Running Head: SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 1

A Quantitative Study of Serial Position Effect on Normal and Depressed People

Word Count: 2200

SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 2

Abstract

In serial position effect, individuals have the tendency to recall words that are at the
beginning and the end of a list very well, compared to those in the middle because due to
rehearsal and because these are the first thing we write down. Less recall of words in the
center part as short-term memory is full. Past studies have shown that there is a decline in
serial position effect in depressed population. This study was conducted in similar context to
explore the differences in serial position effect in past and present normal groups, as well in
normal and depressed people. A free recall test was executed in 20 participants by utilizing
four list of 12 words. There was overall declined in depressed group with marked reduction in
the beginning and middle list. The normal group showed better results in free recall test
compared to the depressed group. Future study should explore this issue further by recruiting
more participants from various background and increasing the number of participants for
more representative results. This serial position effects can be applied in school and
presentation situation where the teacher and presenter could put the essential information at
the beginning and last part of the session for the effectiveness of recalling about the materials
for listeners.
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 3

A Quantitative Study of Serial Position Memory on Normal and Depressed People

Short-term memory keeps information temporarily and has a limited storage where
there are only 3-4 chunks of information can be input at one time. Memory theory of
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) stated that rehearsal transfers short-term information into
long-term storage. If people combine related words into phrases or sentences, they will likely
to increase their ability to hold information in their short-term memories. Past experiment
(Murdock, 1962) showed a primary and recency effect, where subjects are able to remember
the words at the start of the list due to rehearsals while the words at the end of the list because
these are recalled first. Words in the middle of the list are not recalled much because the
short-term store has already been fulfilled. Based on past study (Murdock, 1962), the middle
portion of the list is usually forgotten. In the first item the rehearsal time is sufficient so that it
can recall it from the long-term memory but the middle item does not have enough time to do
the rehearsal so the accuracy of the recall is also weak and the last item has no effect. The
primary and recency effect shapes a U-curve performance on free recall test results, which is
seen on healthy people in all ages (Rundus, 1971).

Compared to normal participants, the depressed group perform worse in brain activity
as they have cognitive impairment that affect the results (Channon & Green, 1999).
Depressed participant didn’t use techniques such as combining words into phrases for better
recalling words or make quick sentences based on given words, whereas normal participant
when trying to remember the words, they tried to find unique ways to connect related words
in order to recall these words easily (Gibson, 1981). Based on a study conduct by Caine,
Yerevanian, Bamford (1984), depressed participants had more incorrect responses and not in
the right order in free recall test compared to normal participants as depressed participants are
more difficult to internalize these words in a very short time. According to Bemelmans,
Goekoop, & Kempen (1996) study, depressed participants show impairment recall
performance on the primary part of the word list and believe that depressed participants have
issues in effortful processing which is associated with primary part of serial position effect.

Researcher use quasi-experiment in this study researcher can’t randomly assign

participant to random group since researcher are interested in examining the serial position
effect in normal and depressed group. The aim of this study is to evaluate serial position
effects in depressed group compared with normal group, in past group and present group by
using a free recall test. It is hypothesized that serial position of present normal group is not
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 4

equal with the past normal group. The null hypothesis is that present normal group have equal
serial position effect with past group. It is hypothesized that serial position effect of normal
group is higher than depressed group. The null hypothesis is that the normal and depressed
group show the same results of serial position effect or else, the serial position effect of
depressed group is higher than normal population. Researcher replicated past experiments in
this field.

Method
Participants. Twenty subjects from the diploma psychology programme at Kaplan
Institute participated in this experiment. The subjects contained of 8 males and 12 females
with range of age 17-29 years (M = 21.05 and SD = 2.96). This group is recognized as the
present normal group. There are also past data of previous subjects who had participated in
free recall test which was obtained from Kaplan Institute. Thirty-eight subjects that consisted
of 23 females and 15 males, with range of age 19-45 years (M = 28.95 and SD = 7.62) were
selected and they are recognized as past normal group in this study. The Ethics Committee
has approved this study. These past and present groups are combined later as normal
participant group. Data of 55 participants who were diagnosed with depression and have
participated the free recall test were collected from Institution of Mental Health. This data is
also have been approved by the Ethics Committee. The depressed participants consisted of 31
males and 24 females with range of age 66-76 years (M = 70.18 and SD = 1.98).
Materials. There were four different word lists with each of them contains twelve
nouns such as animals and objects that were tested on the participants. The word lists were
created by randomly choosing nouns from 1000 most popular English nouns. Response sheet
are also required in this study for participants to write their responses which are the recall of
these nouns.
Procedure. Participant are gathered in the lab where the test was carried out and
participant were seated meanwhile the researcher gave briefings on how the recall test was
done. This experiment lasted about 20 minutes. After briefing, participants were requested to
fill out an inform consent.
The free recall test was implemented by utilizing four list of 12 words showed to
participants. Each word was showed for one second, before shifting to the next words. After
showing the 12th word in each list, the researcher will shout “start” and the participants write
down the nouns they have remembered from the word presentation in their response sheet for
two minutes. Participants must write the words in the same order as they have been
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 5

