International Journal of Coal Geology 77 (2009) 260–268

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International Journal of Coal Geology

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / i j c o a l g e o

Geochemistry and petrology of selected coal samples from Sumatra, Kalimantan,

Sulawesi, and Papua, Indonesia
Harvey E. Belkin a,⁎, Susan J. Tewalt a, James C. Hower b, J.D. Stucker b,c, J.M.K. O'Keefe d
a
U.S. Geological Survey, 956 National Center, Reston, VA 20192, USA
b
University of Kentucky Center for Applied Energy Research, 2540 Research Park Drive, Lexington, KY 40511, USA
c
University of Kentucky Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
d
Morehead State University, Department of Physical Science, Morehead, KY 40351, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Indonesia has become the world's largest exporter of thermal coal and is a major supplier to the Asian coal
Received 31 January 2008 market, particularly as the People's Republic of China is now (2007) and perhaps may remain a net importer
Received in revised form 31 July 2008 of coal. Indonesia has had a long history of coal production, mainly in Sumatra and Kalimantan, but only in
Accepted 1 August 2008
the last two decades have government and commercial forces resulted in a remarkable coal boom. A recent
Available online 7 August 2008
assessment of Indonesian coal-bed methane (CBM) potential has motivated active CBM exploration. Most of
Keywords:
the coal is Paleogene and Neogene, low to moderate rank and has low ash yield and sulfur (generally b 10 and
Indonesia b 1 wt.%, respectively). Active tectonic and igneous activity has resulted in significant rank increase in some
Coal coal basins. Eight coal samples are described that represent the major export and/or resource potential of
Geochemistry Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua. Detailed geochemistry, including proximate and ultimate
Organic petrology analysis, sulfur forms, and major, minor, and trace element determinations are presented. Organic petrology
Paleogene and vitrinite reflectance data reflect various precursor flora assemblages and rank variations, including
Neogene sample composites from active igneous and tectonic areas. A comparison of Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)
elements abundance with world and US averages show that the Indonesian coals have low combustion
pollution potential.
Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction began again in the 1980s, mainly through a change in Indonesian

Indonesia is an archipelago of more than 17,000 islands that
stretches astride the equator for about 5200 km in southeast Asia
(Fig. 1) and includes major Cenozoic volcano-plutonic arcs, active
volcanoes, and various related onshore and offshore basins. These
magmatic arcs have extensive Cu and Au mineralization that has
generated much exploration and mining in the last 50 years. The
metallogeny of Indonesia includes Au-rich porphyry Cu, porphyry Mo,
skarn Cu–Au, sedimentary-rock hosted Au, laterite Ni, and diamond
deposits.
Coal mining in Indonesia has had a long history, beginning with the
initial production in 1849 in the Mahakam coal field near Pengaron, East
Kalimantan; in 1891 in the Ombilin area, Sumatra, (van Leeuwen, 1994);
and in South Sumatra in 1919 at the Bukit Asam mine (Soehandojo,
1989). Total production from deposits in Sumatra and Kalimantan, from
the 19th century to World War II, amounted to 40 Mt. After World War II,
production declined due to various factors, including politics and a boom
in the world-wide oil economy. Active exploration and increased mining
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hbelkin@usgs.gov (H.E. Belkin).
government policy of collaboration with foreign companies and the
global oil crises (Prijono, 1989). This recent coal revival (van Leeuwen,
1994) has led Indonesia to become the world's largest exporter of
thermal coal (steam) coal by 2006 (Fairhead et al., 2006; Mining-Journal
Online, 2006). Australia dominates export of metallurgical (coking) coal
in the world market and is still the world's largest total coal exporter, but
has experienced limitations in available port capacity. Indonesian
thermal coal is desirable as it is low sulfur and ash yield (generally b1
and b10 wt.%, respectively). Coal mining for both local use and for export
has a very strong future in Indonesia although, at present, there are
concerns about the need for a major revision in mining laws and foreign
investment policies (United States Embassy Jakarta, 2004; Wahju, 2004).
In 2000, the Directorate of Coal, Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources (United States Embassy Jakarta, 2000) estimated coal
resources at 38.8 Gt with 21.1 Gt in Kalimantan, 17.8 Gt in Sumatra,
and the balance in Sulawesi, Java, and Papua. Recent (2006) estimates
by the Directorate of Mineral, Coal, and Geothermal Resources put the
resource potential at 57 Gt (Setiawan, 2006). A caveat is that the
reserve and resource estimates may not be in agreement with
international standards of calculation and definition.
Indonesia has achieved a remarkable growth rate in coal production
and export in the last 20 years. Exports equaled 6 Mt in 1991 whereas in

