distance modes also. In India, we have
about 110 Dual-mode Universities which are located in different states (AISHE, 2022).
Deemed Universities
Deemed universities are the institutions of higher learning, which have been granted the
status of a university because of their high calibre and huge contribution in the field of
higher education. Deemed universities are government, government aided and private. The
status of these universities is also accorded by the UGC, under Section 3 of the UGC Act.
“The Deemed university status of these universities enables not just full autonomy in
setting course work and syllabus of those institutes and research centres but also allows it

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to set its guidelines for the admissions, fees and instruction of the students. As in other
universities, students are conferred degrees on completion of their programme. As per the
AISHE survey of 2019-20 there are about 126 deemed universities in the country.”
(AISHE, 2020). Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies, Indian Institute of
Science, National Institute of Education Planning and Administration (NIEPA), TERI
School of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management,
are deemed universities.
NIEPA: NIEPA is a The National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
(NIEPA), (Deemed to be University) established by the Ministry of Human Resource
Development, Government of India. “This was established in the year 1962 when the
UNESCO established the Asian Regional Centre for Educational Planners and
Administrators which later became the Asian Institute of Educational Planning and
Administration in 1965. After 4 years of its existence, it was taken over by the Government
of India and renamed as the National Staff College for Educational Planners and
Administrators. Subsequently, with the increased roles and functions of the National Staff
College, particularly in capacity building, research and professional support services to
governments, it was again renamed as the National Institute of Educational Planning and
Administration (NIEPA) in 1979” (NIEPA, 2014).
NIEPA is a premier organization dealing with capacity building and research in planning
and management of education not only in India but also in South Asia.
In recognition of the pioneering work done by the organization in the field of educational
planning and administration, the Government of India has empowered NIEPA to award its
own degrees by way of conferring it the status of Deemed to be University in August 2006.
Like any Central University, NIEPA is fully maintained by the Government of India.

Conclusion
The institutions of higher education or the Universities in India have been set up keeping
in mind the diverse needs of the learners. The universities have been set up with the
objective of making higher education accessible to all. The flexible structure of universities
in India makes it possible to have five different types of universities i.e. - Central, State,
Private, Open and Deemed. It is worth mentioning here that as per the changing dynamics
of the society and the changing times and needs of the learners, the government keeps on
reforming the existing policies and coming up with new policies and schemes in terms of
grants, admissions, courses offered and quality and access so as to strengthen the system
of university education in India.

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Chapter at a Glance
✓ The centers of Higher education are called Universities. These are centers of formal
education where diverse educational programmes are offered and degrees/
certificates/ diplomas are awarded for the course which is undertaken. Universities
provide graduate, post-graduate and doctoral studies. Diverse vocational and
technical courses are also offered in universities where students can pursue their
interests.
✓ The Nalanda and Taxila university of the 5th century were some of the renowned
centres of higher education in ancient times.
✓ A central university is an institution of higher education that has been set up by an
act of Parliament.
✓ The President of India is a visitor at all central universities. The University Grants
Commission (UGC) is the agency that provides funding for the maintenance and
development of these universities.
✓ The University of Delhi, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Jamia Milia Islamia, Banaras
Hindu University, Manipur University are the names of some of the state universities
in India.
✓ As the name suggests “state universities” are those universities that are set up and
run by the state governments of the respective states of India. State governments are
responsible for the establishment of state universities and provide grants for their
development and for their maintenance.
✓ Private universities are the institutions of higher learning which are established
through a central or state act by a sponsoring body such as a society registered under
the Societies Registration Act, 1860, or any other corresponding law for the time
being in force in a state or a public trust or a company registered under Section 25 of
the Companies Act, 1956.
✓ Private universities are given their status as a university by the state legislature with
the passing of an act. The recognition given by UGC is also important to add value
to the degrees that these universities award.
✓ The word “open” in terms of an educational institution has a connotation of being
“accessible” and “flexible”. The students who are enrolled in these universities are
not required to adhere to a rigid structure in terms of admissions and attendance. The
student can be staying in one state and can be simultaneously taking up a course in
an open university situated in some other states through distance mode.
✓ Open universities also adhere to a proper examination/ assessment system and grant
degrees, diplomas and certificates for the various courses which are offered by them.