presented. These steps are repeated four times since we have four word-lists. After
completing four word-lists, the presenter showed the whole word lists and asked the
participant to calculate the scores. Each word was given a score that matches its position in
the list presented such as presence of word 1 in recall list will be given a score 1. The total
scores for each word position were calculated and final scores were displayed in results
section. Researcher will calculate the mean and standard deviation for each serial position
from participants’ test results and compare mean of serial position from one group to the
other group.
Results
Table 1
Means and SDs of past and present normal groups, normal and depressed groups
Serial Position Present Group Past Group Normal Depressed
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
1 3.05 (1.28) 3.37 (0.75) 3.26 (0.97) 1.29 (0.90)
2 2.85 (0.81) 2.79 (0.99) 2.81 (0.93) 1.40 (0.93)
3 2.70 (0.80) 2.45 (0.95) 2.53 (0.90) 1.44 (1.05)
4 2.05 (1.05) 1.76 (0.97) 1.86 (1.00) 1.55 (0.77)
5 2.50 (1.15) 1.95 (0.96) 2.14 (1.05) 1.36 (0.70)
6 2.25 (1.21) 1.79 (1.14) 1.95 (1.18) 1.33 (0.92)
7 1.95 (0.94) 1.79 (1.19) 1.84 (1.11) 1.40 (0.71)
8 2.05 (1.10) 1.37 (0.91) 1.60 (1.02) 1.44 (0.88)
9 1.75 (1.02) 1.63 (1.30) 1.67 (1.21) 1.73 (0.73)
10 1.70 (1.08) 1.68 (1.02) 1.69 (1.03) 1.75 (0.73)
11 2.30 (0.73) 1.79 (0.99) 1.97 (0.94) 1.78 (0.99)
12 2.20 (0.95) 2.34 (1.10) 2.29 (1.04) 1.80 (0.65)
Total 27.35 24.71 25.62 18.25

Table 1 shows that there was mean difference in serial position effect between normal
and depressed group where the normal group’s memory score was higher than the depressed
group. This table also shows that there is difference in serial position effect between past
group and present group, where the present performs better than past and the difference mean
score is 2.64.
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 6

Figure 1
Serial Position Effect in 4 Groups

With reference to figure 1, participants who were depressed shows very low serial
position effect in recalling words compared with normal group which is shown by the overall
line graph and depressed group has 9 lowest word positions. There were overall declined in
depressed group with marked reduction in the beginning and middle list. Past normal group
perform the highest of recalling the first word position. On the second, third, and fourth word
position, present normal group perform the highest of recalling and the depressed group
perform the lowest of recalling the words. Middle part of word position which is 5-8, present
normal group performed the highest compare with 3 others groups. Although the fifth, sixth,
and seventh word position the depressed performed the lowest, however on the eighth word
position, it is past normal group that performed the lowest. Normal group perform the highest
on ninth word position, however, depressed group perform the second highest and depressed
group performs the highest on the tenth word position. Present normal perform the highest
on eleventh word position in recalling, however past normal perform the highest on twelfth
word position in recalling. Overall, present normal performs better in recalling word position
compared with other groups which can be seen on the graph where present normal has the
highest percentages in 8 word-positions.
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 7

Discussion
The results obtained in this study showed greater serial position effect in normal
group compared to the depressed group, as can be seen in the overall higher mean scores in
the normal group. Even though the mean difference of serial position effect between past
normal and present normal is small, but it is considered different so the null hypothesis is
rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. Since the mean of serial position effect in
normal population and depressed population has big difference and the normal has higher
than the depressed, it is considered that the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative
hypothesis is accepted.
The results suggest that depressed participants have poorer memory recall compared
to normal participants. This was consistent with the study by Goekoop & Kempen (1996)
who found that depressed individuals had poorer working memory capacity compared to
normal participants. Depressed participants’ results perform the poorest among the other
groups which means they have more incorrect responses compared with other groups; this is
consistent with Caine et al (1984) study. Even though the depressed score the lowest, but we
can see there’s an increasing indication which is located at word position 8-10 although the
percentages drop off at 11th and 12th position.
The results also consistent with past experiment of Murdock (1962), where the
primary and recency effect are more recallable than middle part for normal population,
although on the 12th word position the present normal group didn’t show the indication of
rising performance. The graph on result section doesn’t show a very U-line curve on this
study as the graph of last part of word position (9-12) is not higher as on the beginning part of
the word position line graph (1-4) which is not consistent much with Rundus (1971) study.
The limitation of this study was that researcher only sampled diploma students for the
normal group which may not be representative enough. The depression sample is also may
not be representative of the entirety population. Future studies should thus recruit subjects
from diverse educational backgrounds and age groups, to provide a more representative
picture of the population. Researcher also suggest to intensify the number of participants to
obtain more representative results. Before executing the recall test, for the next research, it is
advisable to build rapport with the participants in order to educate about this study to get
more understanding and motivate them in completing the recall test and get better results with
lesser biases.
According to Aronen et al (2004), serial position effect can be seen in school setting
where students are more likely to remember the lesson at the beginning and the end of the
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 8

class. In Aronen experiment, he asked his participants about the materials that have been
explained in the beginning, middle and end part of the class. His participants mostly could
answer topics at the first and last 10 minutes of the class and didn’t respond much when
asked about the middle topic of the lesson. This study suggest that it is better for future
lessons and presentations are more aware of this and prioritizing the valuable or important
information on the beginning or last session so the listener could remember the essence of the
session since an individual may not comprehend all the materials in one time.
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 9

Reference

Aronen, E. T., Vuontela, V. Steenari, M. R., Salmi, J., & Carlson, S. (2004). Working
Memory, Psychiatric Symptoms, and Academic Performance at School.
Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 83, 33-42.

