SOCIAL STUDIES REVIEWER

THREE MAJOR CIVILIZATIONS OF ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA

- SUMERIAN, ASSYRIANS AND PERSIANS

The land between rivers - MESOPOTAMIA

SUMERIANS - most important civilization, first people to have language and writings

ERIDU - First Sumerian City

KING GILGAMESH - Notable Leader Of Sumerians

SARGON I – Most Notable Person In Akkadian, The World's First Empire

ASSYRIAN - Most Famous Rulers, Most Powerful Nation And Known For Their Armies

HAMMURABBI - King Of Babylon, Creator Of The Code Of Hammurabi

CYRUS THE GREAT – MOST NOTABLE PERSON IN PERSIAN NATION

GOLDEN AGE - The Arab

THE KINGDOM OF AMORITES

Amorites

The fall of Sumerian civilisation circa 2004 BC left a vacuum that lasted for about a century. Conflict
and chaos in Mesopotamia were eventually overcome as the non-Semitic Amorites, who had
inherited much of their civilisation and culture from Sumer, began to rise in power and importance.

The Amorites began to arrive in the territory to the west of the Euphrates, modern Syria, from around
2500 BC. The Akkadians called them Amurru, and they probably originated from Arabia (a less
popular theory places them in India). Although there was no actual invasion, for a period of five
hundred years they drifted down into southern Mesopotamia, integrating into Sumerian civilisation
where they lived in enclaves. They served in the armies of Third Dynasty Ur, and provided general
labour for both Ur and Akkad before that. As Ur declined, and with it Sumerian civilisation, many
Amorites rose to positions of power. When the final end of Ur came at the hands of the Elamites, the
Amorites, virtually Sumerians themselves by now, were in a strong position to pick up the pieces.

Rather than maintain the Sumerian system of city states, where farms, cattle and people belonged to
the gods or the temples (ie. the king), the Amorites founded kingdoms which had their capitals at
many of the old cities, even if some of these new kingdoms were virtually the equivalent of a city state
in their size and power. As well as inheriting the surviving Sumerian cities, the Amorites also built a
number of large and powerful cities of their own, from Syria down to southern Mesopotamia.

They also created a new society of free subjects able to farm their own lands and conduct business
as they saw fit. Their discoveries contributed extensively to the development of civilisation. They
founded many of the basics concepts of early literature and mathematics, and they developed
multiplication, aiding in mercantile and sales transactions. This flowering of knowledge led to the
creation of the Code of Hammurabi, one of the most important documents in Babylon's history. This
was a series of 'laws' which emphasised the pursuit of justice, especially in relation to business
transactions, and it set the form for later law codes.

4 EMPIRES OF MESOPOTAMIA

When you consider the cradle of Mesopotamia, this is where society started. All of the
civilizations today can be traced back to these original empires. From its unique geography,
Mesopotamia gave rise to the world’s first-ever cities and also the characteristics of the region’s
peoples and culture.

Since floods and storms routinely blasted the region, it led them to worship sky gods. Their faith
inspired the construction of mud-brick temples shaped like mountains and was known as ziggurats.

The Land Between Two Rivers

Because there were very few natural internal boundaries, rulers in those times could easily
conquer large territories. Such freedom of conquest ultimately resulted in the world’s first empires and
also several other firsts.

While the first cities in the world appeared in the Mesopotamian cradle, it has also become a point of
origin for many facets of Western civilization. Elements such as taxation and writing originated in the
land between two rivers.

The unique geography of what would be referred to as the ‘ancient Near East’ proved to be a perfect
condition for several civilizations of like cultures. These cultural constants reigned collectively for
thousands of years.

While Mesopotamia lacked internal geographic boundaries, its outer edges consisted of impassable
mountain ranges or raging rivers that were difficult to cross. This allowed for the growth of empires
that were naturally protected against foreign invasion.

The Sumerians

The world’s first empire was created by Sargon of Akkad, who also became the first Near
Eastern god-king.

