A risk management plan is a document that a project manager prepares to foresee risks, estimate

impacts, and define responses to risks. It also contains a risk assessment matrix.

A risk is "an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on a project's
objectives."[1] Risk is inherent with any project, and project managers should assess risks continually
and develop plans to address them. The risk management plan contains an analysis of likely risks with
both high and low impact, as well as mitigation strategies to help the project avoid being derailed should
common problems arise. Risk management plans should be periodically reviewed by the project team to
avoid having the analysis become stale and not reflective of actual potential project risks.

Most critically, risk management plans include a risk strategy.

Risk response

Main article: Risk management § Potential risk treatments

Broadly, there are four potential responses to risk with numerous variations on the specific terms used
to name these response options:[2][3]

Avoid – Change plans to circumvent the problem;

Control / mitigate / modify / reduce – Reduce threat impact or likelihood (or both) through intermediate
steps;

Accept / retain – Assume the chance of the negative impact (or auto-insurance), eventually budget the
cost (e.g. via a contingency budget line); or

Transfer / share – Outsource risk (or a portion of the risk) to a third party or parties that can manage the
outcome. This is done financially through insurance contracts or hedging transactions, or operationally
through outsourcing an activity.

(Mnemonic: SARA, for Share Avoid Reduce Accept, or A-CAT, for "Avoid, Control, Accept, or Transfer")

Risk management plans often include matrices.

Examples

The United States Department of Defense, as part of acquisition, uses risk management planning that
may have a Risk Management Plan document for the specific project. The general intent of the RMP in
this context is to define the scope of risks to be tracked and means of documenting reports. It is also
desired that there would be an integrated relationship to other processes. An example of this would be
explaining which developmental tests verify risks of the design type were minimized are stated as part
of the test and evaluation master plan. A further example would be instructions from 5000.2D[4] that
for programs that are part of a system of systems the risk management strategy shall specifically
address integration and interoperability as a risk area. The RMP specific process and templates shift over
time (e.g. the disappearance of 2002 documents Defense Finance and Accounting Service / System Risk
Management Plan, and the SPAWAR Risk Management Process).

Management (or managing) is the administration of an organization, whether it is a business, a

nonprofit organization, or a government body. It is the art and science of managing resources of the
business.

Management includes the activities of setting the strategy of an organization and coordinating the
efforts of its employees (or of volunteers) to accomplish its objectives through the application of
available resources, such as financial, natural, technological, and human resources. "Run the
business"[1] and "Change the business" are two concepts that are used in management to differentiate
between the continued delivery of goods or services and adapting of goods or services to meet the
changing needs of customers - see trend. The term "management" may also refer to those people who
manage an organization—managers.

Some people study management at colleges or universities; major degrees in management includes the
Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.), Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA.), Master of Business
Administration (MBA.), Master in Management (MSM or MIM) and, for the public sector, the Master of
Public Administration (MPA) degree. Individuals who aim to become management specialists or experts,
management researchers, or professors may complete the Doctor of Management (DM), the Doctor of
Business Administration (DBA), or the PhD in Business Administration or Management. In the past few
decades, there has been a movement for evidence-based management.[2]

Larger organizations generally have three hierarchical levels of managers,[3] in a pyramid structure:

Senior managers such as members of a board of directors and a chief executive officer (CEO) or a
president of an organization sets the strategic goals and policy of the organization and make decisions
on how the overall organization will operate. Senior managers are generally executive-level
professionals who provide direction to middle management, and directly or indirectly report to them.

Middle managers such as branch managers, regional managers, department managers, and section
managers, who provide direction to the front-line managers. They communicate the strategic goals and
policy of senior management to the front-line managers.

Line managers such as supervisors and front-line team leaders, oversee the work of regular employees
(or volunteers, in some voluntary organizations) and provide direction on their work. Line managers
often perform the managerial functions that are traditionally considered as the core of management.
Despite the name, they are usually considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's
management class.

In smaller organizations, a manager may have a much wider scope and may perform several roles or
even all of the roles commonly observed in a large organization.

Social scientists study management as an academic discipline, investigating areas such as social
organization, organizational adaptation, and organizational leadership.[4]

Etymology

The English verb "manage" has its roots by the XV century French verb 'mesnager', which often referred
in equestrian language "to hold in hand the reins of a horse".[5] Also the Italian term maneggiare (to
handle, especially tools or a horse) is possible. In Spanish, manejar can also mean to rule the horses.[6]
These three terms derive from the two Latin words manus (hand) and agere (to act).