0166-5162/$ – see front matter. Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.coal.2008.08.001
 H.E. Belkin et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 77 (2009) 260–268
Fig. 1. A. Map showing the location of the Indonesian archipelago and the 8 coal samples. B. Map showing the generalized location of coal-bearing sequences in Indonesia. Adapted
from Friederich et al. (1999).
2005, Indonesia exported 93 Mt (Setiawan, 2006) from a total
production of 134 Mt. Indonesia has grown from the position in 1992
of sixth largest exporter of thermal coal (Sherer, 1994). In 2007, China
became a net coal importer and Indonesia became the world's largest
thermal coal exporter and dominates the Asian market. The Indonesian
export is primarily to Japan and Taiwan, with lesser but increasing
amounts to South Korea, the Philippines, India and China. The number of
coal terminals is now 17, with a capacity between 5000 and 200,000
DWT (deadweight tonnes) with plans for increasing access and shipping
potential as coal export increases.
This paper provides geochemical and petrographic data from a
selected group of Indonesian coal samples covering a range of coal
types, localities, and ages, collected for the USGS WoCQI program
(Tewalt et al., 2005).
2. Study area
2.1. Geological setting
Most of the coal deposits are geologically young (Cenozoic) and this
is reflected in the rank distribution of the resources: lignite — 58%; sub-
261
bituminous — 27%; bituminous — 14%; and anthracite — b0.5% (U.S.
Embassy Jakarta, 2000). Most of the coal mined for export has calorific
values that range from 5000 to 7000 kcal/kg, with low ash yield and
sulfur (United States Embassy Jakarta, 2000). Low grade coals are
characterized by high moisture contents (20 to 40%) and a calorific
value of less than 5000 kcal/kg; these coals are currently considered
uneconomic for export due to the high moisture content. Kalimantan
has higher quality coal and is the site for much exploration and
development, although other areas such as Papua, with pressing
energy needs, are also being explored and developed.
Early Paleogene rifting along the margins of Sundaland, a back-arc
setting of the Indian Ocean Plate (Kusnama et al., 1993; Cole and
Crittenden, 1997), produced various shallow basins. Initial fluviatile
sequences were followed by coastal plain and/or lacustrine deposits
depending on location. The lithologies that were deposited, probably
starting in the Early Eocene, include carbonates, clastics and coal. Coal
sequences of Eocene age are known in the following basins: Barito
(Central Kalimantan), Pasir and Asam Asam (South and East
Kalimantan), Upper Kutai [also spelled Kutei] (East and Central
Kalimantan), Melawi and Ketungau (West Kalimantan), Tarakan
(East Kalimantan), Ombilin (West Sumatera), and the Central Sumatra
262 H.E. Belkin et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 77 (2009) 260–268
Basin (Riau), together with generally thin coal seams in other small
basins in Java and South Sulawesi.
Marine transgression and deposition ended the Early Paleogene
rifting and associated coal-forming environment. After this extensive
transgression, uplift and compression led to basin formation by the
Middle Miocene. Miocene (and perhaps younger) coal-bearing
sequences are being mined from the Kutai [also spelled Kutei] Basin
(Kalimantan), Barito Basin (Central Kalimantan), South Sumatra Basin
(South Sumatra), Bengkulu Basin (Bengkulu), and the Tarakan Basin
(East Kalimantan). The Miocene coal is exceptionally low in mineral
matter and sulfur, and is low in rank unless affected by igneous activity.
The environment of formation is thought to represent ombrogenous
peat formed above the water table that produced coals free from the
influence of water-borne detritus and sulfur input from brackish
waters, similar to modern ombrogenous peat deposits elsewhere in
Indonesia (e.g., Cobb and Cecil, 1993; Esterle and Ferm, 1994).
The Paleogene and Neogene export coals are markedly low in
mineral matter and sulfur. Details of their petrogenesis have been
extensively studied in order to understand the environment of
formation that led to these characteristics (Cobb and Cecil, 1993).
For more detailed discussion of the local geologic setting, the reader is
referred to Friederich et al. (1999) and Soehandojo (1989) and
references therein. The majority of coal currently mined in Indonesia
is derived from Eocene and Miocene strata on two islands, Sumatra
and Kalimantan. Cenozoic coal-bearing sequences also exist in Java
and Sulawesi, and Neogene (Steenkool Formation) and Permian coal
occurs in Papua (Fig. 1B).
2.2. Sample descriptions
The run-of-mine or representative exploration-site samples (~ 1 kg
each) described in this report were collected in 2000 by Hadiyanto,
now Director of Mineral Resources Inventory, Directorate of Mineral
Resources Inventory, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources,
Directorate General of Geology and Mineral Resources, Bandung,
Indonesia. For the sample locations, we have used the most recent
Indonesian province designations; seven provinces were created since
2000 and, where appropriate, we also give the former province name.
Fig. 1A indicates the sample locations.
2.2.1. Sample CQ01 — West Sumatra Province (Sumatera Barat) 0° 40′ S,