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 ✓ In India, we have national open universities such as the Indira Gandhi National Open
University (IGNOU) which is a central open university run by the central government
of India. We also have State open universities (SOUs) which are set up by the
respective state grants. Some of them are Vardhman Mahaveer Open University
(VMOU), Kota, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh Bhoj Open University (MPBOU),
Bhopal, M.P. Odisha State Open University, Odisha.
✓ The open universities in India are regulated by the Distance Education Council of
India (DEC) which looks at the funding and grants in aid as well as the quality
regulation of these universities.
✓ Deemed universities are the institutions of higher learning, which have been granted
the status of a university because of their high caliber and huge contribution in the
field of higher education. The status of these universities is also accorded by the
UGC, under Section 3 of the UGC Act.

Do and Learn
❖ Make use of various online and offline resources to find out the history of your
university.
❖ Select any one Open University and make a list of courses offered by it also find out
the criteria of admission and assessment in that university.

Self-Assessment
1. Define the term “University” also mention the names of a few courses offered in
universities.
2. Write a short note on the history of university education in India.
3. What is the name of the commission which gives recognition as a university to an
institution of higher education?
4. What is the difference between central and state universities?
5. Which universities are established through a central or state act by a sponsoring
body?
6. Name a few central, state, open, private and deemed universities of India.
7. What do you mean by the term “deemed university”?
8. What are the significant features of open universities?

References and Suggested Readings

• All India Survey on Higher Education. (2018). 2017-18 annual status of higher
education report of the All India Survey on Higher Education. Retrieved January 22,

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 2019, from https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics-new/
AISHE2017-18.pdf
• Department of Higher Education | Government of India, Ministry of Education. (2021,
February https://www.education.gov.in/en/university-and-higher-education
• Hansen, M. (2018, March 27). Higher education needs dusting off for the 21st century.
World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/03/make-higher-
education-skills-relevant-for-students/
• University Grants commission : Mandate. (n.d.). Retrieved February 12, 2022, from
https://www.ugc.ac.in/page/mandate.aspx
• University Grant Commission. (2017). 2016-17 annual report of the University Grant
Commission. Retrieved January 22, 2019, from https://www.ugc.ac.in/
pdfnews/9764381_Complete-AR-2016-17-English.pdf
• Mee, S. (1992). Open Universities: An Asian Perspective. ISEAS.
• Patel, K. D. (2021, July 10). Building blocks of learning. The Hindu.
https://www.thehindu.com/education/what-are-cognitive-skills-and-why-are-they-
essential-for-our-functioning/article35247901.ece
• Sahoo, R.K. (2021). Changing higher education scenario in India: Reflections on some
emerging challenges and redressal. In P. Arora, S. Sharma & Y. Sharma, Synergizing
educational concerns and social needs (1st ed., pp. 151-164). New Delhi: Indian Council
of Social Science Research (ICSSR) in association with Macmillan Publishers.
• What are the different types of universities in India? (n.d.). The Economic Times.
Retrieved February 12, 2022, from https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/what-are-the-
different-types-of-universities-in-india/articleshow/1510954.cms
• National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration—Home. (n.d.). Retrieved
March 22, 2022, from http://www.niepa.ac.in/
• Profile of IGNOU - Preamble. (2021, January). http://ignou.ac.in/ignou/aboutignou/
profile/2

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 Lesson-12
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES: ROLE OF THE GLOBAL
MARKET AND GATS IN EDUCATION
Chandan Shrivastava

Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson, learners will be able to:
• Understand the emerging trends in the Indian Higher Education system.
• Explain the significance of education in the knowledge economy.
• Understand the influence of global changes and its effects on education in India.
• Understand the role of GATS in educational services.
• Understand the basic regulations and provisions of GATS about education.
• Highlight the potential impact of trade liberalization on higher education.
• Understand the significance of distance and collaborative education.
Introduction
Due to Information and Communication Technology Revolution, there has been a rapid
and phenomenal increase in the interaction between communities, polities, and societies in
today’s world. Our Indian social system is also going through massive change to meet the
needs of modern world. The society has different subsystems and Education is one of them.
It is evident that with the changing time, Education has transformed itself to meet the
demands of the society. Under the influence of social needs, priorities in the realm of
education have witnessed major shifts from time to time. From the emphasis in ancient
times on the humanities as a source of culture to the Post-Renaissance emphasis on science
and economics to the twentieth-century focus on technology and management, the course
of higher education has undergone a tremendous change. In this lesson, we will try to
understand the influence of changing world scenario and the emerging trends in the Indian
Higher Education system.