The French word for housekeeping, ménagerie, derived from ménager ("to keep house"; compare
ménage for "household"), also encompasses taking care of domestic animals. Ménagerie is the French
translation of Xenophon's famous book Oeconomicus[7] (Greek: Οἰκονομικός) on household matters
and husbandry. The French word mesnagement (or ménagement) influenced the semantic development
of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries.[8]

Definitions

Views on the definition and scope of management include:

Henri Fayol (1841–1925) stated: "to manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-
ordinate and to control."[9]

Fredmund Malik (1944– ) defines management as "the transformation of resources into utility".[10]

Management is included[by whom?] as one of the factors of production – along with machines,
materials and money.

Ghislain Deslandes defines management as "a vulnerable force, under pressure to achieve results and
endowed with the triple power of constraint, imitation and imagination, operating on subjective,
interpersonal, institutional and environmental levels".[11]

Peter Drucker (1909–2005) saw the basic task of management as twofold: marketing and innovation.
Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing (product innovation is a central strategic marketing
issue).[citation needed] Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but
management and marketing are generally understood[by whom?] as two different branches of business
administration knowledge.

Theoretical scope

Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and manipulation[12] of the
human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise.[13] Scholars have focused
on the management of individual,[14] organizational,[15] and inter-organizational relationships. This
implies effective communication: an enterprise environment (as opposed to a physical or mechanical
mechanism) implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome.
[16] As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated program),
not the herding of animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an illegal enterprise or environment.
From an individual's perspective, management does not need to be seen solely from an enterprise point
of view, because management is an essential[quantify] function in improving one's life and relationships.
[17] Management is therefore everywhere[18] and it has a wider range of application.[clarification
needed] Communication and a positive endeavor are two main aspects of it either through enterprise or
through independent pursuit.[citation needed] Plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools,
goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary components for there to be
management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans,
and meeting goals[citation needed], but this applies even in situations where planning does not take
place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925)[19][page needed]considers management to
consist of five functions:

planning (forecasting)

organizing

commanding

coordinating

controlling

In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as "the art
of getting things done through people".[20] She described management as a philosophy.[21][need
quotation to verify]

Critics[which?], however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase "management is what
managers do" occurs widely,[22] suggesting the difficulty of defining management without circularity,
the shifting nature of definitions[citation needed] and the connection of managerial practices with the
existence of a managerial cadre or of a class.

One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes
management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More
broadly, every organization must "manage" its work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize
effectiveness.[citation needed] Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach
management as "business schools". Some such institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use
that name, while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the broader term
"management".

English-speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word
describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation.[23] Historically this use of the
term often contrasted with the term "labor" – referring to those being managed.[24]

But in the present era[when?] the concept of management is identified[by whom?] in the wide
areas[which?] and its frontiers have been pushed[by whom?] to a broader range.[citation needed] Apart
from profitable organizations, even non-profit organizations apply management concepts. The concept
and its uses are not constrained[by whom?]. Management as a whole is the process of planning,
organizing, directing, leading and controlling.[25]

Levels

An organization chart for the United States Coast Guard shows the hierarchy of managerial roles in that
organization.

Most organizations have three management levels: first-level, middle-level, and top-level managers.
First-line managers are the lowest level of management and manage the work of non-managerial
individuals who are directly involved with the production or creation of the organization's products.
First-line managers are often called supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers,
or even foremen. Middle managers include all levels of management between the first-line level and the
top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of first-line managers and may have
titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division manager. Top managers are
responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals that affect the
entire organization. These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president,
managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or chairman of the board.

These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and perform different tasks. In many
organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a pyramid. Each level is explained
below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles.[26]

Top management
The top or senior layer of management is a small group which consists of the board of directors
(including non-executive directors, executive directors and independent directors), president, vice-
president, CEOs and other members of the C-level executives. Different organizations have various
members in their C-suite, which may include a chief financial officer, chief technology officer, and so on.
They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the operations of the entire organization. They set a
"tone at the top" and develop strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the overall
direction of the organization. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of
outside resources. Senior managers are accountable to the shareholders, the general public and to
public bodies that oversee corporations and similar organizations. Some members of the senior
management may serve as the public face of the organization, and they may make speeches to
introduce new strategies or appear in marketing.