100° 45′ E
The Ombilin Basin, a small (20 × 60-km) Paleogene onshore basin,
is located just west of the much larger Central Sumatra Basin. It
contains thick Eocene to Miocene marine and terrestrial sediments
that share a similar tectonic and stratigraphic history which is similar
to all of the rift basins on Sumatra. The economic coal occurs within
the Eocene Sawahlunto Formation which is composed of gray
mudstone and siltstone and coal seams with minor quartz-rich
sandstone (Friederich et al., 1999). Three coals seams, locally up to 8-m
thick, occur in the upper part of the Sawahlunto Formation and are the
main units mined.
The Ombilin mine, located 57-km northeast of Padang, West
Sumatra, is owned by state-owned PT Tambang Batubara Bukit Asam
(PTBA), and includes both underground and surface operations
mining Eocene age coal. The underground mine uses a longwall
retreating system, with semi-mechanized equipment, operated
manually, and fully mechanized longwall equipment, operated
hydraulically. Sample CQ01 is from the open-pit operation and
represents a multiple seam composite at the time of sampling.
2.2.2. Sample CQ02 — South Sumatra Province (Sumatera Selatan) 3° 45′
S, 103° 47′ E
The state-owned PT Tambang Batubara Bukit Asam (PTBA)
currently mines a Miocene age coal deposit at Banko Barat (also
spelled Bangko) in the South Sumatra Basin. The South Sumatra coal
basin is one of the most important coal mining regions in Indonesia
(Thomas, 2005). This basin is tectonically active and the coal in some
parts has been affected by igneous activity. The basin formed in the
Early Paleogene as a back-arc basin northeast of the Barisan
Mountains. The Oligocene to middle Miocene Gumai Formation is
composed of fossiliferous marine shale with thin, glauconitic lime-
stone that represents a rapid, widespread maximum transgression.
The middle Miocene Air Benakat Formation was deposited during the
regression that ended deposition of the Gumai Shale. The Air Benakat
Formation changes upward from deep marine to shallow marine
conditions. Marine glauconitic clays decrease in frequency and marine
sands increase. The formation ranges from 1000 to 1500-m thick. Coal
beds mark the upper contact with the overlying Muara Enim
Formation. The Late Miocene to Pliocene Muara Enim Formation,
also known as the Middle Palembang Formation, was deposited as
shallow marine to continental sands, muds, and coals. The formation
thins to the north from a maximum of 750 m in the south. Uplift of the
Barisan Mountains provided source terrains for clastics from the south
and southwest during deposition of the Muara Enim Formation
(Bishop, 2000). The Muara Enim Formation is the main coal-bearing
unit being mined (cf. Susilawati and Ward, 2006). The studied coal is a
run-of-mine composite sample of the Mangas seam from the Air Laya
pit; Susilawati and Ward (2006) discuss the details the coal seams of
the Muara Enim Formation.
2.2.3. Sample CQ03 — South Sumatra Province (Sumatera Selatan), 2°
25′ S, 103° 15′ E
An exploration site of Kota Tengah has sampled coal of Miocene to
Pliocene age. The exploration site is in the South Sumatra Basin, and
the geological description is the same as for sample CQ02. The studied
coal was a sample of a seam tentatively identified as the Mangas seam.
2.2.4. Sample CQ04 — Central Kalimantan Province (Kalimantan Tengah),
1° 20′ S. 115° 10′ E
The Kandui village exploration site is located in Central Kalimantan
Province in the North Barito district, Gunung Timang subdistrict,
which has large reserves of high-quality Miocene age coal. The studied
coal represents a composite sample from the exploration site.
2.2.5. Sample CQ05 — East Kalimantan Province (Kalimantan Timur), 0°
27′ N, 117° 35′ E
The Kaltim Prima coal mine, operated by Kaltim Prima Coal PT
(KPC), is the largest Indonesian coal mine. It is owned by an
Indonesian Company, PT Bumi Resources, who bought out British
Petroleum (BP) and Rio Tinto coal mining interests in 2003. This
operation in Sangatta (also spelled Sangata), East Kalimantan, has
produced Miocene age thermal coal since operations were initiated in
1991. Plans for expansion to the nearby Bengalon area were
announced in 2004 (Mining-Technology.com, 2006). A total of 13
seams range in thickness from 1 to 15-m; typically in the range of 2.4
to 6.5-m. Seam dips vary from 3° to 20° at the outcrop. The coal occurs
in the Balikpapan and Pulubalang Formations, and the three main coal
seams are called Kedapat, Pinang, and Sangatta (Soehandojo, 1989).
The coal is generally low mineral matter and low sulfur, and has a low
in-situ moisture content. In some parts, the coal rank has been
increased by igneous intrusion to a high volatile bituminous coal and
this is what was sampled. As of mid-2004, PT Bumi cited reserves at
462 Mt at Sangatta, plus 157 Mt at Bengalon. The company also has
measured and indicated resources of some 2200 million t (Mining-
Technology.com, 2006). The studied coal is a run-of-mine sample of
the Sangatta seam.
2.2.6. Sample CQ06 — South Kalimantan Province (Kalimantan Selatan),
2° 58′ S, 116° 16′ E
The Senakin mine, South Kalimantan, operated by PT Arutmin
Indonesia, mines Eocene age coal. This economically important coal
 H.E. Belkin et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 77 (2009) 260–268 263

