EARTH SCIENCE

HEAT AND
Hydrogen 3.389 1.42 x 104
Ice 0.51 2.09 x 103

TEMPERATURE Iron 0.113 0.48 x 103

Lead 0.031 0.13 x 103
• Heat is the transfer of energy from one
body to another. Mercury 0.033 0.14 x 103
• Temperature is the measurement of
Silver 0.056 0.23 x 103
kinetic energy of the molecules in a
substance, it also refers to the hotness and Tungsten 0.034 0.14 x 103
coldness of an object.
Steam 0.480 2.01 x 103
FORMULA OF HEAT
Water 1.000 4.19 x 103

• Q = mcΔT Wood 0.420 1.46 x 103

𝐐
• c= Zinc 0.093 0.39 x 103
𝐦𝚫𝐓
Where,
NOTE: The value of specific heat are not precise
Q heat added since they vary slightly with temperature. Study the
following sample problems to learn how to calculate
m mass of the object
the specific heat of substances.
ΔT change in temperature
Example:
c specific heat
How much heat is required to raise the
INTERNATIONAL / SI UNITS temperature of 0.96 kg of water from 19°C to its
boiling point 100°C?
- HEAT = Joules (J)
- Temperature = Kelvin (K) Given:

The specific heat of the object is expressed in Btu m = 0.96kg

or British thermal unit. It defined as the amount of
Ti = 100°C
energy required to change the temperature of 1 b of
water at 630°F by 10°F. The equivalent amount of Tf = 19°C
specific heat in the british system is shown below,
c = 4.184 x 103 j/kg°C
1 kcal = 1,000 calories = 3.97 Btu
Find: Q
1 Btu = 252 calories = 0,252 calorie
Formula:
Substance cal/g°C j/kg °C
Q = mcΔT
Alcohol, ethyl 0.572 2.50 x 103
Solution:
Aluminum 0,217 0.91 x 103
Q = mcΔT
Brass 0.090 0.38 x 103
Q = mc (Tf – Ti)
Copper 0.093 0.39 x 103
Q = (0.96kg)(4.184 x 103 j/kg°C)(100°C - 19°C)
Glass 0.160 0.65 x 103
Q = 325.35 J
Gold 0.032 0.13 x 103
1 𝐶𝑎𝑙
Granite 0.190 0.80 x 103 Q = 325.35 J x
4.18605 𝐽
 EARTH SCIENCE
Q = 77.72 cal

Qh – High temperature

1 cal = 4.18605 J Qc – Low temperature

HEAT AND WORK: • HEAT ENGINE, is the system or device

THERMODYNAMICS
used to convert heat or energy to
mechanical energy.

4 Different strokes of Heat Engines

• Thermodynamics is a branch of physics
that deals with the study of heat power and • Intake stroke
the efficiency of energy transfer and
In the intake stroke,
exchange.
the piston is moved
FORMULAS; downward from the
cyclinder, which
• Q = ΔU + W creates a
vacuum on it.
partial

• ΔU = Q – W
• Compression stroke
Where,
In the compression
Q heat added into the system stroke, both valves are
closed. While they are
ΔU change in internal energy closed, a mixtures is
compressed as the piston
W work done on the system
moves up. This is the time
Heat is POSITIVE if it is ADDED to the system and that the mixture is then
it is NEGATIVE if the system LOSSES the energy. ignited by the spark plug
Work is POSITIVE if it is DONE BY the system and and causes the heated
it is NEGATIIVE if it is DONE ON the system. gas to expand and increase the pressure in the
cyclinder.
THE 2 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
• Power Stroke
- The First Law of Thermodynamics, it states
that the heat cannot be created nor destroyed, In the power stroke,
but it can be transferred. hot burned mixture
- The Second Law of Thermodynamics, states pushes piston down
that it is impossible to construct a device which where work is done
operates on a cycle and produce no other effect
than the production of the work and the transfer
of rat from a single body. • Exhaust Stroke
FORMULAS; In the exhaust stroke,
the exhaust valve is
• Eff = (W/Qh) x 100% opened and the piston
• Eff = (Qh - Qc/Qh) x 100% moves up to push the
• Eff = (1 - Qc/Qh) x 100% burned mixture of
• W = Qh – Qc wasted gases out of the
𝐐𝐜 cyclinder. The engine
• Qh = 𝐄𝐅𝐅
prepares for the next intake stroke and the cycle
𝟏−( 𝐦𝚫𝐓 begins again.
• Qc = Qh - W Example:
 EARTH SCIENCE
EARTH SCIENCE • Focus/Hypocenter (hypo means beneath)
is the location
• Earth Science, is all about the study of within the
Earth as a whole. Earth where
• Earth Science is the study of Earth and It’s Earthquake
events. originates.
• Seismic
LAYERS OF EARTH Waves, it is
energy moving
• Crust – it is the outer layer of Earth, it is outward from
where we are living, there are 2 types of the focus of an
Crust. earthquake
- Oceanic Crust is below ocean and can be
located by 18km from travels in the form of seismic
crust. waves. It is also the wave
- Continental Crust, large produces by an earthquake.
masses of land. • Seismograph,
• Mantle – it is the instrument used to record
second layer of Earth, shaking of the ground.
it has two parts the • Epicenter (epi means
upper mantle and the surface) of an earthquake is
lower mantle. the point on the ground’s
• Core – is the center surface directly above the
of the earth. It is focus.
divided into two parts. The inner and outer
core. Tectonic Earthquakes, produced by sudden
- Inner Core is hot, dense ball of (mostly) iron movement along faults and plates boundaries
- Outer Core is made of nickel, iron and molten
Volcanic Earthquakes, produced by
rock.
movement of magma beneath volcanoes.
WHAT ARE PLATES? TYPES OF FAULTS
• The Earth’s crust and upper mantle
(Litoshpere) are broken into sections called
plates
• Litoshpere - solid parts of Earth, the upper part
of the mantle and the crust together.
• Astenosphere – Below the litosphere