Global Changes: Effects on Education in India

We have, as a nation, accepted liberalization as an instrument of our economic policy. It
follows that our markets are now open, and that our domestic products have to compete
with those of the global economy for a share even in our own neighborhood market. In the
globalized economy, the competence of our manpower and the quality of our products has
to meet international standards. In preparing ourselves for the task, no other system of the
society has as crucial a role to play as education. As for the demand we can see, there are

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several global trends in growth pattern of higher education. Most significant can be seen
as: the transition from elite to mass and then to universal higher education, the emergence
of the private sector provision and the convergence of different technologies that opens
new avenues to distribute knowledge and to engage larger student audience. These trends,
along with shifting demographics, are resulting in internationalization of higher education.
It is changing the relationship between the institutions, the government, and its regulatory
arms.
With growing student mobility and the increasing demand in the global labor market for
the highly skilled, higher education has now gone international. With the entry of a large
number of private and foreign providers, there is intense competition in higher education.
Providers are numerous and more diverse. Students and academics now have the choice to
opt for the best deal.
While the discussion here suggests that the higher education landscape has significantly
changed over the years, yet it must be understood that some of the basic issues have
remained the same. Its implications are seen in financing, management, and other aspects
of higher education. Higher education is rapidly becoming an international commodity.
Problems of structures, costs, continuing education, and students’ involvement are of great
interest to us also.
Related to the explosion of knowledge and technology is the phenomenon of globalization
which has brought modern societies so close to each other that nations have come to be
viewed as markets of business and commerce or math for the exchange of information and
technology governed by the logic of competition among individual sellers of knowledge or
technology as well as among organized corporations or companies. This phenomenon has
introduced a spirit of uncertainty and mistrust among individuals, and we remain burdened
with anxiety and aggressiveness, strain and tension bordering on nervousness and paranoia.
The entire educational scenario is strongly vitiated today by this unhealthy spirit of cut-
throat competition and the loads of anxiety and tension which go with it. The entire process
of imparting education is distinguished today by preparing young boys and girls for a global
competitiveness in one or another area of specialization, in one or another professional
occupation, or in one or another branch of market economy.
It can also be seen that the amount of knowledge to be mastered by the individual mind is
so vast today that beyond merely accumulating it in memory like material goods in store
one is not required to relate it to the larger question of human values which determine the
moral status of man and the culture of a society. Here, the whole exercise gets reduced to
a gathering of information and finding its applications for the material development of
society. With the mounting pressure of numbers seeking higher education in societies on
account of increasing population, adoption of the mode of distance education has become
quite convenient and attractive because here education as information is easily managed
through new electronic and satellite technologies of imparting information to students

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scattered in distant lands. More and more open schools and universities and more and more
distance education departments in the residential universities have contributed to the
continuous process of growth in the field of education. Had our view of education not
changed from development of personality to a mere appropriation of information, this
adoption of distance education could not have been so prompt. Today, more students are
receiving education through a few open universities than through thousands of
conventional universities all over the world.
Moreover, higher education everywhere is in such a dynamic state that one cannot get
information on all aspects of its growth through national resources alone; an emphasis has
to be given to international aspects. With our limited resources, the problem of costs and
benefits is of special interest to us, and it is time that our economists and educationists
study this problem in all its implications in the context of economic, social, political, and
financial conditions in our country. We certainly have to optimist the use of our resources.

Role of GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Session) in Educational

Services: Universities and Implications for funding
The entry and operation of foreign providers has also been subject matter of debate in the
context of ongoing negotiations under the General Agreement on Trade in Services
(GATS). While cross-border activities in higher education have been there for a long time,
these are described in terms of commercial trade only recently. Under the GATS, education
is one of the 12 service sectors identified to be liberalized. Within the education services
there are five sub-sectors: primary, secondary, higher, adult and others under education
services. Since most of the cross-border activities take place in higher education, the focus
of liberalization to promote further trade is on higher education. GATS has identified the
following modes in which all services can be traded:
• Mode 1: Cross Border Supply (programme mobility) of a service to consumer
country without the supplier. The services are transmitted via internet,
telecommunications, or mail (e.g., open and distance education).
• Mode 2: Consumption Abroad (student mobility) of service by consumers
travelling to supplier country (e.g., students studying abroad, tourists visiting
another country, patients travelling for medical treatment abroad, tourists visiting
another country, patients travelling for medical treatment abroad)
• Mode 3: Commercial Presence (institution mobility) of a supplier in consumer
country. It is through the establishment of branch offices or agencies to deliver such
services (e.g., offshore foreign universities, banking services, legal advice)
• Mode 4: Movement of Natural Persons (academic mobility) from supplying
country in consuming country (e.g., professors, researchers working outside their
home country)