Table 1
Vitrinite reflectance and maceral content

% total Rmax sd Rr sd Vit Ulm Tex Det Cor Fus Sem Mic Mac Fun Spo Cut Res Suber Clay Sul Carb Qtz
CQ01 0.8 0.04 0.73 0.04 80.2 2.4 1.6 0 0 10.4 0.2 2 0.8 0.4 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.0
CQ02 0.33 0.02 0.3 0.02 61.2 8.2 14.6 0 0 7.2 2.8 3.4 0 0.8 T 1.8 0.0 0.0
CQ03A 49.0 0.4 0.03 0.38 0.04 20 6 17.3 3.3 5.8 5.5 0 0 36.5 1.5 0 1 0 0.0 3.3 0.0 0.0
CQ03B 28.8 0.8 0.05 0.76 0.05 68.8 7.9 9.6 0 0 5 1.3 1.3 3.8 0 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0
CQ03C 22.2 1.61 0.09 1.53 0.1 95.6 1.1 1.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 1.7 T 0.0
CQ04 0.42 0.04 0.38 0.04 71.8 2.8 8.6 0 0 11 1 2 1 0 0.0 1.8 0.0 0.0
CQ05 0.52 0.06 0.48 0.06 57.0 8.4 11.2 0 0 15.4 1.6 0.8 2.8 0.6 0.0 2.2 0.0 0.0
CQ06 0.57 0.03 0.51 0.04 77.0 1.2 3.4 0 0 13.4 0.6 1.8 0.8 0 0.0 1.8 0.0 0.0
CQ07 4.94 0.32 4.04 0.38 96.8 2.2 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0
CQ08 0.31 0.04 0.29 0.04 18 9.6 13 9.2 12.2 17.4 0 0 18.6 1.4 0 0.6 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Abbreviations: Rmax = vitrinite maximun reflectance, Rr = vitrinite random reflectance; sd = one sigma standard deviation; Vit = vitrinite; ulm = ulminite; Tex = textinite; Det =
detrohuminite; Cor = corpohuminite; Fus = fusinite; Sem = semifusinite; Mic = micrinite; Mac = macrinite; Fun = funginite; Spo = sporinite; Cut = cutinite; Res = resinite; Suber =
suberinite; Sul = sulfide; Carb = carbonate; Qtz = quartz; T = trace.

occurs near the base of the T2 member of the Tanjung Formation. The
laterally continuous basal coal unit is up to 9-m thick, but is more
typically 4 to 6 m (Friederich et al., 1999). The lower part of the Eocene
seam is low in sulfur, whereas the upper part has higher sulfur levels
due to increased pyrite content or subsequent sulfate alteration. The
coal bed varies vertically in mineral matter and sulfur content, but this
variation is laterally consistent and predictable (Friederich et al.,
1995). At Senakin (also spelled Senaking), the workings are two
underground operations. The concession area, known as Kalimantan
Block 6, covers narrow strips of land in the southeast corner of
Kalimantan Island plus the northern tip of neighboring Pulau Laut
Island. The studied coal is a sample of the T2 member of the Tanjung
Formaiton.
2.2.7. Sample CQ07 — Papua Province (formerly Irian Jaya), 4° 42′ S, 136°
55′ E
The Timika coal sample is from an exploration site along the
southern or Australasian Plate side of the main suture zone in western
New Guinea. This coal is of Permian age and the associated floras have
Gondwana affinities as described by Rigby (1998). Permian coal in
West Papua also has been investigated as source rock for oil and gas
(Sutriyono and Hill, 2000). Potential coal production in the Mimika
regency containing the Timika site will be important to support the PT
Freeport Indonesia Company and the mining in the Tembagapura
district. In May 2006, PLN (Perusahaan Listrik Negara; Indonesia State
Electricity Company) announced an additional coal-fired power
project in Timika with a capacity of 14 MW (United States Embassy
Jakarta, 2006).
2.2.8. Sample CQ08 — South Sulawesi Province (Sulawesi Selatan), 4° 50′
S, 119° 52′ E
The Malawa exploration locality is situated near the Palae River, a
tributary of the Batuputih, near the village of Telampenua, South
Sulawesi. The geology consists of mainly sandstones, slates, marls, and
some greywackes. Intercalated with these rocks are layers or lenses of
coal, some of which are up to 1.5-m thick. Together these form the

