HISTORY

In the present day, there are approximately more than twenty-nine countries are actively

involved in Sericulture worldwide; earlier period facts revealed that silk was first discovered in

China and afterward the business extended to the other regions of the world. The previous

suggestion to silk was originated in the archives of Chou - King (in 2200 BC). The finding of

silk is prodigy that in 2640 BC, one fine morning of a day in the backyard Chinese Empress

XI Hsi-Ling-Shih noticed that some small insects feeding on some varieties of leaves (Naskar

et al., 2014; Vijayan, 2010). The inquisitive queen continued to monitor the entire feeding

process until the cocoons were spun by the worms. After that, the queen collected the cocoons

and kept it till moths have developed. One fine day she unintentionally dropped some cocoons

into her hot cup of tea, later on when she tried to take out the cocoons from the cup; a fine shiny

yarn came out from the cocoons (Fig. 1.1). This historical evidence supports the role of women

in Sericulture starting from its discovery (Hacke, 2008; Naskar et al., 2014).

In China, Sericulture was practiced long back and sealed the secret for more than 3000 years

maintaining the monopoly about 3000 years via building a wealthy silk trade with the rest of

the world (Padaki et al., 2015). Earlier it was ruled by the Chinese emperor that the

enlightening of silkworm eggs or mulberry seed was a punishable offence. Nevertheless, later

on after 500 years, there is an indication in

mulberry cultivation in ‘Seminyojutu’ like mulberry layings, seedlings (Good et al., 2009;

Takeda, 2009). In this era, only mulberry cultivation emerged out and grabbed very seriously

(Ji et al., 2010).

Fig. 1.1. Historical evidence in the archives of Chou-King (in 2200 BC) showing the role of

women in sericulture starting from its discovery (Hegel & Birrell, 1996) (This figure has been

adapted from the International Sericulture Commission, Bangalore with permission)

HISTORY OF SERICULTURE IN INDIA
As per the historians from the west, the cultivation of mulberry extends from China to India

through Tibet about 140 BC ago (Roy et al., 2012). The cultivation of mulberry and the

industry related to silk first originated in the areas adjoining the Brahmaputra and Ganges rivers

were the Aryans revealed the Silkworm in Sub- Himalayan regions although the cultivation of

mulberry may have moved to India from China. At the start of the Christian era, the silk

obtained from Kashmir became famous (Kunimi, 2007). The silk obtained from Kashmir and

Bengal was sent abroad to the markets in Europe during the 14 th and 15th centuries. The

modernizing of silkworm rearing and silk reeling techniques was done by East India Company.

In 1771, the Chinese Silk was introduced by the said company with the aim of the cocoons

superiority (Mahesh et al., 2017; Nuchadomron et al., 2008). Between 1717 and 1775 East

India Company adopted the Haitian methods of rearing. In the 19 th century, ‘PEBRINE’ disease

shattered the entire silk industry in France, the same thing happened in Bengal too. The

discovery by Louis Pasteur in 1870 for the method of mother moth examination may control

pebrine disease. In 1942 in Delhi a conference was called by the Govt. of British on silk and

initiated a striving project called ‘Silk Expansion Scheme’. Later on, in 1948 the Country was

separated into India and Pakistan and as a result of which few silk Producing areas have moved

to East Bengal and Pakistan (Dayananda et al., 2011; Pasca et al., 2003).

Silk route

The marvelous Silk from both China and India were passed to European countries right from

the outset via a long road of 6000 miles through Bagdad, Tashkent, Damascus and Istanbul.

This extended 6000 miles is historically called the “Silk Route” (Fig.1.2).
Fig.1.2. Historical Silk route (Andrea, 2014; Christian, 2000)

1.1. Significance of sericulture as a development strategy

Silk as the “Queen of Textiles” not only provides livelihood but also creates enough

employment opportunities for millions of people. The world raw silk production was 1,

52,868 MT during 2011. In context to the world silk production in 2009-2010, India has

produced 19,690 MT raw silk which refers <14% of the world productivity (Mathur et al.,

2013; Chowdhury et al., 2011). According to the Statistical Biennial of the CSB (Central Silk

Board) of 2017-2018, Govt. of India, the world raw silk production was 1, 78,000 MT and

India was produced 28,708 MT and holding the second position in the world context followed

by Chinese production i.e. 1, 46,000 MT and India was accounting 16% of total raw silk

production in the world. Sericulture stands for livelihood opportunity to millions for its high

employment potential, low investment and remunerative nature. India, the second-largest silk

producer in the world, next to China, employs over 8.5 million people in the entire silk

production value chain from soil to silk produces all the four varieties of silk, namely,

mulberry, eri, tasar, muga (Astudillo et al., 2014; Christian, 2000; Yasukochi et al., 2008). The

current global scenario points out the enormous opportunities for the Indian Silk Industry. In

India, Silk “the queen of the textiles” has been amalgamated with the living and traditions of
people. On-farm and off-farm based activities of this silk industry along with its huge

employment opportunity has spellbound the planners and policymakers to differentiate this

textile industry among one of the major suitable avenues for the socio-economic development

of India (Dayananda et al., 2011; Mahesh et al., 2017).