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 Source: Knight, 2002
Under the GATS, it is presumed that there are barriers that prevent trade. These barriers
could be either tariff or non-tariff barriers. In the services sectors, there are mostly non-
tariff barriers. These could be in the form of immigration requirements, foreign currency
controls, or non-recognition of degrees obtained abroad into national equivalent. Mutual
recognition of qualifications is important not only in educational services, but also in
professional services. Thus, clauses relating to mutual recognition of qualifications often
find mention in many multilateral, regional and bilateral agreements. However, giving
effect to such mutual recognition agreements is not easy. The diversity of academic
structures and variety of academic institutions, their recognition, accreditation, and
approval processes are very complicated (WTO, 1998).
It is seen that trading conditions in modes 1, 2 and 4 are not seriously impaired or restrained
by governmental measures in higher education. There are, however, many restrictions on

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trade in mode 3. These include the inability to obtain national licenses (that is, to be
recognized as a degree or certificate granting educational institution), measure limiting
direct investment by foreign education providers (that is, equity ceilings,), nationality
requirements, needs tests, restrictions on recruiting foreign teacher, and the existence of
government monopolies and high subsidization of local institution. Thus, liberalization of
higher education under the GATS negotiations is focused on mode 3.
The role and scope of liberalization under the GATS framework recognizes the right of the
national governments to regulate and if necessary, introduce new rules to meet national
policy objectives. Liberalization is a means of promoting growth and development by
enhancing competition and not doing away with regulation. In higher education like in most
other services sectors, most countries in their own national interests have gone for
autonomous liberalization. The GATS negotiations merely bind this liberalization with a
view to bring predictability in policy regime. In addition, foreign provision is also opposed
on the grounds of hurting the cultural and educational ethos in the country.
There is a lack of consensus and many misgivings on liberalization under the GATS
framework. For instance, there is a perception that the commitments under GATS would
put an end to the public subsidies, with adverse consequences for the quality and
affordability of higher education. Critics of GATS claim that steering capacity of a nation-
state in higher education would be weakened due to GATS. The choice to deregulate and
liberalize the higher education market is a deliberate choice of a national government,
which by doing so may intentionally reduce its steering capacity. It is the nation-state as
the most important player that constitutes and shapes its steering capacity. It needs to be
understood that liberalization is not deregulation but often requires more regulation.
Despite these misgivings, there is a growth of cross-border activities in higher education.
Apart from student mobility, there will be a wide range of exchange agreements, distance
education programmes, research collaborations and offshore partnerships. This is
happening despite several impediments. These include: the lack of recognition of academic
qualifications or concerns over the quality of educational providers and the risk of seeing
‘degree mills’ sprouting in a liberalized environment. It is however not clear if the GATS
could offer the most appropriate setting to tackle these issues or the bilateral, regional, or
multilateral arrangements would be more useful.
Many issues related to the possible impact of commercial providers are the same, whether
they are national or foreign providers, in terms of impact on the public system and how
they are regulated. Rightly regulating the domestic private sector is thus important. It would
be a mistake to expect that GATS negotiations would either stop or accelerate this trend.
Thus, the GATS negotiations are unlikely to be the driving force behind the continued
growth of foreign provision of higher education. Yet, as the GATS negotiations gain
momentum, the greater transparency and policy predictability in higher education would
help in achieving a higher level of bound liberalization commitments under the GATS that

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would be beneficial to all the stakeholders in higher education. Now our government is
introducing the Foreign Educational Institution Bill in the parliament, whose enactment
leads to the entry of foreign universities in our country for providing education. The Indian
Higher Education system need to be prepared for this new change.

