Review of the avian respiratory anatomy,

immunity and physiology

2015

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Overview

 Functions of respiratory system

 Anatomy of respiratory system
 Differences with mammals
 Airflow and gas exchange in birds
 Introduction on functions of avian immune system
 Innate immunity
 Adaptive immunity
 Bird respiratory immune system
 Response of respiratory system to vaccination

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Functions of respiratory system
One of the major systems of the body

 Provision of oxygen
 Removal of carbon dioxide
 Rapid adjustments of acid-base balance
 Removal of excess heat (thermoregulation)
 Vocal communication

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Anatomy of respiratory system
 Nares, nasal cavity with conchae
 Smell
 Mucus production
 Oropharynx
 Mouth +pharynx
 From choanal opening at the bottom of the nasal cavity to the base of
tongue
 Glottis – opening into the larynx
• Can open wide in respiratory distress
• No vocal cords or epiglottis like in mammals

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Anatomy of respiratory system

Muco-ciliary epithelium

‘Voice box’, Tympanic membranes

Primary bronchi

System of parabronchi

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Anatomy of respiratory system
Air sacs – thin-walled
extension of the
bronchi
Connect to many
long bones to form
pneumatic bones

Very few blood

vessels present –
do not play a role
in the gaseous
exchange

Abdominal air sacs

connected directly to
primary bronchi, the rest
– to secondary and
tertiary bronchi

Permit the bird to

change its centre of
gravity

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Anatomy of respiratory system

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Anatomy of respiratory system
Air sacs, broiler

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Inflating of air sacs, broiler

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Differences with mammals
 Similarity
 Trachea ends in 2 bronchi
 Two symmetrical lungs
 Differences Birds have to fly
 Mammals – bronchi end in alveoli
• End airflow system
 Birds – parabronchi in lungs
• Lungs do not expand
• Continuous airflow system in one direction
 Birds – do not have diaphragm
• Compression of the air sacs moves air through lungs
 Birds possess pneumatic bones
• skull, humerus, clavicle, keel (sternum), pelvic girdle, and the lumbar and
sacral vertebrae
• Broken pneumatic bone can make problems to breath

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Airflow and gas exchange in birds
 Respiration – movement of the external wall of the body
 Increase/decrease of the cavity volume -> change pressure inside the
lungs and air sacs

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Airflow and gas exchange in birds
Breathing process has two phases: inhalation and exhalation
—

 Inhalation: Air bypasses the lungs and enters the caudal air
sacs. At the same time, air in the lungs from the last exhalation
phase exits the lungs and enters the cranial air sacs
—Exhalation: Air from the caudal air sacs enters the lungs. The
air that filled the cranial air sacs from the inhalation phase is
then released from the body through the trachea

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Airflow and gas exchange in birds

Expiration
Inspiration
Anatomy

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VETWORKS
Mechanism of gas exchange

Unlike mammals, birds absorb oxygen when they breath IN and OUT
Air- blood capillary interface is 60% thinner than in mammals : more sensitive to irritants
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Introduction to avian immune system
 Primary lymphoid organs
 Differentiation of B and T cell precursors
• Migrate to secondary lymphoid organs
 Thymus (cell mediated immunity)
 Bursa fabricii (humoral immunity)

 Secondary lymphoid organs

 Principal sites of antigen-induced immune response
 Spleen
 Bone marrow
 Harderian gland
 CALT, BALT, GALT
 Bursa fabricii after 3 weeks of age
 Lymphoid nodules along the course of lymphatic system

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Introduction to avian immune system
 Main immune organs of the bird

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Main immune organs of the bird
Thymus Spleen

Cecal tonsils Bursa Fabricii

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Cecal tonsils

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Immune response to antigen
Antigen – molecule, recognised by
specific cells of immune system
(proteins, lipopolysaccharides)

Directed against common threat

(not specific)
very fast, no memory effect

Presentation of antigen by
antigen-presenting cells to T-cells

Directed against particular threat

(highly specific)
More slow, memory effect

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Immune response to antigen: very complex
Antigen – molecule, recognised by
specific cells of immune system
(proteins, lipopolysaccharides)

Directed against common threat

(not specific)
very fast, no memory effect
Let me try to explain
Presentation of antigen by
antigen-presenting cells to T-cells

Directed against particular threat

(highly specific)
More slow, memory effect

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Cells of the immune system

Bernd Kaspers
University of Munich
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What do phagocytes do?

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Immune cells have danger receptors

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Immune cells sense the pathogen

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First reaction to pathogens

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If this is not enough?