Ecological factors

In India, availability of optimal agro-climatic environment (appropriate humidity and

temperature) the sericulture industry can be expanded in vast and unlike regions e.g. Tropical

regions (West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and

Karnataka), Sub-tropical regions (Jammu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, North-Eastern

Region) and Temperate region (Kashmir). The silkworm favours fresh leaves of mulberry,

temperature of 28-25°C (in case of MV race like Nistari) or 18-14°C (in case of BV race like

SK-6 × SK-7) and humidity about 70%.

Of the total production of silk in the country, the mulberry silk accounts for about 90% (Geetha

& Indira, 2011). Figure 1.3 shows the area and percentage under mulberry in major silk

producing states of India.

Fig. 1.3. Area and percentage under mulberry cultivation in major silk producing states in

India.
It can be depicted from Figure 1.3 that Karnataka has been the leading producer of

mulberry silk accounting for about 42% of its production in the country (Takeda, 2009). The

province is now regarded as the "Silk Bowl of India". In general, mulberry sericulture covers

25 counties in the country and is practiced in 54000 villages, occupying more than 1,80,000

hectares land area and employing about seven million people, mainly in the rural areas

(Pandiarajan et al., 2011; Pasca et al., 2003).

From the context of West Bengal, Malda or ancient Gaur (the oldest settled regions in Bengal)

and to some extent Uttar Dinajpur within West Bengal and the links with road and rails

making Malda and Uttar Dinajpur as agricultural important Districts via forming corridor

between the southern and northern parts of the state (Astudillo et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2014).

During summer months, the temperature of Malda and Uttar Dinajpur goes up till 42°C but in

winter it comes down to 5°C and the average humidity remains in both the Districts as

approximately 80% (Padaki et al., 2015; Pandiarajan et al., 2011). The extreme temperature

and high humidity do not favour the growth of silkworms. However, these tropical climates

favoured the natural selection of temperature tolerant and diseases resistant silkworm variety

like Multivoltine ‘Nistari’.

There are three aspects of Sericulture:

a. The cultivation of Mulberry

b. The rearing of silkworm

c. The silk reeling

The quality of the silk fiber depends on the healthiness of the silkworm which further depends

on the genetic trait and the quality of foods it consumes. Mulberry leaf is the sole food for

silkworm Bombyx mori L. (Jiang & Nie, 2015; Vijayan, 2010).

Why silkworms get attracted to mulberry???

It was reported by an earlier researcher that the compounds in mulberry leaves which attracted

silkworm’s larvae are β-γ-hexenol and α-β-hexenal. The larvae when young tend to be attracted
to β-γ-hexenol and α-β-hexenal at older stage (Watanabe, 1958). The mulberry leaf protein gets

transformed to silk protein with the aid of gut micro-flora of the silkworm (Ji et al., 2010)

Mulberry cultivation in Malda and Uttar Dinajpur

A different planting system was named by the sericulturists of Malda as ‘Strip system’ where

spacing of 0.60 m retained between each two strips. In individual strip, however, either, 2

rows (do-thaki) or 3 rows (te-thaki) of cuttings are planted where the distance between the

rows is 0.15 m- 0.20 m. This planting system is suitable for both Malda and Uttar Dinajpur

because of high rainfall. With the advent of varieties like S-1, S-1635 the mulberry production

has been significantly increased compared to earlier low yielding varieties. Malda District has

been playing an important role in the sericulture industry from time immemorial and about 90%

of mulberry leaves of the state are produced here. Nearly, 20,120 acres of land is under

mulberry cultivation covering all the blocks of the District.

As per the data published by the annual performance report of Uttar Dinajpur District, it was

observed that the total coverage land under mulberry cultivation in the year 2011-12, 2014-15,

2015-16, 2017-18, 2018-19 was 887.79, 1043.77, 1108.74,

477.758, 372.7 acres respectively (Fig. 1.4). This study suggested that with time there is a

decrease in mulberry cultivation which opens up a new avenue to understand the reason behind

such (Roy & Mukherjee, 2017).

 Fig. 1.4. Total coverage land under mulberry cultivation for various years

Rearing aspects

In the present era, most of the rearers prefer rearing with using crossbreeds (CB) or F1 and

bivoltine breeds (BV), however, multivoltine breeds (MV) are also

reared. Table 1.1 depicts the comparative assessment between bivoltine and multivoltine

silkworm races.