Around 3100 BC, after early humans had lived and farmed the region of Mesopotamia for hundreds of
years, cities began to appear. This original growth of civilization became the Sumerian Empire.
The Sumerians had several accomplishments, such as creating organized labor and the development
of irrigation systems. Thanks to their mastery of agriculture, they managed to store a surplus of food
— the ingredient that society needed for cities to grow.

These surpluses also resulted in other functions that were required to maintain them. Thus, the
Sumerians created an administration system to collect and organize — giving rise to the world’s very
first government. But it is interesting to note here that taxes actually came before the government in
the history of humankind.

However, the innovation of the Sumerians did not stop there. They learned to take advantage of the
environment around them.

For instance, its lower plains were not rich in natural resources — including basic construction
materials like stone and wood. But the landscape had plenty of reeds and mud, which the Sumerians
eventually used for construction. Many of their monuments and religious temples were mud
structures.

Perhaps the most outstanding Sumerian achievement of all was their creation of the first known
writing system. Of course, they realized that writing would need material on which to write.

The Sumerians saw this as another opportunity to use their mud. They created flat clay tablets that
allowed them to etch their written language, which is referred to as ‘cuneiform.’ The discovery of
writing was a profound moment. It meant that humans could communicate directly with future
generations.

The Akkadian Empire

Shortly after 2400 BC, Sargon conducted a series of successful military conquests to unite
most of Mesopotamia.

Thus, the Akkadian Empire was created when these regions were united under one rule. This reign
extended the concept of the king as a god-like figure, while everyone else would be his slaves. For
thousands of years afterward, this would remain the sole political and governmental structure for this
region.

This occurred even though Sargon’s Akkadian Empire only lasted for a few generations. The empires
that came after the Akkadians followed suit and observed the repeating pattern of absolute rule,
urbanism, and imperialistic expansionism. Each also made unique contributions to the cultural
heritage of ancient Mesopotamia.

While the plains of Mesopotamia were fertile enough to support agriculture, its environment also had
some harsh limitations. The elements that made the people resilient became a life of an ongoing
struggle with nature.

Life in Mesopotamia tended to be transitory, arbitrary, and significantly affected by inexplicable

forces. They believed that the gods controlled everything, but those gods were both inaccessible and
frightening. Such an outlook resulted in a prevailing pessimistic and fatalistic tone throughout the
Mesopotamian culture.
The Babylonian Empire

When the Akkadian Empire collapsed, it seemed that a pattern had been established in
Mesopotamia. A brand new city would rise and gain power, establish dominance — yet would be
removed whenever the next new city arose to take its place as the empire’s new capital.

The next city in line to rule Mesopotamia was Babylon. The Babylonian Empire reigned from around
2000 to 1600 BC. Like the Sumerians before them, it also achieved several significant firsts for
humankind.

The most prominent of these was the world’s earliest known code of law, called the law code of
Hammurabi.

By the standards of today, Hammurabi’s code might seem unfair and harsh. The code required
capital punishment for several offenses besides murder, and not everyone was treated equally. There
were different sets of rules and penalties for the poor, women, and slaves.

Regardless of how it compares to current law standards, Hammurabi’s code was a huge step forward
for human civilization as it provided a concrete approach to governance of society, a living document
that could be polished and improved with the needs of the community.

The Assyrian Empire

The Assyrian Empire started off as a major regional power in Mesopotamia in the second

millennium B.C.E., but later grew in size and stature in the first millennium B.C.E. under a series of
powerful rulers, becoming one of the world’s earliest empires.

Assyria was located in the northern part of Mesopotamia, which corresponds to most parts of
modern-day Iraq as well as parts of Iran, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey. It had relatively humble
beginnings as a nation-state early in the second millennium B.C.E. Its status underwent many
changes; though sometimes it was an independent state, it also fell to the Babylonian Empire, and
later to Mittani rule. But unlike other nation-states, because of their technological advances in
warfare, the Assyrians maintained their land while other states and empires rose and fell from power.
When another group, the Hittites, rose to power and overthrew Mittani rule, it left a power vacuum
that sent the region into war and chaos. This left the Assyrians poised to gain more power in the
region. Around 900 B.C.E., a new series of Assyrian kings, beginning with Adad Nirari II, rose to
prominence and expanded Assyria’s borders into a huge empire.