Fig. 2. Reflected-light photomicrographs. A. Sample CQ01, B. Sample CQ01, C. Sample CQ02, D. Sample CQ03.
264 H.E. Belkin et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 77 (2009) 260–268
Malawa Formation of Eocene age. The Malawa Formation overlies
unconformably the Balangbura Formation of Cretaceous age, and is
itself overlain conformably by the limestone of the Tonasa Formation
(Radja, 1970). These formations are part of an early Paleogene rift
basin that extends offshore of South Sulawesi and has been the target
of oil and gas exploration (Cucci et al., 1994). The studied sample is
from the Malawa Formation.
3. Methodology
Proximate and ultimate analyses and determination of sulfur forms
were carried out by Geochemical Testing, Somerset, PA following ASTM
standard procedures. Major, minor, and trace element analyses were done
at the U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado using standard techniques
describe by Bullock et al. (2002) and by Activation Laboratories, Ancaster,
Ontario, Canada. Petrographic studies were conducted on polished resin-
bound particulate pellets using Leitz microscopes, with reflected-light, oil-
immersion techniques and a final magnification of 400–625×, at the
Center for Applied Energy Research, Lexington, KY. Reconnaissance
scanning electron microscope–energy dispersive analysis (SEM–EDS)
and electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) were conducted in the U.S.
Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia using a JEOL JXA-8900 SuperProbe.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Coal petrology
The maceral content and vitrinite reflectance for the Indonesian
coals is presented on Table 1. Despite the low reflectance of some
samples, for example CQ02, the preservation of the macerals dictated
that the bituminous coal maceral nomenclature be used (ICCP, 1998,
2001; Sýkorová et al., 2005). Sample CQ03 is a blend of three distinct
ranks and the maceral and mineral percentages for each component
were determined.
Fig. 3. Reflected-light photomicrographs. A. Sample CQ04, B. Sample CQ04, C. Sample CQ05, D. Sample CQ06.
4.1.1. Sumatra
CQ01 is a high volatile A bituminous coal (Rmax = 0.8) with abundant
vitrinite and a significant proportion of funginite (Fig. 2A). Liptinite
occurs in a variety of forms, including faint suberinite (Fig. 2B).
CQ02 is a sub-bituminous coal (Rmax = 0.33) with a relatively large
proportion of inertinite macerals. The inertinite is dominated by
fusinite + semifusinite, but also includes 7.2% funginite (mineral-
included basis) (Fig. 2C).
As noted above, CQ03 is actually a blend of three ranks of coal
(Rmax = 0.4, 0.8, and 1.61), with nearly half of the total sample being
coal of sub-bituminous rank (Table 1). This led to an earlier report
describing a high volatile C bituminous rank (Belkin and Tewalt,
2007). The sub-bituminous component of the blend is notable in
having over 36% funginite (mineral-included basis) (Fig. 2D).
Fungal forms present in all three Sumatran coals include both
spores and sclerotia. Forms seen are similar to those reported by Grady
et al. (1993) from two cores of peat deposits in Sumatra. Fig. 2 shows
two different types of sclerotium. Both are similar in overall size, but
the left is characterized by more, smaller cells that appear almost
geometric and have an overall near circular outline, while the right is
characterized by fewer, larger cells that appear rounded and give the
sclerotium an irregular outline. Spores are not recognizable due to
their small size and the difficulty in identifying diagnostic features in
reflected-light examination.
4.1.2. Kalimantan
CQ04 is a sub-bituminous coal (Rmax = 0.42) with moderately
abundant vitrinite and 11% funginite (mineral-included basis) (Fig. 3A).
Massive resinite (Fig. 3B) was also observed.
CQ05 and CQ06 are high volatile C bituminous coals; Rmax = 0.52
and 0.57, respectively. CQ05 has significantly lower vitrinite content,
offset by a greater abundance of fusinite + semifusinite and slightly
more funginite than CQ06. The funginite in CQ05 includes fungal
hyphae within the vitrinite matrix (Fig. 3C). In addition to sporinite,
 H.E. Belkin et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 77 (2009) 260–268
cutinite, and resinite, the liptinite assemblages contain suberinite
(Fig. 3D).
Fungal remains were identified from a Kalimantan Tengah peat by
Moore et al. (1996). That study looked at both palynologic prepara-
tions using transmitted light and polished blocks and pellets using
reflected light. While the specific fungal types were not named, they
include spores, individual hyphae, and sclerotia. All three types are
visible in the Kalimantan coals examined in the present study. Some
differences occur in the spores and sclerotia seen in the three
Kalimantan samples. Figs. 3A and 4A show two different varieties of
“large” fungal sclerotia. That in Fig. 3A probably represents a true
sclerotium, while those in Fig. 4A may be immature fruiting bodies
similar to those of Phomites sp. (Kalgutkar and Jansonius, 2000).
Fig. 3C shows a “small” sclerotium in the upper left of the image.
Immediately right of this is a thick-walled dicellate spore that has
some detail of the juncture between the two cells visible in the right-
most cell. Fig. 4A appears to contain (left side of the image) a five-
celled variety of Multicellaesporites similar to M. grandiusculus
(Kalgutkar and Jansonius, 2000). Other spores visible in the photo-
micrographs are not easily identifiable to genera owing to small
sizes and difficulty recognizing distinguishing features in polished
specimens.
4.1.3. Papua
The Papua coal, CQ07, is a Permian Gondwana anthracite
(Rmax = 4.94). While dominated by vitrinite, fusinite and semifusinite
are present in measurable quantities (Fig. 4B).
4.1.4. Sulawesi
CQ08 is a sub-bituminous coal (Rmax = 0.31) with near-equal
amounts of huminite and inertinite macerals. Funginite (Fig. 4C) is
present in significant proportions. Among the liptinite macerals,
suberinite (with included phlobaphinite; Fig. 4D) is present in trace
quantities.
Funginite encountered in the Sulaweisian coal is similar to that
seen in the other Indonesian low rank coals. Fig. 4C shows both spores
(again unrecognizable) and a sclerotium. This sclerotium is again
Fig. 4. Reflected-light photomicrographs. A. Sample CQ06, B. Sample CQ07, C. Sample CQ08, D. Sample CQ08.
265
different from previous sclerotia although it is somewhat similar to
the right-most one in Fig. 2A.
4.2. Mineralogy
Reconnaissance mineralogy studies using a separate set of polished
pellets were conducted with SEM–EDS to characterize the major
inorganic phases; WDS electron microprobe analysis of the sulfides
was also carried out. Based on texture and composition, the following
phases were identified: detrital = TiO2 polymorph, quartz, albite,
plagioclase, ilmenite, K-feldspar, monazite, zircon, barite, and some
clay and pyrite; authigenic, epigenetic and/or cleat = pyrite, chalcopyr-
ite, carbonates, quartz, clay, sulfates, oxyhydroxides, and phosphates.
Pyrite framboids filled by later pyrite were observed in samples CQ03,
CQ05, CQ06, and CQ07. EMPA analysis shows that most pyrite of any
texture is stoichiometric, with As and Se contents at or below
detection limits of 200 ppm. As-bearing pyrite (As = ~2000 ppm) was
observed as framboid fillings and overgrowths in samples CQ06 and
CQ07. The general paucity of inorganic material in these coals is
compatible with their low ash yield.
4.3. Geochemistry
Analytical data on Indonesian coals, particularly proximate and
ultimate data (ASTM, 2004) which are important to characterize
thermal and metallurgical coals, can be found in several publications
(e.g., Soehandojo, 1989; Friederich et al., 1999; Amijaya, 2005;
Thomas, 2005) and in tabulations on Internet web-sites (e.g., APBI-
ICMA, 2006). Table 2 summarizes the proximate and ultimate
analytical data for the eight samples. Sulfur forms and major oxides
are shown on Table 3. The values shown in Tables 2 and 3 are
consistent with published values for active mining locations and with
the coal geology of exploration sites in Indonesia (APBI-ICMA, 2006).
Indonesian coals tend to be low ash yield and low sulfur, hence their
value for export as thermal coal.
The Paleogene coals of Indonesia tend to be bituminous rank; the
younger Neogene coals are sub-bituminous and lignite. Exceptions,
266 H.E. Belkin et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 77 (2009) 260–268