Table 1.1: Comparative assessment between Bivoltine and Multivoltine silkworm races

Characteristics Bivoltine Multivoltine

(BV) race (MV) race

Egg type Diapause / non-diapause Non-diapause

Capacity of Disease resistance Relatively poor Relatively better

Temperature tolerance Absent Present

Filament length per cocoon (in meter) 1000-1600 400-500

Average filament denier 2.85 2.1

Reelability (in %) 91.25 79.3

The natural features and traditional ability of the people in the art of raising silk embryos and

weaving silk have made Malda an important hub for the silk trade and to some extent Uttar

Dinajpur as well.

Approximately, in Malda, 63, 203 families are directly involved in this trade using 21,892.36

acres of private land in this District as on February 2020 (Source: Deputy Director of

Sericulture, Malda, Govt. of W.B.). Demographically, about 98% of workforce engaged in

sericulture belongs to Muslim community and most importantly women folk of all ages of the

rearer families play the key role in the industry. In Malda, for the assistance of the Seri-farmers

there are thirteen Technical Service Centre’s (TSC) (Fig. 1.5.).

Fig. 1.5. Coverage of TSCs for the farmers (Source: Directorate of Sericulture, Department of

Agriculture, Govt. of W.B.)

In the rural family of the Malda District in West Bengal, sericulture had been a traditional

livelihood activity that plays a pivotal role in boosting economy. The Malda region shares 75%

of the state's total silk production and 6% of the country's total (Simlandy, 2016). From the data

of the financial year 2019-20, it is revealed that the District Malda itself produced 14,677 MT

reeling cocoons and 1,748 MT of raw silk (Source: Deputy Director of Sericulture, Malda,

Department of Agriculture, Govt. of West Bengal).

Whereas, in Uttar Dinajpur District, in total there are five TSCs (located at Raiganj, Domohona,

Kaliaganj, Islampur and Chopra) and near about 1851 families were involved in this trade (Roy,

2017).

Role of women in sericulture

Family income is an important indicator of economic growth and the development of any

country, which is why work is so important to success. There is a great need for workers in

cultural activities where farmers use their family members,

especially the elderly and women. More than 50% of the world's population is made up of

women, 1/3rd of the workforce and makes up about 2/3 rd of all working hours. In many

countries counting India, women are repeatedly paid only 2/3rd or even 1/2 of the wages that

is earned by men for performing the same job (FAO, 1995). The income of women’s in a

family plays a central role in food, monetary and learning upliftment of the rural families. It

was noted that women are occupied in work when the rest of the members of the family are

enjoying rest (Mathur et al., 2013; Roy et al., 2012). The unremitting increase in prices has also

pushed women for income generation to uphold their family. In many agricultural activities,

including subsistence businesses such as dairy, poultry, beekeeping, mushroom farming,

sericulture, fishery, social forestry etc. women are involved (Chowdhury et al., 2011). Women

contributed to all aspects of sericulture from farm activities such as mulberry farming, worm

feeding, worm breeding to non-farm activities such as decision making, trading and marketing

(Geetha & Indira, 2011; Chowdhury et al., 2011).

As per the census of India, 2001, in rural India, revenue generation takes for granted an

immense importance for the women. India is known to be home to 12.7 crore working women

and 90% of them work in the informal sector (Good et al., 2009).

Therefore, there is no doubt that women play a key role in the sericulture sector, as household

chores are done. Throughout its long history, sericulture in India has experienced many ups and

downs. During the past 30 years, however, India has come a long way in producing silk and as

a result there is an ample scope for the women workers for the expansion of silk production in

the country (Vollrath et al., 2013; Yasukochi et al., 2008).

Statement of the problem

Sericulture has been acknowledged by Indian Planners as an important sector of the economy,

particularly because of its potential for strengthening the rural economy, providing employment

and increased export earnings. There is no dearth of studies on the changing status of women in

India. Most of them have attempted to document and highlight the socio-economic and political

processes that have led to changes in women's status. Increasingly, such studies have gained

added importance because of developments in understanding gender relations in the household

and society. They have shown that the status of women has changed a lot towards the better.

But, at the same time, they have pointed towards increasing disparities between the rich and

poor women, between rural and urban women, tribal and non-tribal women, illiterates and

educated among them etc. All these have combined in presenting a complex picture of

women's status. One important contribution of most of these studies is that external intervention

has been responsible for the perceived changes in women's status. There are a few studies (like

those by Mayoux & Anand, 1995; Tom, 1988) that reflect on the impact of development

programs on women who are already engaged in economic activities (like sericulture, for

ample), and have documented the consequent changes in their status. Even where the studies

have reported such a change in status, they have adopted a macro approach and that did not take

into consideration the micro-processes of socio-cultural change in nature, which would have, in

the given area of study, acted as facilitators of such enhanced status. Secondly, most of these

studies have failed to take note of certain externalities, which had acted as facilitating factors in

driving women to use the new opportunity very well.