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Chapter: Human memory: A proposed system and
its control processes. In Spence, K. W., & Spence, J. T. The psychology of learning
and motivation (Volume 2). New York: Academic Press. pp. 89–195.

Bemelmans, K. J., Goekoop, J. G., & Kempen G. M. J. (1996). Recall Performance in

Acutely Depressed Patients and Plasma Cortisol. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 39,
750-752.

Caine, E. D., Yerevanian, B. I., & Bamford, K. A. (1984). Cognitive Function and
Dexamethasone Suppression Test in Depression. Am J Psychiatry, 141, 116-118

Channon, S. & Green, P. S. S. (1999). Executive Function in Depression: The Role of

Performance Strategies in Aiding Depressed and Non-depressed Participants. J
Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 66, 162-171.

Gibson, A. J. (1981). A Further Analysis of Memory Loss in Dementia and Depression in the
Elderly. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20(3), 179-185.

Murdock, B. B. (1962). The Serial Position effect of free recall. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 64(5), 482–488.

Rundus, D. (1971). Analysis of Rehearsal Processes in Free Recall. Journal of Experimental

Psychology, 89, 63-77.
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 10

Appendix A

Consent Form

TITLE OF STUDY

A Quantitative Study of Serial Position Memory on Normal and Depressed People

PURPOSE OF STUDY

You are invited to participate in a quantitative research study being conducted by Putri
Setiawati Halim. Before you decide to take part in this study, it is important that you
understand why the research is being done and what it will involve. Please read the following
information carefully. Please ask the researcher if there is anything that is not clear or if you
need more information.

The purpose of this research study is to examine the differences in serial position effect in
normal and depressed group.

STUDY PROCEDURES

Participants will be asked to complete a free recall memory test where the researcher will
give a list of words that each of them contained 12 nouns by presenting one-by-one word per
second. Participants will be provided response sheet and asked to write down the words in the
right order they have remembered from the presentation in 2 minutes. This session will be
repeated four times with different word list. After completing the response sheet, participant
will be guided to calculate the memory scores and the results will be collected by the
researcher. This test and scoring take approximately 20 minutes or so. Besides memory
scores, participants’ data of age and gender are also collected.

VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION

Participation in this study is voluntary. Refusal to participate will involve no penalty or

loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. The alternative to participate in this study
is to not participate. What this means is that you can decide to not participate. You are free to
withdraw from the study at any time, at no penalty. Withdrawal from the study will in no way
prejudice your future interactions with the personnel administering or supervising the study.

RISKS
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 11

There are no known risks or discomforts associated with this study.

BENEFITS

Participating in this study may not benefit you directly. However, it will help the researcher
to learn and understand more if there are any differences of serial position memory in normal
and depressed people.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Your name will not be on any of the documents since researcher only asked for your age and
gender data. Researcher will number the participants to protect your identity. The information
you will share with us if you participate in this study will be kept completely confidential to
the full extent of the law. Only the researcher will have access to this information. Researcher
will not be sharing information about you and the memory scores to anyone else and will be
kept private.

CONSENT

I have read and understood the above information and have had any questions answered
satisfactorily. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I can withdraw at any
time without giving reasons and without negative consequences. I understand that all
information I provide for this study will be treated confidentially. I am willingly giving my
consent to participate in this study and allow the researcher to use my data for this research. I,
along with the researcher, agree to sign and date this consent form.

_______________________________ ______________________________
Signature of Participant Date

_______________________________ ______________________________
Signature of Researcher Date
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 12

Appendix B

Word Lists

Word List 1
1. Rabbit
2. Potato
3. Garden
4. Square
5. Tennis
6. Flower
7. Elephant
8. Club
9. Jacket
10. Rainbow
11. Pear
12. Pillow

Word List 2
1. Pineapple
2. Couch
3. Tiger
4. Chair
5. Sun
6. Unicorn
7. Airplane
8. Badminton
9. Rhino
10. Apple
11. Baseball
12. Rat

Word list 3
1. Movie
2. Joker
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT ON NORMAL & DEPRESSED GROUP 13

3. Joey
4. Tortoise
5. Angry
6. Shouted
7. Shed
8. Engineer
9. Crocodile
10. Telephone
11. Mat
12. Shoulder

Word list 4
1. Mango
2. Bandit
3. Rotten
4. Sunglass
6. Brother
7. Denim
8. Cricket
9. Swollen
10. Branch
11. Bakery
12. Table