Table 2
Proximate, ultimate analysis, and calorific value of Indonesia coals

Total moisture Residual moisture Air dry loss Ash Volatile matter Total carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Calorific value
CQ01 3.10 1.05 2.07 7.33 42.84 73.16 5.41 1.35 7340
CQ02 18.02 6.40 12.41 9.68 39.93 50.69 3.74 0.77 4780
CQ03⁎ 9.68 2.42 7.44 10.05 40.99 62.37 5.02 0.96 6290
CQ04 26.49 7.36 20.65 5.38 33.03 48.38 3.42 0.94 4610
CQ05 19.36 3.39 16.53 4.33 34.99 57.47 4.10 1.31 5580
CQ06 5.29 1.63 3.72 12.63 42.58 63.69 5.33 1.10 6490
CQ07 5.23 1.16 4.12 3.54 7.48 84.28 2.07 0.84 7500
CQ08 48.27 10.68 42.09 2.99 25.42 34.87 2.56 0.52 3280

All values on an as-received basis; units in percent; calorific value in kcal/kg.

CQ03⁎ = a run-of-mine composite of three coals of different rank.

represented by Neogene coals of higher rank, are likely to be affected
by tectonic and igneous activity. The South Sumatra basin, a region
with shallow Neogene coals, has Plio-Pleistocene igneous activity in
some areas. Thermal metamorphism associated with this activity has,
in some areas, increased the coal rank from sub-bituminous to
bituminous and anthracite (Susilawati and Ward, 2006). Sample CQ01,
a high volatile bituminous coal from Ombilin, is from a small basin in a
tectonically active area in West Sumatra. Some Ombilin coal has been
affected by local andesite intrusions and the proximity of the
intrusions has increased the coal rank up to anthracite (Darman and
Sidi, 2000). Sample CQ02, from Banko, has been affected by this
metamorphism and is now a high volatile bituminous coal. Sample
CQ03, also from the Kota Tengah exploration area in the South
Sumatra Basin, is a run-of-mine composite of three coals of different
ranks. Local igneous activity has produced a significant gradient in
rank at this exploration site.
4.3.1. Trace element geochemistry
Minor and trace element geochemistry of coal is extremely
important to assess and model coal combustion and the potential
for pollution. A search of the literature in preparation for this paper
yielded no trace element determinations of Indonesian coals available
in the public domain, although meeting talks featuring such data may
have been given (Sappel and Hariyanto, 2004). Table 4 provides data
on 34 minor and trace elements. The generally low abundance of these
elements is compatible with the low ash yields.
The 1990 Amendments (United States Public Law, 1990) to the 1970
Clean Air Act name 189 substances as Hazardous Air Pollutants
(HAPS), including 14 elements or their compounds found in coal in
trace concentrations. Table 5 shows a comparison of the HAPs element
abundance in the studied Indonesian coals compared to the world
range and U.S. coal average (Swaine, 1990; Finkelman, 1993). The
abundance of all elements in the eight Indonesian coal samples is in
the lower part of the world range. This is especially noticeable for
those elements with inorganic affinity that are usually related to the
ash yield, such as Cd and Sb. In addition, those HAPS elements with
usual organic affinities, such as Be, also tend to be in low abundance.
Inspection of all the trace element data in Table 4 and comparisons
shown in Table 5 reflect well on the desirability of these coals for
power plant use.
5. Coal-bed methane prospective
Although the coal from Indonesia tends to be shallow and low rank,
conventional oil and gas wells that drill though the coal seams tend to
experience blow outs and log gas spikes; both of these features are
good indicators for coalbed methane (CBM). A recent assessment of the
potential CBM resources in Indonesia identified 12.7 trillion m3 (450
Tcf) within eleven onshore basins (Stevens and Hadiyanto, 2004). More
detailed analysis of coal rank, geochemistry, and geology in Indonesia
has led to an increased estimate of Indonesian CBM potential (Nugroho
and Arsegianto, 1993; Stevens et al., 2001; Stevens and Hadiyanto,
2004). Stevens and Hadiyanto (2004) ranked six basins with high CBM
potential; South Sumatra Basin, Central Sumatra Basin, Barito Basin,
Kutei Basin, Berau Basin, and North Tarakan Basin. They recommended
testing, using in-country mining rigs to drill expendable core holes, for
coal seam gas measurement content and permeability followed by
production pilot wells. The government of Indonesia is moving rapidly
to settle the regulations and terms for CBM production, as the demand
for clean energy in Indonesia continues to grow. Accurate coal char-
acterization is critical and necessary to support CBM research and
development.
6. Conclusions and the future of Indonesian coal
The Indonesian coals studied in this report are representative of
the current steam-coal export by Indonesia. Exploration samples
indicate that future production for export will be coals of low ash yield
and low sulfur. Coal-fired power plants concerned about HAPS
element emission can use Indonesian coal as its low mineral matter
content yields low hazardous element concentration at moderate
calorific value. The calorific value of the studied samples ranged from