The present study is a modest attempt in this direction. It aims to identify the socio-cultural

factors and 'everyday discourse' in which the rural women lead their livelihoods and to

contextually make changes against such indicators. Women's identity formation (status) and

representation (in activities) are thus viewed as being both the cause and consequence of their

(women's) socio-cultural background; and the attempts to empower them through external

efforts or interventions by enabling a linkage with the above framework. Instead of perceiving

women's empowerment as a unilinear process (where men are viewed as 'villains' of women's

development), the study tries to explore evidence through an intensive study for establishing

that the process of women's empowerment is the result of the combined efforts of men and

women where the former tend to play neither a facilitating role nor a totally negative one of

obstructing empowerment. Further, it tries to establish that in the event of the first hypothesis,

the development programmes of the government have come in handy for this facilitating

process, where the goal is the development of the household and not the women exclusively.

But in the process, is it correct to say that women's empowerment also takes place as a

consequence of this process, or as perceived by the planners as a trickle-down impact.

Objective of the study

1. To find out the participation of the women in community development endeavours in

selected localities of the Malda and Uttar Dinajpur Districts.

2. To examine the structure and roles of women’s group in community development.

3. To make a comparative study of the participation rate of women in different sericulture

activities.
4. To determine the obstacles to women’s participation and empowerment in local

development.

5. Respect for the sericulture cultivation of the effects women’s participation in the top

leadership of community structures.

6. To develop economic fostered greater female participating in community development

through sericulture.

Hypothesis of the study

The overall premise of the study is that though the diffusion of modern sericultural technology

contributed to increased production, income and employment, its distributional consequences

have been mixed. Also, it has exerted adverse impacts on the environment. Moreover, diffusion

of modern agricultural technology has not been uniformed across the region and, therefore,

contributed to regional disparities. Finally, the long-run crop productivity is reaching a

saturation value thereby posing a threat to keep up with rapid population growth.

Therefore, hypothesis to fulfill the specified objectives of this study are grouped under the

following basic categories outlined below. For the purpose of deducing concrete and specific

results, the hypothesis is postulated in null form with open alternative hypothesis since the

relationship of factors, particularly the non- conventional factors with crop production cannot

be determined a priori. Therefore, the null-hypothesis to be tested are:

H1: There is no significant difference between the income level of farmers before and after the

introduction of the improved mulberry varieties.

H2: The respondents are technically inefficient in improved crop production.

H3: Farm income is affected by the socio-economic status of the household head;
H4: Sericulture family farming is highly vulnerable to changing production conditions;

H5: Sericulture family farming has the potential to provide an appropriate livelihood for rural

families.

H6: Profitability of sericulture is significantly higher than that of any other allied activities in

West Bengal at the present technological setup.

H7: Sericulture in West Bengal is more effective in the generation of employments than the

other ventures of Agriculture,

H8: Farmers in two Districts are not profit-maximizers. Farmers do not respond to variation in

input prices and changing production environment by reallocating resources and switching

between local and modern sericultural technologies.

H9: Socio-economic factors, such as land ownership, farm size and tenurial status do not

influence modern technology adoption decisions.

H10: Modern agricultural technology does not influence employment, operation of the labour

market as well as the operation of other factor markets.

Methodology and sample design

This study is based on both primary and secondary data collected from various sources vis, (i)

Census, (ii) Economic survey, (iii) Statistical Documents, (iv) NSSO, (v) Deputy Director of

Sericulture, Malda, Directorate of Sericulture, Department of Agriculture, Govt. of West

Bengal, (vi) Assistant Director of Sericulture, Uttar Dinajpur, Directorate of Sericulture,

Department of Agriculture, Govt. of West Bengal, (vii) Directorate of Sericulture, Department

of Agriculture, Govt. of West Bengal(viii) Department of Economics, Statistics, Monitoring &

Evaluation, Government of West Bengal, (ix) Department of Rural Management and

Development, Government of West Bengal, (x) Human Development Report 2014

(WB), (xi) State Industrial profile of West Bengal, 2014-2015 and (xii) Ministry of MSME

(Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises), Government of India. The sample households for the

collection of primary data have been selected by using the multi- stage stratified random

sampling technique. The relevant details of the steps of the investigation process or the

methodology followed were under the following subheadings.

1 Locale of the study.

2 Method of sampling.

3 Method of data collection.

4 Categorisation of variables and their scoring.

5 Operational definitions of variables and terms used.

6 Statistical procedure.