• Normal Fault, it is where the block above

EARTHQUAKE
• An Earthquake is the shaking or
trembling of the earth caused by the
release of energy.
• Faults are the break between two blocks
of rock that suddenly moves.
the fault moves downwards.
• Reverse Fault, it is where the block or land
above the fault moves upwards
• Strike-slip Fault, It is where the block
above the fault moves horizontally.
- If the blocks moves to the left, it is called left
lateral.
- If the blocks moves to the right, it is called the
right lateral.
ACTIVE AND INACTIVE FAULTS
• Active Faults may be a source of another
earthquake in the future.
 EARTH SCIENCE
• Inactive Faults are that do not display any • Seismologists are Earth Scientists who study
recent seismic activity. the genesis and propagation of seismic waves
in geological materials.
ACTIVE FAULTS IN THE PHILIPPINES
PHIVOLCS – The Philippine Institute of Volcanology
• Philippines is part of the pacific ring of fire and Seismology
• Pacific Ring of Fire is a region that
surrounds pacific ocean • Seismograph is an
and is known for its instrument that scientists
volcanoes and used to record the shaking of
earthquakes activity. the ground.
• The magnitude
The Pacific Ring of Fire has a earthquake is expressed by
total of 452 volcanoes. Roughly or using the Richter Scale.
90% of all earthquakes occur • Richter scale was
along the ting of fire, and has developed by Charles F.
75% of the Earth’s active and Richter.
dormant volcanoes.

TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

Richter Magnitude Earthquake Effects

0-2 Not felt by people

2-3 Slightly felt by people

3-4 Ceiling lights swing

4-5 Walls crack

5-6 Furniture moves

6-7 Some building collapse

• Body Waves, travel through the earth’s 7-8 Many buildings destroyed
mantle and crust. There are 2 types of body
waves. 8-9 Total destruction of buildings,
- Primary waves also called as compressional bridges, and roads.
of P waves. It is the fastest of all the wave types
and produce longitudinal movement. • The First scale that was developed to
- Secondary Waves also known as shear or S measure intensity of an Earthquake is called
waves. Slightly slower than P waves and Mercalli Scale, and it was developed by
produce perpendicular wave motion. Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902.
• Surface Waves are the responsible for the • The PHIVOLCS uses the PHIVOLCS
great damages that occur during earthquake. earthquake intensity scale, which is based on
- Love Waves are faster than Rayleigh Waves Rossi-Forel scale. It was developed by
and move the grounds sideways. Michele Stefano Conte de Rossi of Italy
- Rayleigh Waves move the ground up-and- and Francois Alphonse Forel of
down rolling motion. Switzerland.