First line of defense: Innate immunity

 Quick and nonspecific

Second line of defense: Adaptive immunity

 Slow but very specific

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Second line of defense: antibodies

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How do we get antibodies?

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Danger receptors help to select

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Specific antibodies

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How do antibodies work?

Antibody opsonization
the process by which a pathogen is marked for ingestion and eliminated by
a phagocyte.

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2 armies working together
Innate and adaptive immune system work together

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T cells

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Innate immunity
 Recognises non-specific common antigens by multiple receptors
 Macrophages
 Phagocytize pathogens
 Induce inflammation by cytokine and chemokine secretion
 Present antigen to cells of adaptive immunity (CD4+ T cells)
 Heterophils – migrate to inflammation site, destroy pathogens
 Dendritic cells
 Present antigen to cells of adaptive immunity (CD4+ T cells)
 Induce inflammation by cytokine and chemokine secretion
 NK cells (Natural Killer)
 Non T and B lymphoid cells
 Direct cytotoxic for virus infected and tumour cells
 Complement system

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Adaptive immunity
 T cells
 Responsible for cell-mediated immunity
 Recognise specific antigen after it is processed by cell
 CD4 and CD8 surface molecules
• CD4+ helper T cells
• Recognise processed exogenous antigen
• CD8+ cytotoxic T cells
• Recognise endogenous antigen (mainly virus infected cells)

 B cells
 Responsible for humoral immunity
 Recognise foreign antigen directly with immunoglobulin receptors
 Produce antibodies against the specific antigen
 Present antigen to CD4+ T cells
 Most pathogens stimulate both cellular and humoral immunity
 Best immune answer may vary with the pathogen!
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Humoral immunity
 Antibodies – Immunoglobulins (Ig) produced by B cells
 IgM
• First antibody produced after immunisation
• ‘class switch’ to IgG or IgA in progress of immune response
 IgG (IgY)
• Predominant in chicken blood
• Also produced after second immunisation
 IgA
• Most important Ig in mucosal immunity
 Maternal immunity
 IgG transferred from oviduct to yolk sac
 IgA and IgM transferred via amniotic fluid

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Memory response of immune system

 Specific B and T memory cell produced after contact with

antigen
 Vaccination is inducing memory response to protect from field
challenge!

 Each following contacts with the same antigen

 Quicker immune response
 Higher affinity immune response
=> Used in re-vaccination (booster vaccination)

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Defence system of avian resp. tract
High pressure on resp. system in intensive poultry production
-> dust, pathogens

 Non-specific innate defence system

 Cilia
• Tiny hair-like structures in the trachea
• Remove in direction of mouth entrapped particles
 Continuous mucus secretion in trachea
• If the mucus too thick, cilia cannot function properly

 Respiratory immune system in birds

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Defence system respiratory tract

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Respiratory immune system
 Paraocular lymphoid tissue: Harderian gland and CALT
• Important for both T-dependent and humoral immune response (IgA !)
• Eye drop vaccination

 Trachea - no special lymphoid tissue

 But: extensive lymphocyte infiltration in M. gallisepticum and IBV models
 Bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue
 Highly organised lymphoid nodules and diffuse lymphoid cells
 Junctions of primary bronchus, caudal sec. bronchi and ostia of air sacs
 Fully develops only after 6 weeks of age!
• After life span of a broiler
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Respiratory immune system
 Immune response in the lungs
 Diffusely distributed leukocytes
• Majority – macrophages and dendritic cells
• Uptake and presentation of small size (<0.1µm) inhaled antigen
• Mainly induction of systemic antigen-specific response

 Particles in respiratory tract

 High load of aerosolized particle in poultry houses
 Site of deposition depends on particle size
• Nasal cavities and trachea – larger particles (3.7-7 µm)
• Lung and cranial air sacs – smaller particles (ca. 1.1 µm)
• Caudal air sacs – less than 0.1 µm
 Upper resp. tract, trachea, till prox. part of sec. bronchi – mucociliary
transport to mouth
 Lungs, air sacs – phagocytosis by macrophages and epithelial cells

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Response of respiratory system to vaccination
 Many vaccinations are done via spray
 First contact of the bird with the live vaccine via respiratory mucosa
 Induction of local and systemic immune response
 Immune response depends on the pathogen and application route

 Important role of local antibody response in protection from

respiratory disease
 Aerosol challenge via mucosal route (IBV, NDV)
• Induction of local IgA in the Harderian gland, lacrimal IgA and IgG and local
IgG in respiratory tract
 Live mycoplasma vaccines
• Local mucosal antibodies play a role in protection

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Thank you for your attention!

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