Table 3
Sulfur forms and major oxides for selected Indonesia coals

Sample As det. moist. Whole coal, dry basis Ash basis

Ash S S(sulf) S(py) S(org) SiO2 Al2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O ⁎Fe2O3 TiO2 P2O5 SO3
CQ01 7.9 7.70 0.53 0.01 0.05 0.47 44.7 30.1 0.73 0.85 0.48 2.0 5.7 0.96 0.03 1.0
CQ02 6.6 11.2 0.29 0.01 0.01 0.27 41.6 19.5 8.7 1.8 5.6 0.76 2.6 0.79 0.17 4.0
CQ03⁎ 2.3 11.5 2.45 0.10 0.85 1.50 31.7 21.0 9.1 1.4 0.2 0.46 17.4 0.84 b0.02 11.1
CQ04 7.1 7.20 1.36 0.24 0.06 1.06 30.4 12.5 10.6 3.1 0.4 0.35 17.3 0.78 0.19 17.4
CQ05 2.9 5.30 0.46 0.03 0.02 0.41 41.8 23.7 3.1 2.5 2.3 1.9 6.0 0.81 1.6 7.3
CQ06 0.6 13.6 0.83 0.02 0.17 0.64 44.9 37.7 0.94 0.38 0.38 0.25 2.9 2.0 0.04 1.4
CQ07 1.1 4.00 0.65 0.01 0.07 0.57 45.3 13.3 3.5 2.4 0.53 0.67 19.7 0.36 0.14 7.4
CQ08 9.6 5.30 0.28 0.02 0.01 0.25 33.0 7.80 17.2 6.6 0.23 0.31 20.3 0.51 b0.02 9.5

Sulfur forms are reported on a whole coal, dry basis and major oxides on an ash basis. Major oxides values are in percent. Ash determined at 525 °C. Abbreviations: S = sulfur; (sulf) =
sulfate; (py) = pyritic; (org) = organic; As. det. moist. = as-determined moisture.
⁎Fe2O3 = total iron. b = below detection limit at that value.
CQ03⁎ = a run-of-mine composite of three coals of different rank.
 H.E. Belkin et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 77 (2009) 260–268 267