INTENSITY AND MAGNITUDE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE

• Magnitude is the measure of the size of an 1. Tsunami
Earthquake - Tsunami is a
• Intensity refers on how strong the earthquake Japanese term
is and its impact. for harbor waves.
• Richter Scale is used to expressed magnitude It is a series of
of an earthquake. huge waves that
can cause a
huge devastation and kill people.
 EARTH SCIENCE
2. Liquefaction 1. Stay calm, if there are children , gather
- It is a phenomenon them and stay wioth them
in which strength of 2. If you are indoors, seek cover under strong
the soil is reduce by tables, chairs, and beds or simply do the
earthquake shaking. DROP, COVER, AND HOLD ON.
“Paglambot ng
Lupa”
3. Fire
- During an
earthquake, fire
may develop due to
short circuit of
3. Do not use elevators. You will get stuck.
electrical
Instead, use the stairs.
installations.
4. If you are outdoors, stay away from tall
Shakings on the ground makes power lines
buildings and walls.
break and fall. Gas leak or gas pipelines may
5. If you are in the car, stop the car and stay
also trigger and ignite fire.
inside the car until the earthquake stops.
4. Landslide
6. Use flashlights instead of open flames.
- A landslide is the
Lightning a fire can cause an explosion if
downward
there is a gas leak.
movement of mass
of rock, earth, soil, Things to Do After an Earthquake
or debris.
5. Structural 1. Check yourself and others for injuries. If
Collapse someone is hurt, apply for a first aid kit.
- Most common 2. If you are at work or in school, follow the
effect of an emergency plan or the instructions of the
earthquake is person-in-charge.
damage to all man- 3. Do not go inside your house immediately
made structures because aftershock often occur.
such as buildings, 4. Check for damages inside the house.
bridges, and 5. Shut off the main switch of the electricity.
houses. 6. Stay away from damaged buildings
7. Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and
EARTHQUAKE PREPAREDNESS seiches sometimes hit after the ground has
stopped shaking.
Things to Do Before an Earthquake 8. Keep yourself updated of the latest news
about the earthquake.
1. Be cautious and ready to face dangers that
come your way. Try to be calm when TYPHOONS
danger comes so that you can think of a
solution to deal with the problems that the • A typhoon is a
earthquake brings. name used in east
2. Make up a plan where to meet your family Asia for a
after an earthquake. hurricane. It is a
3. Attend Earthquake drills. Schools conduct type of cyclone
earthquake drills for students so that they occurring in the
will know what to do in case an earthquake western regions of
occurs. the Pacific Ocean. The word typhoon comes
4. Be prepared with first aid kits. from the Chinese term tai-fung meaning
5. Remove all heavy objects on top of great wind.
cabinets and put them at the bottom of the • Northwest Pacific Basin, is the most active
cabinet. tropical cyclone basin in the world where
6. Fasten all appliances to the walls and floor most tropical cyclones form. The Philippines
so that they will be secured. lies in this basin, the reason why an average
Things to Do During an Earthquake of 20 typhoons enter the PAR every year.
• PAR, The Philippine Area of Responsibility.
 EARTH SCIENCE
• PAGASA, The Philippine Atmospheric • Eye, it is an area of very low air pressure,
Geophysical and Astronomical Services of calm part of a tropical cyclone. Clear skies
Administration. and light winds
• Meteorology, is the branch of science • Eyewall, where the most severe weather
dealing with the earth’s atmosphere and the of tropical cyclone occur. Dense clouds
physical process occurring in it. that contain the strongest winds and rain.
• Meteorologist, is a person with specialized • Mainbands, it is divided in to two. The
education who uses scientific principles to Inner and the Outer Bands. These bands
explain, understand, observe, or forecast consist of cumulonimbus clouds that
the earth’s atmospheric phenomena and swifts around the eye. It can also produce
how the atmosphere affects the earth and heavy rain and lightning.
life on the planet.
HOW TROPICAL STORMS ARE FORMED?
CLASSIFICATIONS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES
• Water evaporates from the ocean surface
Classification Maximum Wind Velocity and comes into contact with a mass of cold
in kilometers per air, forming clouds
hour(kph) • A column of low pressure develops at the
Tropical Depression 61 centre. Winds form around the column.
(TD) • As pressure in the central column (The
Tropical Storm (TS) 62-88 eye) weakens, the speed of the wind
around it increases.

Severe Tropical Storm 89-117

(STS)

Typhoon (TY) 118-220

Super Typhoon (STY) Greater than 220

PUBLIC STORM WARNING SIGNALS

• PSWS, Public Strom Warning Signal

Signal Maximum Wind Velocity

in kilometers per
hour(kph)
Signal No. 1 30-60
• There are certain factors that influence the
information of tropical cyclones and one of
Signal No. 2 61-120 the likes is, source of warm and moist air
or water.

Signal No. 3 121-170 EFFECTS OF TROPICAL CYCLONE

• Flooding
Signal No. 4 171-220 • Landslide
• Heavy Rainfall
Signal No. 5 Greater than 220 • Fire/Electric Problems
• Storm Surge
• Structural Destructions
• Vegetation

PARTS OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE

 EARTH SCIENCE
ASTEROIDS, COMETS, AND METEOROIDS COMPOSITIONS OF ASTEROIDS
• Composition (made out of) is similar to inner
planets.
- 3 categories of asteroids
Compositions
1. Silicate Materials
2. Iron & Nickel
3. Carbon material (rarest)