Understanding the Concepts

1. Collaborative Education
Collaborative education is an emerging concept in the Indian education system, whose
basic idea is to promote the interaction and sharing of knowledge for the enhancement,
creation, and expansion of new knowledge. Any institution has its premises of generating
knowledge, which can be enriched by introducing the culture of collaborative education.
Due to not having suitable facilities or availability in a particular institution, the students
suffer a lot. For the proper understanding of any key subject, there must be need to consult
the specialized institutions. The collaborative education is paving this path of bringing
various specialized institutions in a link according to the need of students. It includes
interinstitutional arrangements where two or more institutions agree to offer jointly a study
programme in terms of study credits and credit-transfers, so that students pursuing their
studies in one institution have their credits recognized by the other and accepted for transfer
in order to continue their studies. It may also be termed as twinning programmes. The
students can access the audit courses of other institutions with permission to their mother-
institution for making better understanding of concepts. So, through this the outreach of
institutions is expanding and students will have more options to choose. The quality of
education is also getting enhanced because of specialized faculties of different institutions.
The concept of collaborative education can be seen in the following types:
• Institution-Institution Collaboration
• Institution-School Collaboration
• Institution-Community Collaboration
• Institution-NGO Collaboration
• Institution-State Collaboration
• Institution-State-NGO Collaboration
• Institution-Industry Collaboration and various other forms.
The concept of collaborative education helps in bringing the institutions closer which leads
for understanding each-others functions and works and reforming their ideas. In India, the
universities are collaborating with other universities, schools, NGOs, and government
agencies for adding value to their educational practices. One of the examples of
collaborative education is UKIERI. UK India Education and Research Initiative (UKIERI)
is a collaborative programme which aims to substantially improve educational links
between India and the UK so that in the long term the countries will become each other's
partner of choice in education. It has been recognized as the programme that is playing an

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important role in fostering contacts across the UK and India in the field of Higher
Education. By strengthening institution to institution collaboration and promoting stronger
links to industries and related communities, this initiative will lead ultimately to India and
the UK being each other's preferred partner in the field of education. The initiative is
flexible and responsive to the needs of these partners so that good ideas that contribute to
relevance, sustainability and impact of the partnerships are welcomed.
2. Distance Education
Distance education has been defined by the Thesaurus of descriptions as ‘education via
communications media e.g., correspondence, radio, television etc. with little or no
classroom or face-to-face contact between students and teachers. Distance teaching is the
family of instructional methods in which the teaching behaviors are executed apart from
the learning behaviors so that the communication between the teacher and learner must be
facilitated by print, electronics, mechanical or other devices. Elements of rationality and
industrialization may be added to the definition, suggesting that distance
teaching/education is rationalized by the division of labor and organizational principles as
well as by the extensive use of technical media, especially for the purpose of reproducing
high quality teaching materials which makes it possible to instruct great numbers of
students at the same time, wherever they live. It is an industrialized form of teaching and
learning.
In distance education, the learner is separated, quasi-permanently and throughout the period
of learning process, forms the teacher and the learning group and, instead of interpersonal
communication, there is a technological medium available for the same. The
institutionalized nature of this learning process distinguishes it from ‘Teach-yourself
programmes. Basically, the objectives are to provide a second opportunity of learning to
those who missed such an opportunity earlier or could not go to a conventional system,
making education particularly attractive and relevant for working people and housewives.
It would be pertinent here to mention the objectives of the Indira Gandhi National Open
University (IGNOU).
IGNOU was established with the following objectives:
• To make higher and technical education available to large sections of the
population.
• To give special attention to the needs of the disadvantaged groups, in particular,
people in the rural areas, teachers and women.
• To relate all courses to the development needs of individuals, institutions, and the
country.
• To provide an innovation, flexible and open system of education by using distance
teaching methodology and by applying modern communications technologies to
education.