The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives who owe a fiduciary duty to
shareholders and are not closely involved in the day-to-day activities of the organization, although this
varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size and culture of the organization. These
directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and typically insured under directors and
officers liability insurance. Fortune 500 directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board
duties, and median compensation was $212,512 in 2010. The board sets corporate strategy, makes
major decisions such as major acquisitions,[27] and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level manager
(chief executive officer or CEO). The CEO typically hires other positions. However, board involvement in
the hiring of other positions such as the chief financial officer (CFO) has increased.[28] In 2013, a survey
of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and private companies found that the top weaknesses of CEOs
were "mentoring skills" and "board engagement", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO.[29]
The board may also have certain employees (e.g., internal auditors) report to them or directly hire
independent contractors; for example, the board (through the audit committee) typically selects the
auditor.

Helpful skills of top management vary by the type of organization but typically include[30] a broad
understanding of competition, world economies, and politics. In addition, the CEO is responsible for
implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization.
Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including: instructions for preparation of
department budgets, procedures, schedules; appointment of middle level executives such as
department managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental relations; and
shareholder communication.

Middle management

Consist of general managers, branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to the
top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and
directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance
with the company's policies and the objectives of the top management, they define and discuss
information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly they
inspire and provide guidance to lower-level managers towards better performance.

Middle management is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to the
senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members. An operational manager may
be well-thought-out by middle management or may be categorized as non-management operate, liable
to the policy of the specific organization. The efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization
since they bridge the gap between top level and bottom level staffs.

Their functions include:

Design and implement effective group and inter-group work and information systems.

Define and monitor group-level performance indicators.

Diagnose and resolve problems within and among workgroups.

Design and implement reward systems that support cooperative behavior. They also make decisions and
share ideas with top managers.

Line management

Line managers include supervisors, section leaders, forepersons and team leaders. They focus on
controlling and directing regular employees. They are usually responsible for assigning employees' tasks,
guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and quantity of
production and/or service, making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their work, and
channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators.
First-level or "front line" managers also act as role models for their employees. In some types of work,
front line managers may also do some of the same tasks that employees do, at least some of the time.
For example, in some restaurants, the front line managers will also serve customers during a very busy
period of the day. In general, line managers are considered part of the workforce and not part of the
organization's proper management despite performing traditional management functions.

Front-line managers typically provide:

Training for new employees

Basic supervision

Motivation

Performance feedback and guidance

Some front-line managers may also provide career planning for employees who aim to rise within the
organization.

Training and education

Colleges and universities around the world offers bachelor's degrees, graduate degrees, diplomas and
certificates in management; generally within their colleges of business, business schools or faculty of
management but also in other related departments. In the 2010s era, there has been an increase in
online management education and training in the form of electronic educational technology (also called
e-learning). Online education has increased the accessibility of management training to people who do
not live near a college or university, or who cannot afford to travel to a city where such training is
available.

Requirement

While some professions require academic credentials in order to work in the profession (e.g., law,
medicine, engineering, which require, respectively the Bachelor of Law, Doctor of Medicine and
Bachelor of Engineering degrees), management and administration positions do not necessarily require
the completion of academic degrees. Some well-known senior executives in the US who did not
complete a degree include Steve Jobs, Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg. However, many managers and
executives have completed some type of business or management training, such as a Bachelor of
Commerce or a Master of Business Administration degree. Some major organizations, including
companies, non-profit organizations and governments, require applicants to managerial or executive
positions to hold at minimum bachelor's degree in a field related to administration or management, or
in the case of business jobs, a Bachelor of Commerce or a similar degree.

Undergraduate

Further information: Business education § Undergraduate education

At the undergraduate level, the most common business programs are the Bachelor of Business
Administration (BBA) and Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.). These typically comprise a four-year program
designed to give students an overview of the role of managers in planning and directing within an
organization. Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy,
and other related areas.

There are many other undergraduate degrees that include the study of management, such as Bachelor
of Arts degrees with a major in business administration or management and Bachelor of Public
Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in the
government jobs. Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business
administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study.
Note that to manage technological areas, one often needs an undergraduate degree in a STEM area.

Graduate

Further information: Business education § Postgraduate education

At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in
major subareas of management or business administration such as entrepreneurship, human resources,
international business, organizational behavior, organizational theory, strategic management,[31]
accounting, corporate finance, entertainment, global management, healthcare management,
investment management, sustainability and real estate.

A Master of Business Administration (MBA) is the most popular professional degree at the master's level
and can be obtained from many universities in the United States. MBA programs provide further
education in management and leadership for graduate students. Other master's degrees in business and
management include Master of Management (MM) and the Master of Science (M.Sc.) in business
administration or management, which is typically taken by students aiming to become researchers or
professors.

There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for individuals aiming at careers outside of
business, such as the Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a Master of Arts in
Public Administration in some universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives in
the public service and the Master of Health Administration, for students aiming to become managers or
executives in the health care and hospital sector.