Adad Nirari II and his successors used new warfare techniques to take over enemy cities one
by one. The Assyrians had several advantages that they had been developing for generations while
other empires came and went. They were the first in the area to develop iron weapons, which were
superior to the bronze weapons their enemies were using. Their skill at ironworking allowed them to
make weapons and protective items more cheaply, so more soldiers could use them. In addition, they
were the first army to have a separate engineering unit, which would set up ladders and ramps, fill in
moats, and dig tunnels to help the soldiers get into a walled city. They were also among the first to
build chariots, which provided greater protection on the battlefield. These technological
advancements allowed the Assyrians to go on the offensive and attack neighboring areas for the first
time, which led to the expansion of their empire. 
 The Assyrian Empire maintained power for hundreds of years. But in the 600s B.C.E., the
empire became too large to maintain, and it fell apart. Even after its fall, the empire’s legacy lived on
in the warfare tactics and technologies that were adopted by later civilizations.

THE NEO-BABYLONIAN EMPIRE

Are you wondering why it’s called the NEO-Babylonian Empire? The prefix “neo-” means
“new.” It sets this empire apart from the Old Babylonian Empire. Yes, there were two of them—and
they were about a thousand years apart!

Babylon was one of the largest cities in the ancient world. In the mid-7th century B.C.E., it was
ruled by the Assyrians. However, the Assyrian Empire was in decline. In 627 B.C.E., Babylon took up
arms against the Assyrian king. The next year, they crowned a general named Nabopolassar as their
king. This began the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire’s most famous king was crowned in 604 B.C.E. His name was
Nebuchadnezzar II. Does that ring a bell? It might if you know much about
the Jewish or Christian religions. Nebuchadnezzar is written about in the religious texts of both
traditions.

Nebuchadnezzar grew the empire until it covered all the land once ruled by the Assyrians. He
also destroyed Jerusalem in the early 6th century B.C.E. He forced many Jewish people from
Jerusalem to come with him to Babylon. They were held captive there for about 50 years.

The empire continued to grow in power and size. It also became known for its architecture.
Nebuchadnezzar II built large ornate walls around the capital city of Babylon. He also built the Ishtar
Gate. It was made from blue-glazed bricks and covered in pictures of fierce animals. 

Nebuchadnezzar II is also credited with building a wonder of the ancient world. His wife,
Amytis, had moved to Babylon from Media. Nebuchadnezzar II supposedly created the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon to remind her of her home. However, experts today are unsure whether the
Hanging Gardens were actually in Babylon. Some think they never existed at all.

Nebuchadnezzar II died in 562 B.C.E. The Neo-Babylonian Empire came to an end only 23
years later in 539 B.C.E. That year, troops led by Cyrus the Great took over the city of Babylon. It
would be part of the Persian Empire until it was taken by Alexander the Great.

Today, the ruins of Babylon sit in the region many call Iraq. Efforts were once made
to restore parts of the ancient site. However, the U.S. military damaged the ruins while building a
base there in 2003. Babylon was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2019.

Today, people can still visit parts of the ancient city. Would you like to see the ruins of Babylon one
day? As an important city to so many ancient empires, it’s a valuable piece of history.

The Akkadian Empire 

King Sargon created the world's first empire. The Akkadians developed their own language. Artists
carved beautiful relief sculptures on stones.
The Babylonian Empire 
King Hammurabi created a code of laws that applied to everyone in the empire. Babylonian
agriculture and trade thrived under his rule.

The Assyrian Empire 

The Assyrians honored their powerful kings with beautiful palaces and huge sculptures. They built
some of the earliest aqueducts.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire 

King Nebuchadrezzar restored the splendor of King Hammurabi's time. His Hanging Gardens of
Babylon became famous.