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 • To provide continuing, adult and extension education, by giving special attention
to retraining adults in new skills to enable them to adjust to a changing technological
environment.
• To provide post graduate studies and research opportunities in all fields of
knowledge, especially in educational technology, distance education and
development communications.
• To encourage the Open University and distance education system in the educational
pattern of the country and to coordinate and determine the standards in such
systems.
• To have major thrust on applied, technical and vocational courses and to operate in
a cost-efficient manner and make efforts to become self-sufficient in its operational
cost.
• To relate education to the needs of employment and nation-building activities and
to contribute for the integrated development of human personality.
• To fulfil the constitutional requirement of equalization of educational opportunities.
• To promote the educational wellbeing of the community generally.
Flexibility, in all respects, is a distinguishing feature of the IGNOU: programmes and
courses, mobility of students from one system to another, switch-over form conventional
to unconventional system or vice-versa, duration of study, entry regulations enabling
working people and disadvantaged groups to take advantage of the opportunities offered,
credit system spread over a period of the study time, professional in-service courses of
study, different methods of instruction depending upon needs and requirements. The
programme profile of the IGNOU has an inter-mix of academic as well as continuing and
extension education programmes. The traditional degree courses are offered, as is done by
most of the conventional universities. Simultaneously, a number of programmes have been
developed which are knowledge based as well as technical and vocational, which lead to
post-graduate degrees as well as short-term competency certificates, which are professional
development programmes as well as awareness-building modules. Presently, 50
programmes are offered by the IGNOU comprising more than 600 courses with extensive
network.
The IGNOU has now emerged as the principal agency for the transmission of all electronic
media software in the realm of education. On 26 January 2000, it started transmitting ‘Gyan
Darshan’, which is the exclusive educational TV channel of Doordarshan, as a joint
collaborative venture of the IGNOU, UGC, NCERT, Departments of Science and Space,
Ministries of Human Resource Development, Health, Labor and Environment. The
University has already launched the Virtual Campus Initiative, which involves delivery of
selected programmes entirely through electronic means including the Internet and satellite-
based Tele-conferencing. This works through Tele-Learning Centres that provide state of

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the art hardware/software, computing and communications facilities to students of
Bachelor in Information Technology.
No doubt, distance education is self-study, but the student, far from being alone, benefits
form interaction with tutors and the supporting organization. The interaction is in the form
of two-way traffic through the written or otherwise mediated, communication between the
learners and their tutors. This simulated conversation, or an internalized conversation,
stimulates activity, reasoning, and individualistic presentation.
Distance education programmes have emerged throughout the world to serve new students
with a diversity of needs. Some, such as the Indira Gandhi Open University in our country,
are especially for distance education. There are many universities which have established
departments of correspondence courses in addition to their conventional curriculum.
The term distance education is used inter-changeably with the term ‘open learning’ because
it represents greater opportunities for learning through flexible time schedules and physical
location of classes.
3. Trans-National Education
Transnational education refers to a situation where the educational provider and the
students opting for education are located in different countries. The educational discourses
between the educational providers and students are carried out through multiple means,
namely, mail, computer network, teleconferencing, radio, or television network, etc.
Transnational Education denotes any teaching or learning activity in which the students are
in a different country (the host country) to that in which the institution providing the
education is based (the home country). This situation requires that national boundaries be
crossed by information about the education, and by staff and/or educational materials.
(Global Alliance for Trans-national Education (GATE), 1997, p. 1)
Transnational education providers inhabit different national education systems with
different sorts of arrangements. It involves cross-border mobility depending on what and
who crosses the border. We can see the Trans-National Education in the following forms:
• People mobility-based education: a person can go abroad for educational purpose.
• Programme mobility-based education: an educational programme can go abroad.
• Institution mobility-based education: an institution or provider can go or invest
abroad for educational purposes.
The first kind of mobility involves students or academicians who travel abroad to study or
teach. The second kind of mobility relates to mobility of educational programme and
curricula across border via e-learning, educational partnerships with a foreign institution to
offer joint courses, elaborate joint curricula or undertake any other joint educational
arrangements, while students, academicians and institutions remain in their country. Third
kind of mobility for cross border education is when an educational institution sets up a

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branch campus abroad, partners with a foreign university or buys or otherwise invests in
foreign institution. Like in India, the Foreign Educational Institution Bill, 2010 is opening
the scope for foreign institutions to set up their institutions here. In a trans-national
education system, the institutions regulate their courses through opening franchise or
branch campuses.
4. Franchising
It is the process where a higher education institution (franchiser) from a certain country
authorizes another institution (franchisee) from the same or from another country to
provide it (i.e., the franchiser’s) educational services (the whole or a part of one or more of
its approved study programme/qualifications).
5. Branch campus
A higher education institution from one country establishes its campus in another country
in order to offer its own educational programmes/qualifications there. The students get
enrolled there in the branch campuses with the courses offered by the institution. The
arrangement is similar to franchising, but the difference is that the branch campuses are
owned by the institution, whereas in franchise system, the institution (franchiser) only
allow the other institution (franchisee) to offer its courses.