Management doctorates are the most advanced terminal degrees in the field of business and
management. Most individuals obtaining management doctorates take the programs to obtain the
training in research methods, statistical analysis and writing academic papers that they will need to seek
careers as researchers, senior consultants and/or professors in business administration or management.
There are three main types of management doctorates: the Doctor of Management (D.M.), the Doctor
of Business Administration (D.B.A.), and the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Business Administration or
Management. In the 2010s, doctorates in business administration and management are available with
many specializations.

Good practices

While management trends can change so fast, the long-term trend in management has been defined by
a market embracing diversity and a rising service industry. Managers are currently being trained to
encourage greater equality for minorities and women in the workplace, by offering increased flexibility
in working hours, better retraining, and innovative (and usually industry-specific) performance markers.
Managers destined for the service sector are being trained to use unique measurement techniques,
better worker support and more charismatic leadership styles.[32] Human resources finds itself
increasingly working with management in a training capacity to help collect management data on the
success (or failure) of management actions with employees.[33]

Evidence-based management

Main article: Evidence-based management

Evidence-based management is an emerging movement to use the current, best evidence in

management and decision-making. It is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices.
Evidence-based management entails managerial decisions and organizational practices informed by the
best available evidence.[34] As with other evidence-based practice, this is based on the three principles
of: 1) published peer-reviewed (often in management or social science journals) research evidence that
bears on whether and why a particular management practice works; 2) judgement and experience from
contextual management practice, to understand the organization and interpersonal dynamics in a
situation and determine the risks and benefits of available actions; and 3) the preferences and values of
those affected.[35][36]

History

Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization.[37] On
those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history – only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however,
detect management-like thought among ancient Sumerian traders and the builders of the pyramids of
ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a
dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises,
given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically.
However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification
of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control.

An organisation is more stable if members have the right to express their differences and solve their
conflicts within it.

While one person can begin an organisation, "it is lasting when it is left in the care of many and when
many desire to maintain it".

A weak manager can follow a strong one, but not another weak one, and maintain authority.

A manager seeking to change an established organization "should retain at least a shadow of the ancient
customs".

With the changing workplaces of industrial revolutions in the 18th and 19th centuries, military theory
and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly popular factories.[38]
Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and
recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times
to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of
organizations, a distinction between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders)
and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more
common.

Early writing

The field of management originated in ancient China,[39] including possibly the first highly centralized
bureaucratic state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an administration based on
merit through testing.[40] Some theorists have cited ancient military texts as providing lessons for
civilian managers. For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in his 6th-century BC work The Art of War
recommends[citation needed] (when re-phrased in modern terminology) being aware of and acting on
strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.[41][need quotation to verify]
The writings of influential Chinese Legalist philosopher Shen Buhai may be considered[by whom?] to
embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of administration.[42][43] American philosopher
Herrlee G. Creel and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th
century.[44][45][46][47] Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou, argued in his Desultory
Notes on the Government and People of China (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is
solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of
talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution
meritocratic.[48] Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination, the Northcote–Trevelyan
Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through
competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-
departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment,
patronage, or purchase".[49][48] This led to implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a
systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy.[50] Like the British, the development of French
bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system. Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected
moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of
the Chinese.[51] French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily
based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.[52]

Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced "mirrors for princes" books, which aimed to advise
new monarchs on how to govern. Plato described job specialization in 350 BC, and Alfarabi listed several
leadership traits in AD 900.[53] Other examples include the Indian Arthashastra by Chanakya (written
around 300 BC), and The Prince by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli (c. 1515).[54]

Further information: Mirrors for princes

Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations discussed efficient
organization of work through division of labour.[54] Smith described how changes in processes could
boost productivity in the manufacture of pins. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith
analyzed the steps involved in manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled production of 48,000 pins
per day.[54][need quotation to verify]

19th century

Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a
theoretical background to resource allocation, production (economics), and pricing issues. About the
same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton
(1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control
procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects of
management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4
million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production[55]
before wage slavery eclipsed chattel slavery.

Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century.[56] As large
corporations began to overshadow small family businesses the need for personnel management
positions became more necessary.[57] Businesses grew into large corporations and the need for clerks,
bookkeepers, secretaries and managers expanded. The demand for trained managers led college and
university administrators to consider and move forward with plans to create the first schools of business
on their campuses.