Table 4
Minor and trace element content of selected Indonesia coals

CQ01 CQ02 CQ03⁎ CQ04 CQ05 CQ06 CQ07 CQ08

As 0.426 1.86 5.23 2.79 2.66 4.13 11.8 1.23
B 68.8 189 145 98.4 201 124 7.28 134
Ba 38.0 165 45.1 134 75.3 34.2 64.3 70.4
Be 0.385 0.252 1.51 0.581 0.136 0.766 0.586 0.299
Bi 0.0920 0.0839 0.129 0.0690 0.0502 0.0657 0.0566 0.0369
Cd 0.0259 0.0204 0.0377 0.0109 0.00982 0.0315 0.0404 0.00938
Cl 0.03 b0.017 b0.016 b 0.017 b0.016 b0.016 0.02 b0.017
Co 1.91 1.33 4.77 3.91 1.87 5.29 9.34 1.61
Cr 6.91 1.19 25.5 4.36 6.00 12.0 2.90 2.77
Cs 2.26 0.24 0.483 0.155 0.633 0.192 0.109 0.0504
Cu 9.95 1.56 38.6 4.44 2.30 8.70 3.51 0.815
Ga 3.45 2.99 4.68 1.85 1.58 6.13 0.781 0.651
Ge 1.01 0.839 7.62 1.60 0.317 0.917 0.032 0.457
Hg 0.022 0.043 0.14 0.13 0.051 0.19 0.17 0.088
Li 12.0 13.2 12.8 2.81 6.99 26.8 3.53 0.95
Mn 3.92 253 44.3 144 7.10 5.54 33.5 273
Mo 1.20 0.432 1.68 0.690 0.420 0.575 3.35 0.211
Nb 0.920 0.947 0.494 0.357 0.448 3.76 0.307 0.328
Ni 6.77 2.17 9.96 4.13 6.39 16.1 13.6 0.885
Pb 3.91 2.05 3.41 0.504 0.841 2.52 10.6 1.17
Rb 10.8 3.24 2.97 1.64 6.33 1.71 1.59 0.727
Sb 0.552 0.228 0.330 0.217 0.0655 0.164 0.797 0.0938
Sc 2.93 2.05 8.04 1.70 1.69 6.03 1.59 0.868
Se 0.78 0.57 1.4 0.64 0.25 0.81 0.33 0.55
Sn 0.619 0.743 0.424 0.380 0.562 1.31 0.259 0.199
Sr 12.4 119 145 79.8 111 30.8 38.1 92.0
Te 0.0794 0.0600 0.165 0.0682 0.0240 0.0465 0.0295 0.0363
Th 1.53 1.76 2.61 1.56 0.682 2.08 0.578 1.17
Tl 0.0803 0.0192 0.118 0.140 0.0655 0.493 0.0526 0.0141
U 0.376 0.492 1.26 0.566 0.366 0.588 0.194 0.270
V 20.5 13.3 73.0 10.6 13.3 34.5 4.85 5.80
Y 3.98 3.73 20.2 5.15 1.15 13.4 6.96 3.71
Zn 4.85 10.5 21.2 8.76 9.72 7.63 23.1 10.1
Zr 17.2 31.5 16.6 15.3 9.12 105 5.78 12.8

Minor and trace elements on a dry, whole coal basis and are in ppm except Cl, Cl = wt.%.. Abbreviation: b = below detection limit at that value.
CQ03⁎ = a run-of-mine composite of three coals of different rank.

sub-bituminous to high volatile A and C bituminous coal; anthracite has plans to increase power production through coal-fired plants), (3)
occurred in Permian coals in Papua Province. The rank of some with the high petroleum prices increasing coal demand, especially in
Neogene coal has been increased by tectonic and/or igneous activity Asia, Indonesia is well suited geographically to supply the Asia-Pacific
and the distribution of this enhanced-rank coal is complex and varies region, and (4) at present, Indonesia is economically and politically
at any particular mine location. stable. In Indonesia, growth in coal production will also be driven by an
Indonesian coal export and production is expected to steadily expansion of supply to the domestic sector for the power industry,
increase for the following reasons: (1) the coal is environmentally cement plants, and the pulp industry. While falling in most regions,
friendly (low mineral matter and low sulfur), (2) the emerging domestic coal's contribution to the fuel mix is expected to rise significantly in the
and international market for coal (Indonesia has an energy shortage and ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations, comprising Brunei,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam) region. The
shift to coal-fired generation in the ASEAN region — particularly in
Table 5 Malaysia and Thailand — is driven by the development of independent
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPS) elements comparison power projects and energy security considerations that are leading to a
Element World coala U.S. Coalb 8 Indonesia samples shift from lignite and oil to sub-bituminous and/or bituminous coal-
fired generation and, to a lesser extent, natural gas in the fuel mix
Range (ppm) Mean (ppm) Mean (ppm) Range (ppm)
(Ekawan et al., 2006). The abundant Indonesian lignite (calorific
Sb 0.05–10 1.2 0.29 0.06–0.79
As 0.5–80 24 3.6 0.4–11 value b 5000 kcal/kg) is currently uneconomic, although the Indonesian
Be 0.1–15 2.2 0.54 0.13–1.5 Government is developing plans to utilize lignite for (1) mine-mouth
Cd 0.1–3 0.47 0.02 0.01–0.04 power plants, (2) upgrading to higher energy values, and (3) coal
Cl 50–2000 614 260 b150–300 briquettes (Umar et al., 2005). This scenario of increased production,
Cr 0.5–60 15 7.4 1.1–24.9
domestic use, and export of Indonesian coal will require more detailed
Co 0.5–30 6.1 3.6 1.2–9.2
Pb 2–80 11 3 0.4–10 coal geochemistry and petrography to adequately characterize the
Mn 5–300 43 88 3.6–246 current mines and future exploration seams.
Hg 0.02–1 0.17 0.10 0.02–0.19
Ni 0.5–50 14 7.3 0.8–16
Acknowledgements
Se 0.2–1.4 2.8 0.64 0.24–1.4
Tl b 0.2–1 1.2 0.12 0.01–0.49
U 0.5–10 2.1 0.49 0.19–1.2 We gratefully acknowledge the very helpful and constructive
Arithmetic means all values are as-determined on air-dried or oven-dried whole coal.
comments of Colin R. Ward (Sydney), Paul C. Hackley (Reston), and
a
Swaine (1990) Table 6.1. Frank T. Dulong (Reston). We thank Sandra G. Neuzil (Reston) for
b
Finkelman (1993) Table 1. reviewing an earlier version of this report.
268 H.E. Belkin et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 77 (2009) 260–268

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