Conclusion
Education is an inseparable entity of any nation. India as a nation has its educational
agreements with different countries and international global bodies. Hence the structure of
education in India is taking new shape accordance with the changing scenario. The major
challenge before the country is to accept the new educational ideas with retaining own
education ethos. The issue of maintaining the quality of higher education institutions with
absorption of increasing quantity of students is also a serious concern. The different forms
of educational set-up mentioned above are contributing to deal with the challenges and
making the higher education system more efficient.

Chapter at a Glance
✓ Due to Information and Communication Technology Revolution, there has been a
rapid and phenomenal increase in the interaction between communities, polities, and
societies in today’s world. Our Indian social system is also going through massive
change to meet the needs of modern world.
✓ We have, as a nation, accepted liberalization as an instrument of our economic policy.
It follows that our markets are now open, and that our domestic products have to
compete with those of the global economy for a share even in our own neighbourhood
market.

160
 ✓ With growing student mobility and the increasing demand in the global labor market
for the highly skilled, higher education has now gone international.
✓ Under the GATS, education is one of the 12 service sectors identified to be
liberalized. Within the education services there are five sub-sectors: primary,
secondary, higher, adult and others under education services.
✓ Like other services, trade in higher education services are occur in any of the four
modes, namely- Mode1: cross-border supply (programme mobility); Mode 2:
Consumption abroad (student mobility); Mode 3: Commercial or physical presence
(institution mobility); and Mode 4: Delivery abroad (academic mobility).
✓ Collaborative education is an emerging concept in the Indian education system,
whose basic idea is to promote the interaction and sharing of knowledge for the
enhancement, creation, and expansion of new knowledge.
✓ The concept of collaborative education helps in bringing the institutions closer which
leads for understanding each-others functions and works and reforming their ideas.
✓ Distance education has been defined as ‘education via communications media e.g.,
correspondence, radio, television etc. with little or no classroom or face-to-face
contact between students and teachers.’
✓ Transnational education refers to a situation where the educational provider and the
students opting for education are located in different countries. The educational
discourses between the educational providers and students are carried out through
multiple means, namely, mail, computer network, teleconferencing, radio, or
television network, etc.
✓ The process where a higher education institution (franchiser) from a certain country
authorizes another institution (franchisee) from the same or from another country to
provide it (i.e., the franchiser’s) educational services (the whole or a part of one or
more of its approved study programme/qualifications) is called franchising.
✓ When a higher education institution from one country establishes its campus in
another country in order to offer its own educational programmes/qualifications there
is called branch campus.

Do and Learn
❖ List down five merits and demerits of GATS in education.
❖ Identify policy issues in higher education that require further attention and analysis.
❖ Discuss with your friends and write a brief note on collaborative education that why
it is essential to update and reform the knowledge of any institution?

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Self-Assessment
1. How impactful is the ‘Global Change’ on our education system?
2. Is our country also contributing to global change or is it only at the receiving end?
3. What are the basic regulations and provisions of GATS about education?
4. How distance education system is bringing revolutionary change in the expansion
of mass education?
5. How we look at trans-national education with its benefits and limitations?

References and Suggested Readings

• Ashwin, Paul (2006). Changing higher education: Development of learning and
teaching. Routledge, London.
• Gupta, Asha (2011). Uchchatar Shiksha ke badalate aayam. Hindi Karyanvaya
Nideshalaya, University of Delhi, Delhi.
• Kapur, J.N. (1996). Restructuring higher education system in India. CVK Education
Foundation, New Delhi.
• Knight, J. (2002). Trade in Higher Education Services: The Implications of GATS.
London, England: The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education.
• Mitra, C.R. (2004). Knowledge enterprize redefining higher education. Samskriti
Publication, New Delhi.
• Mitra, C.R. (2005). Higher education in changing scenarios. Samskriti Publication,
New Delhi. Reddy, V.V. (2002). Towards virtualization: open and distance
learning. Kogan Page India Publication, New Delhi.
• Sahoo, P.K. (1993). Higher Education at a distance. Sanchar Publication, New
Delhi.
• Sharma, S.R. (1996). Organization of distance education. Pointer Publication,
Jaipur.

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