TYPES OF ASTEROIDS
• Asteroids, also known as Planetoids/Minor • According to the Location in Solar System:
Planets. 1. Main Belt Asteroids
• Asteroids means “star-like bodies” 2. Trojan Asteroids
• It moves along on the eccentric path 3. Near-Earth Asteroids or NEAs Asteroids
• Mostly located in the asteroid belt.
Main Belt Asteroids – The majority of
Asteroid Belt is where most of the asteroids are known asteroids orbit within the asteroid
found and lie between Mars and Jupiter. belt between Mars and Jupiter.
Trojan Asteroids – Trojan asteroids are
THE FOUR LARGEST ASTEROIDS located at the Lagrangian Points.
Near-Earth Asteroids – are asteroids
whose orbits are close to Earth’s Orbit.
• Ceres – 939 km
• According to the color and composition
1. C-type Asteroids
2. S-type Asteroids
3. M-type Asteroids
• Vesta – 525km
C-type –
includes more than
75% of known
asteroids. Where
• Pallas – 512 km the C stands for
Carbon; hence they
are extremely dark or almost coal-black. C-
type or Carbonaceous Asteroids consist
of clay and silicate rocks and are very
similar in composition to the carbonaceous
• Hygiea – 434 km
chondrite meteorites that sometimes fall on
Earth.

S-type –
includes 17% of
• In 1801, the first asteroid was known asteroids.
discovered by an Italian Astronomer, Where S stands for
Giuseppe Piazzi, which he first Silicate. S-type or
thought was a new comet. However, siliceous asteroids
after its orbit was determined, it was are relatively bright,
clear that it is not a comet but more reddish to greenish in
like a small planet. Piazzi then named color, and contain stony materials, nickel-
it Ceres, after the Sicilian Goddess iron, and magnesium silicate materials.
of Grain.

• Ceres - largest object in the asteroid belt.

 EARTH SCIENCE
M-type – •
includes the remaining
percentage of known
asteroids. Where M
stands for Metals,
hence they contain more
metallic elements. M-type or Metallic
Asteroids are also relatively bright,
reddish in color, and made up of mostly
pure-nickel iron.
COMETS
Kuiper Belt, is where the short-period comets
originate. Orbit near Neptune continues
beyond Pluto.
• Oort Cloud, is where the long-period comets
originate. It is where a trillion of comets can be
found.
• Edmund Halley (1656-
1732) – British Astronomer,
best known for successfully
predicting the orbit of the
comet that was later named
after him.

• Kepler’s Law – known as a direct

consequence of Isaac Newton’s Laws of
Motion and his Law of Universal Gravitation.

METEOROIDS
• Comets, are cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, • Meteoroids are small pieces of stony or
rock, and dust that orbit the Sun. metallic space debris that are usually
• They are also called Dirty Snowballs or Icy parts of comets that break apart orbiting
Mudballs. around the Sun.
• Astronomers classify comets, based on the • Meteors, it is when meteoroids enter the
duration of their orbits around the Sun. Earth’s Atmosphere. The brightest
meteors are called fireballs.
PARTS OF COMETS • Meteorite, it is when a meteor survives
the frictional heating and strike the
• Nucleus, is
surface of the Earth.
relatively solid
and stable. Made
up of ice mixed • Orconuma meteorite –
with a rocky or it is a meteorite that landed
metallic material. in Barangay Orconuma in
When it gets Bongabong, Oriental
closer to the sun, some of its ice melts. Mindoro in 2011
• Coma, is the dense cloud of water surrounding
the nucleus. It is formed when the comet comes
close enough to the Sun. • Pantar Meteorite –
meteorite that fell in Lanao
• Tail, is composed of dust and ionized gas. It is
del Norte on June 16, 1938
formed when the solar winds and magnetic field
lines push the dust and gas away from the
coma. Comets have two tails: the dust and ion
tail. • Bondoc Meteorite –
- Dust tail is what we normally see. It is made up found in Bondoc
of tiny dust particles. Peninsula, Quezon in
- Ion tail is straighter and thinner. It is made up 1956.
of ionized gas.
• Short-Period comets – need roughly 200
years or less to complete one orbit
• Long-Period comets – take more than 200 TELESCOPES
years or even thousands or millions of years to
complete their orbit around the Sun. • Telescopes are instruments used to
view and magnify distant objects.
 EARTH SCIENCE
• The first telescopes were created in the
Netherlands in 1608
• Spectacle makers Hans Lippershey & • Catadioptric
Zacharias Jansen and Jacob Metius Telescope uses mirrors
independently created telescopes combined with lenses to
• But in 1609, Galileo Galilei made his form an image.
first telescope and he made some
improvements where it can magnify
objects 20 times.

PARTS OF TELESCOPES
• Optical Telescopes, it is the common
telescope that scientists used. It uses
lenses and mirrors to magnify distant
objects.

There are 3 Basic Types of Optical Telescopes

Refracting
Reflecting
Catadioptric

• A Refractor Telescope
uses a glass lens as its
objective

• A Reflector Telescope
uses mirror as its objective