Amber has been appreciated since antiquity for its unique aesthetic qualities in the production of

small decorative objects. It has been a source of both mystery and curiosity, as it bridges the

divide between the living and organic and the mineral and inorganic. It was initially selected for

qualities such as color and hardness, with an eye toward an end market in jewelry production,

and the Baltic Sea coastline has been, and continues to be, the largest source of the material.

The focus of amber studies over the past two hundred years has paralleled scientific

developments in instrumentation and methods. Some of the earliest investigators used

microscopy to view a hidden world of natural history and provide insights into past geological

ages. More recent studies have analyzed the material itself in an attempt to better understand its

chemistry, origins, and deterioration processes. This has included the identification of imitation

ambers composed of natural and human-made compounds.1

Amber Characteristics
Although amber types have been classified generally, some ambiguities remain. Visual

characteristics of amber such as color and translucency do not clearly relate to differences in

chemical composition,2 and some differences may relate more closely to inclusions, entrapment

of air, and states of oxidation. Amber may also be defined by grade, color, or even geographic

origin, such as Romanian or Sicilian. Ambers such as Baltic may be further subdivided into the

categories allingite, beckerite, gedanite, or glessite, based in part on opacity, color, and

friability.3 Some subdivisions are also morphological. For example, amber with many tiny

bubbles may be termed “bone” amber, whereas “foamy” amber has slightly larger bubbles.

Amber typing can, therefore, be viewed from different perspectives ranging from morphological

to chemical.
Amber Deterioration and Conservation
Although amber may have lain relatively dormant in geological deposits for thousands of years,

its relatively recent collection, shaping, use, and reburial have often resulted in continued—and

in some instances severe—deterioration. In general, deterioration manifests itself as a thick

“corrosion” crust that not only obscures the translucent quality of amber but may also lead to

flaking and loss of the carved surface. In the worst-case scenarios, the carved surface completely

flakes off, leaving an ambiguously shaped amber core. Deterioration may continue in a

collection’s environment and be aggravated by pollutants, oxidation processes, and inappropriate

environmental controls.4 Recently, the degradation mechanisms and conservation treatments of

archaeological amber have been studied using a variety of analytical instrumentation.5

Over the years, restorers and, more recently, conservators have attempted to reinforce fragile

amber surfaces by applying a range of consolidative organic materials. Examples of past amber

consolidants include dammar resin and “amber oil,” a product of amber distillation.6 A variety of

waxes and natural and synthetic resins have also been applied. While preserving the

morphological characteristics of carved amber, organic consolidants may interfere with future

attempts to analyze or classify the amber. Therefore, the consolidation process should be

carefully considered and, if carried out, fully documented.7

Scientific Analysis of Amber

The study of amber has kept pace over the past two centuries with the developments in scientific

analysis. Microscopic studies beginning in the eighteenth century focused on the morphological

characteristics of amber and the recognition of amber’s botanical origins.8 As methods for

chemical analysis developed, so did the understanding of amber’s complex chemical

structure.9 Considering the archaeological context of many amber finds, its characterization is

further complicated by material degradation and possible interference from past stabilization

treatments.10 Beginning in the 1960s, analytical studies of amber relied heavily on infrared

spectroscopy (IR)11 and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).12

IR spectroscopy in particular was the first technique capable of readily identifying Baltic amber

through the presence of a distinct succinic acid peak or “shoulder” in its infrared spectrum.

However, the limits of this method were reached when it proved less successful in distinguishing

among non-Baltic ambers. More-recent analytical studies have employed Raman

spectroscopy,13 capillary gas chromatography / mass spectrometry (GC/MS),14 and pyrolysis–gas

chromatography / mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS),15 which are capable of isolating a broad range

of compounds that compose amber.16 Combined with other analysis, this has led to proposals for

the botanical origins of some ambers as well as common sourcing for previously distinct

ambers.17

Current Research
The primary goal of the scientific investigation of a group of amber objects from the collection

of the J. Paul Getty Museum was to verify that the ambers were indeed of Baltic origin. A

secondary aim was to ascertain whether treatment with amber oil or other organic materials

might interfere with the identification process. Samples were removed from the cores of twenty-

six amber objects for analysis at the Getty Conservation Institute using Fourier-transform

infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and pyrolysis–gas chromatography / mass spectrometry with

tetramethylammonium hydroxide for thermally-assisted hydrolysis and methylation (THM-Py-

GC/MS). Surface samples were also removed from seven amber objects, in order to better
understand the composition of weathered amber surfaces. For comparative purposes, tests were

carried out on a number of reference materials, including Baltic amber, Dominican amber, copal

resin, pine resin, sandarac resin, dried residue from amber-oil distillate, and amber varnish.

Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectrometry

Procedure
The samples were analyzed on a Nic-plan infrared microscope equipped with a nitrogen-cooled

MCT/A detector. Selected amber particles were placed on an infrared diamond window,

flattened with a metal roller, and analyzed using a transmitted infrared beam apertured to 100 x

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