20th century

At the turn of the twentieth century the need for skilled and trained managers had become increasingly
apparent. The demand occurred as personnel departments began to expand rapidly. In 1915, less than
one in twenty manufacturing firms had a dedicated personnel department. By 1929 that number had
grown to over one-third.[58] Formal management education became standardized at colleges and
universities.[59] Colleges and universities capitalized on the needs of corporations by forming business
schools and corporate placement departments.[60] This shift toward formal business education marked
the creation of a corporate elite in the US.

By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly
scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's
Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The Principles of Scientific
Management (1911), Lillian Gilbreth's Psychology of Management (1914),[61] Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's
Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college
management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became the first
management consultant of the "Japanese management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese
quality assurance.

The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920.[citation needed] The Harvard
Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like
Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and Alexander Church (1866–1936) described the various branches of
management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–
1973), Walter Scott (1869–1955) and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management.
Other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), Chester Barnard
(1886–1961), Max Weber (1864–1920), who saw what he called the "administrator" as bureaucrat,[62]
Rensis Likert (1903–1981), and Chris Argyris (born 1923) approached the phenomenon of management
from a sociological perspective.

The 1930s and 1940s saw the development of a militarization trend in management in parts of Eurasia –
both the NKVD (in the Soviet Union) and the SS (in the Greater Germanic Reich), for example, managed
labor camps as industrial enterprises using slave labor supervised by uniformed cadres.[63][64] Military
habits persisted in some management circles.[65]

Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the
Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956)
commissioning a study of the organisation. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.

H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into
management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett worked in the development of the applied-
mathematics science of operations research, initially for military operations. Operations research,
sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management),
attempts to take a scientific approach to solving decision-problems, and can apply directly to multiple
management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations.

Some of the later 20th-century developments include the theory of constraints (introduced in 1984),
management by objectives (systematised in 1954), re-engineering (early 1990s), Six Sigma (1986),
management by walking around (1970s), the Viable system model (1972), and various information-
technology-driven theories such as agile software development (so-named from 2001), as well as group-
management theories such as Cog's Ladder (1972) and the notion of "thriving on chaos"[66] (1987).

As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived
practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for
popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many management
fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management.

Business management[when?] includes the following branches:[citation needed]

financial management

human resource management

Management cybernetics

information technology management (responsible for management information systems )

marketing management

operations management and production management

strategic management

21st century

In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional
categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one
tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management.[citation
needed]

Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public
administration, public management, and educational management. Further, management programs
related to civil-society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social
entrepreneurship.

Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business-ethics
viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.

As one consequence, workplace democracy (sometimes referred to as Workers' self-management) has

become both more common and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions
among workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any
current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. All management
embraces to some degree a democratic principle—in that in the long term, the majority of workers must
support management. Otherwise, they leave to find other work or go on strike. Despite the move
toward workplace democracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace as
de facto organization structures. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control is evident in
the way that recent[when?] layoffs have been conducted with management ranks affected far less than
employees at the lower levels.[citation needed] In some cases, management has even rewarded itself
with bonuses after laying off lower-level workers.[67]

According to leadership-academic Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, a contemporary senior-management team

will almost inevitably have some personality disorders.[68]

Nature of work

In profitable organizations, management's primary function is the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders.

This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable
cost (for customers), and providing great employment opportunities for employees. In case of nonprofit
management, one of the main functions is, keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management
and governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior
management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting
models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare.

Topics

Basics

According to Fayol, management operates through five basic functions: planning, organizing,
commanding, coordinating and controlling.

Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future and generating plans for action (deciding in
advance).

Organizing (or staffing): Making sure the human and nonhuman resources are put into place.[69]

Commanding (or leading): Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it.

Coordinating: Creating a structure through which an organization's goals can be accomplished.

Controlling: Checking progress against plans.

Basic roles

Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees.

Figurehead, leader, liaison

Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information.

Nerve centre, disseminator, spokesperson

Decision: roles that require decision-making.

Entrepreneur, negotiator, allocator, disturbance handler

Skills

Management skills include:

Political: used to build a power base and to establish connections.

Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate.

Diagnostic: ability to visualize appropriate responses to a situation.

Leadership: ability to communicate a vision and inspire people to embrace that vision.[70]

cross-cultural leadership: ability to understand the effects of culture on leadership style.

Behavioral: perception towards others, conflict resolution, time-management, self-improvement, stress

management and resilience, patience, clear communication.[71]

Implementation of policies and strategies

All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.

Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies.

An action plan must be devised for each department.

Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.

Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.

Top-level managers should carry out regular progress assessments.

The business requires team spirit and a good environment.

The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analyzed to determine
their roles in achieving the business's mission.

The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment.

A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies
are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives.

Policies and strategies in the planning process

They give mid and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an
organization.
A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.

Mid and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategies.