EERC - MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION ✓ Truss/Rafter Details

✓ Connection Details
Plumbing Plans – Master
CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATES Plumber/Sanitary Engineer
✓ Sanitary and Storm Drain
Construction estimation is the
Layout
process of determining the probable costs
✓ Clean Water Line Layout
incurred in the construction. This is one of
✓ Septic Tank Details
the most important steps taken at the early
✓ Catch Basin Details
stages of any construction project
✓ Trench Drain Details
management process
✓ Water Meter Details
A successful construction estimate ✓ Floor Drain Details
begins in the bid estimation phase of a ✓ Floor Cleanout Details
project. All construction-related documents, ✓ Gutter Drain Details
historical data and other known costs are Electrical Plans – Professional
used as a starting point for coming up with Electrical Engineer
an accurate forecast. ✓ Power Layout
✓ Lighting Layout
The accuracy of the construction
✓ Load Schedule
estimate will impact the profit margin for
✓ Riser Diagram
the contractor who is leading the build;
2. Technical Specifications
therefore, thorough construction
3. Updated list of materials and
estimation is vital to the viability of any
equipment
construction business. It also makes
4. Calculating tools and software’s.
contractors more competitive when trying
5. Analytical, visual, and
to win new business for their organization.
mathematicalskills.
THINGS TO CONSIDER IN MAKING
TOTAL PROJECT/CONSTRUCTION COST
RELIABLE CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATES
The Total Project Costs includes
1. A complete set of Construction
Material Cost, Labor Cost,
Plans, duly designed, signed and
Machine/Equipment Cost, Overhead,
sealed by a licensed professional.
Contingencies/Miscellaneous Cost and
Architectural Plans – Architect
Taxes.
✓ Perspective
✓ Site Development Plan A. Material Cost
✓ Floor Plans It consists of the cost of all
✓ Roof Plan construction materials to be
✓ Building Elevations installed in the structure. The cost of
✓ Reflected Ceiling Plans each item depends on its price in
✓ Schedule of Doors and the market, that’s why it is advisable
Windows to canvass materials on hardware or
✓ Schedule of Finishes construction supply depots near the
Structural Plans – Civil/Structural location of the project to help
Engineer minimize the cost of transport.
✓ Foundation Plan
✓ Framing Plans B. Labor Cost
✓ Footing Details and Schedule It comprises of cost of
✓ Column Details and Schedule manpower to be engaged in the
✓ Beam Details and Schedule successful execution of the

MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

 construction work. Rates for
labor/manpower must be based on
the minimum rates prescribed by
the Regional Tripartite Wages and
Productivity Board on which the
Project is situated, pursuant to
Republic Act No. 6727, otherwise
known as the Wage Rationalization
Act, plus all the benefits under the
Republic Act 4119 or the
Workmen’s Compensation Act. It is
also permitted to take the Labor
Cost as at least thirty percent (30%)
of the Material Cost.
C. Equipment Cost
Construction Equipment Cost
means the cost of rented or owned
equipment, including cost of
loading, transportation, unloading,
erection, maintenance, dismantling
and removal. Rental cost for
equipment shall be based on the
latest edition of the Associated
Construction Equipment Lessors,
Inc. (ACEL) rental rates.
D. Overhead, Contingencies and
Miscellaneous Cost (OCM)
The Overhead cost composes
of expenses for the travel expenses,
security personnel, water and
electrical utility costs, clearing and
grubbing works, and at times the
equipment cost. Contingencies
consist of cost incurred due to
unforeseen circumstances, for
instance fluctuation in the price of
construction materials, or increase
in the basic minimum wages.
Lastly, Miscellaneous cost
comprises of expenses for the
preparation of construction plans,
application for building permit and
other government documents,
material testing and quality
assurance cost. At times, Overhead
and Miscellaneous Costs are
grouped under General
Preliminaries, making the
Contingencies the only and actual
part of the OCM.
E. Taxes
The portion off the total cost that is
usually taken as 12% of Portions A to
D.
BILL OF MATERIALS VS BILL OF QUANTITIES
A Bill of Materials (BOM) and a Bill
of Quantities (BOQ) is a useful tool in
helping contractors and project planners in
understanding the inventory requirements
associated in the project. (United BIM
2019).
Contractors will become aware on
how much resources they are going to
procure while planners will be able to come
up with a schedule of tasks, manpower and
equipment. It also helps the End User in
knowing where their money will be spent as
they give them the breakdown of tasks and
materials needed to accomplish their dream
house/structure.
But is BOQ and BOM the same?
BOQ lists the total number of
materials, regardless of the task. On the
other hand, a BOM shows the list of
materials needed with respect to each task.
EARTHWORKS
Earthworks take place after clearing all the
obstruction at the natural grade in the
construction site and staking, earthworks
for residential building projects covers
excavation, backfilling, embankment, and
compaction activities.
Excavation work generally means work
involving the removal of soil or rock from a
site to form an open face, hole or cavity,
using tools, machinery or explosives.
There are 3 usual types of excavations that
can be encountered in residential projects.
 1. Common Excavation
Consist of an excavation not
included in the bill of quantities
under “Rock Excavation” or other
pay items.
2. Muck/Unsuitable Excavation
Consist of removal and
disposal of deposits of saturated and
unsaturated mixtures of soils or
organic matter not suitable for
foundation material regardless of
moisture content.
3. Structural Excavation
Comprise of the removal and
disposal of existing subgrade
structures, such as but not limited to
concrete pipes, septic vaults,
foundation footings and foundation
beams.
*As defined by the DPWH Blue Book
2013
*Rock Excavation is not included
since rocks that fall under this
category must be blasted and must
have a volume of at least one cubic
meter.
Backfilling is the process of reusing or
replacing the soil that is removed during the
excavation of foundations, ground bearing
slabs or other groundworks to support and
strengthen a structure. Backfilled materials
shall be approved and non-swelling/non-
expansive materials such as clays.
Embankment refers to a volume of earthen
material that is placed and compacted for
the purpose of raising the grade of a
roadway above the level of the existing
surrounding ground surface.
Compaction is usually done using a plate
compactor, is an integral item under
earthworks since it prevents the likelihood
of settlement of soil under concrete
structures, which may cause potential
cracking. Items for compaction is payable in
terms of square meters.
CONCRETE
“Concrete is the most widely used
construction material.”
REASONS WHY CONCRETE IS THE MOST
WIDELY USED MATERIAL:
1. Concrete possesses excellent
resistance to water
2. Concrete can be formed into a
variety of shapes and sizes
3. Concrete is one of the cheapest and
most readily available materials
CONCRETE
A hard compact building material
formed when a mixture of cement, sand,
gravel, and water undergoes hydration
MAJOR PARTS OF CONCRETE
1. Paste
a. Portland Cement
b. Water
c. Air voids
d. Admixture
2. Aggregates
COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE
✓ Aggregate
✓ Cement
✓ Air Voids
✓ Admixture
COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE
1. Cement – 4 parts calcined lime
stones plus 1 part clay which are
mixed, burned, and pulverized, sold
in 40 kilos per bags
2. Sand – or fine aggregates, natural
sand or crushed stone well graded
 3. Gravel – of course aggregates,
crushed stone, or blast furnace
slags
4. Water – clean, potable, and
freefrom harmful substances
5. Admixture – or additive as required
by situations, ingredients added to
concrete or mortar modify its
properties immediately before or
after mixing
CONCRETE CHARACTERISTICS
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF CONCRETE
General categories of concrete based on
compressive strength:
CONCRETE CATEGORIES BY AGGREGATE
WATER-CEMENT RATIO
WEIGHT
1. Normal weight concrete
a. Has a density of 2200 to 2400
kg/m3 (140 to 150 lb/ft3)
b. Composed of sand, gravel,
crushed stone, and air-cooled
blast-furnace slag
2. Lightweight concrete
a. Has a density ranging from about
1350 to 1850 kg/m3 (90 to 120
lb/ft3)
b. Composed of Aggregates of
expanded shale, clay, slate, and
slag
c. Other lightweight materials such
as pumice, scoria, perlite,
vermiculite, and diatomite are
used to produce insulating
lightweight concretes ranging in
density from about 250 to 1450
kg/m3 (15 to 90 lb/ft3).
3. Heavyweight concrete
a. Has a density ranging from 2900
kg/m3 to 6100 kg/m3 (180 lb/ft3
to 380 lb/ft3)
b. Composed of barite, limonite,
magnetite, ilmenite, hematite,
iron, and steel punchings or
shot.
• Inherently strong in compression
but weak in tension (steel
reinforcement is required to handle
tensile and shear stresses)
• Capable of being formed into any
shape with variety of surface
finishes, textures and patterns
• Relatively low-cost and inherently
fire-resistant
• Liability is its own weight (150
lbs/cu.ft)
• The provision for forming and
molding required before placing for
setting and curing
• Water cement ratio controls the
strength, durability and water
tightness of hardened concrete
• Based on Abram’s Law (D.A. Abrams,
1919) “the compressive strength of
concrete is inversely proportional to
the ratio of water to cement”
• Too much water will weaken
concrete after curing
 • Little water is dense but causes
difficulty in placement and
workability of concrete
• The average water-cement ratio is 6
gallons per 40 kg of cement bag
• Excessive water causes bleeding and
laitance
Note:
Bleeding – emergence of excess mixing
water of the surface of newly placed
concrete cause of settlement of solids
within the mass
Laitance – milky deposit containing cement
and fine aggregate on the surface of new
concrete combined with bleeding,
overworking of mix of improper finishing
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
1. Creep – Long duration stress
produces stress over time and
consequently causes permanent
deformation
2. Fire-Resistance – Concrete is
incombustible and somewhat
insulative, but long exposure to fire
can be damaging
3. Shrinkage – Ordinary concrete
shrinks amount during process, This
must be controlled by providing
expansion joints and steel
reinforcements
4. Hardness – Relative to durability and
appearance, accomplished thru
troweled or floated finish to draw
more paste to the surface
5. Porosity – Sizes of pores left during
hydration process or created by
excessive evaporation and shrinkage
cracks affecting the watertightness
of concrete. Apply compaction
techniques
6. Durability – Concrete durability
requirements are specified on most
major bridge and pavements
projects. Typically, the
requirements
are based on “Rapid Chloride
Permeability Test”. This is a
surrogate procedure which
measures flow of electrical current.
The lack of better laboratory and
field tests has hindered progress in
this area.
7. Workability – Workability of fresh
concrete depends on its rheological
properties. This rheological behavior
is defined by two characteristics of
the concrete, i.e., yield stress and
plastic viscosity
NOTE:
Yield stress is the effort needed to initiate
movement of the fresh concrete, and
correlates well with slump.
Plastic viscosity is the flow characteristics
of the concrete while moving and for low
stiffness concretes can be determined by
various rheometers currently available.
SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE
• SCC provides improvements in
strength, density, durability, volume
stability, bond, and abrasion
resistance
• SCC is especially useful in confined
zones where vibrating compaction is
difficult
• The reduction in schedule is limited
since a large portion of the schedule
is still controlled by the time
required to erect and remove
formwork
MORTAR
• Mortars are usually named
according to the binding material
used in their preparation
 • They are essentially required for
masonry work, plastering, painting,
etc.
Note:
Mortar = cement + sand + water
Plaster = cement + lime + sand + water
Grout = cement + sand + considerable
amount of water
Paste = cement + water
FUNCTION OF MORTAR
1. To bind together the bricks or stones
properly to provide strength to the
structure
2. To form a homogenous mass of the
structure to resist all loads coming
over it without disintegration
3. To provide a weather resisting i.e., a
durable layer between the different
courses of masonry in the structure
4. To hold coarse aggregate together in
any concrete to form a solid mass.
(the mortar used in a concrete is
termed as matrix)
5. To do painting and plastering to the
structure. (The mortar used for
plastering is known as plaster)
6. To fill up empty joints in brick and
stone masonry. (The mortar used
for such purposes is a thin liquid
mortar which is termed a grout and
the process is known as grouting)
TYPES OF MORTAR
1. Cement Mortar
• The paste is prepared by
mixing cement and sand in
suitable proportions in
addition to water
• The general proportion is 1
part of cement to 2-8 parts
clean sand
• These mortars must be used
within an hour (before initial
setting time of the cement)
• This type is used for all
engineering works where
high strength is desired such
as load bearing walls, deep
foundations, flooring etc.
2. Lime Mortar
• The paste is prepared by
mixing lime and sand in
suitable proportions in
addition to water
• These mortars are inferior to
cement mortars in strength
as well as water tightness
• These mortars should not be
used for underground works
as they set in the presence of
carbon dioxide and break up
in damp conditions
• This type is used for
construction work above
ground level (exposed
positions)
3. Lightweight Mortar
• The paste is prepared by
mixing wood powder, wood
sawing or saw dust with
cement or lime mortar
• These are generally used as
fiber plasters in sound and
heat proof construction
4. Fire Resistant Mortar
• The paste is prepared by
mixing aluminous cement
and finely crushed fire bricks
in suitable proportions in
addition to water
• The usual proportion are 1-
part aluminous cement to
2 parts of finely crushed fire
bricks
• These are generally used for
ovens and fireplaces with
fire bricks
5. Mud Mortar
 • The paste is prepared by
mixing suitable clayey soil
with water
• The soil which is used for
preparing mud mortar
should be free from grass,
pebbles, etc.
• The cheapest mortars but
weakest in strength
• These mortars are used for
brickwork of ordinary
buildings and for plastering
walls in rural areas
CEMENT
• Popular as building material
• Material with adhesive & cohesive
properties
• To bind the fine & coarse aggregate
together
• To fill voids in between fine & coarse
aggregate particle form a compact
mass
COMPOSITION OF CEMENT
3 MIXTURES OF CEMENT
1. Cement Paste - A mixture of cement
& water
2. Cement Mortar - A mixture of
cement, sand & water to form a
paste
3. Cement Concrete - A composite
product which is obtained by mixing
cement, water, inert matrix of sand
and gravel or crushed stone
TWO MAJOR KINDS OF CEMENT
1. Pozzolan Cement
• The ancient Romans have
discovered that the addition
of some volcanic earths
(Pozzolenas) to lime gave a
product, which hardened
under water (hydraulic)
• Derived from Pozzouli, a villa
near Naples, Rome – famous
for a particularly effective
volcanic earth
• Chalks containing siliceous
clays when burnt can be
used for concreting
2. Portland Cement
• Through experiment,
experience and practice, man
has made Portland cement
by blending materials
calcium, alumina, iron and
slilica
• It is a hydraulic cement
composed primarily of
hydraulic calcium silicates.
Hydraulic cements set and
harden by reacting
chemically with water and
maintain their stability
underwater.
• Made by mixing substances
containing Calcium
Carbonate such as chalk or
limestone, with substances
containing silica, alumina and
iron oxide such as clay or
shale
• An important principle to
remember about the
cement-making process is
the dehydration (draining
out) of the materials by using
intense heat.
• When the cement is later
mixed with water, the
process reverses to
hydration (combining the
water) and the cement-
water paste will become
hard as rock
• On a 20◦C day the first phase
of the hydration process
 (called the initial set) will
occur in one or more hours
• If the temperature is more
than 20◦C, it will occur at a
slower rate. Most engineers
will call for time limits from 1
to 1-1/2 hours form the start
of mixing to the placing of
the concrete.
• About 30 kg of water are
required to hydrate 100 kg of
cement.
Note:
Joseph Aspdin, an English mason who
patented the product in 1824, named it
Portland cement because it produced a
concrete that resembled the color of the
natural limestone quarried on the Isle of
Portland, a peninsula in the English Channel.
MODERN DAY PORTLAND CEMENT
TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT (ASTM
INGREDIENTS
C150)
1. Clay/shale
• SiO2 Silica (Silicon Oxide)
[abbreviated S]
• Fe2O3 Ferrite (Iron Oxide)
[abbreviated F]
• Al2O3 Alumina (aluminum
oxide) [abbreviated A]
2. Limestone/chalk
• CaCO3 Calcium carbonate
[abbreviated C]
CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN PORTLAND
CEMENT
1. Tri-calcium Silicate – 3CaO.SiO2 (C3S)
• C3S hydrates and hardens
rapidly and is largely
responsible for initial set and
early strength
• In general, the early strength
of Portland cement concrete
is higher with increased
percentages of C#S
2. Di-calcium Silicate – 2Cao.SiO2 (C2S)
• C2S hydrates and hardens
slowly and contributes
largely to strength increase
at ages beyond 1 week
3. Tricalcium Aluminate – 3CaO.Al2O3
(C3A)
• C3A liberates a large amount
of heat during the first few
days of hydration and
hardening
• It also contributes slightly to
early development
4. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite –
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2-O3
• C4AF reduces the clinkering
temperature, thereby
assisting in the manufacture
of cement
• It hydrates rather rapidly but
contribute very little to
strength
1. Type I and Type IA
• Suitable for all general uses
such as pavement, sidewalks,
buildings, bridges, tanks,
water pipes, etc.
2. Type II and Type IIA
• Used when the acid or
sulphate content of the
groundwater or soil in higher
than the normal
• It generates heat of
hydration at a slower rate
than Type I
• Used in large piers, heavy
abutments and retaining wall
3. Type III and IIIA
• Gain strength faster and
develop more heat of
hydration than the other
Portland cements
• May be used if you are in a
hurry to strip forms and use
them again
 • Used when you need to put
the concrete into service
faster than normal
• Used in cold weather to
reduce the protection
needed
4. Type IV
• Since this type has low heat
of hydration, it is used in
massive structure such as
large dams where the
temperature rise during
hardening may cause serious
problems
5. Type V
• This type is used where
solids or groundwater have a
high sulphate or acid content
• Structure exposed to coal
mine drainage should be
considered for type V
PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT
1. Fineness of Cement
• Affects heat released and the
rate of hydration
• Greater cement fineness
increases the rate at which
cement hydrates and thus
accelerates strength
development
• It is measured by the Blaine
Air Permeability Test or the
45 microns
2. Soundness
• Refers to the ability of a
hardened paste to retain its
volume after setting
• Lack of soundness or delayed
destructive expansion is
caused by excessive amounts
of hard-burned free
magnesia
3. Consistency
• Refers to the relative
mobility of a freshly mixed
cement paste or mortar to its
ability to flow
• Both the normal consistency
method and flow test are
used to regulate water
contents of paste and
mortars respectively, to be
used in subsequent, both
allow comparing dissimilar
ingredients with the same
flow.
4. Setting Time
• To determine if cement sets
according to the time limits
specified in ASTM C 150,
tests are performed using
either the Vicat apparatus or
a Gilmore needle.
• Initial set of cement paste
must not occur too early,
final set must not occur too
late.
• The setting time indicates
that the paste is or is not
undergoing normal hydration
reactions
5. False Set (ASTM C 451)
• Paste method, and the ASTM
C359 mortar method, is
evidenced by a significant
loss of plasticity without the
evolution of much heat
shortly after mixing.
6. Compressive Strength
• As specified by ASTM C150, it
can be obtained from test of
standard 2-inch mortar
cubes tested in accordance
with ASTM C109.
• These cubes are made and
cured in prescribed manner
using sand. Compressive
strength is influenced by the
cement type, or more
precisely, the compound
composition and fineness of
cement.
7. Heat of Hydration
 • A heat generated when
cement and water react that
results to hardening.
• It results first in setting (the
concrete become solid) and
then hardening (increase of
strength and stiffness)
8. Loss of Ignition
• Is determined by heating the
sample of known weight to
900 C to 1,000 C until a
constant weight is obtained
• Normally, a high lost of
ignition is an indication of
pre-hydration and
carbonation, which may be
caused by improper or
prolonged storage or
adulteration during transport
and transfer
9. Specific Gravity
• The specific gravity of
Portland cement is generally
about 3.15
• Portland blast furnace-slag
and Portland-pozzolan
cements may have specific
gravity of 2.90
10. Weight of Cement
• Most Portland cements are
shipped in bulk by rail, truck
or barge.
• Pneumatic loading and
unloading of the transport
vehicle is the most popular
means of handling bulk
cement
• The actual density of bulk
Portland cement can vary
considerably depending on
how it is handled and stored.
For this reason, good
practice has decreed that
bulk cement must be
weighted for each batch of
concrete
WATER
REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER:
• Almost any water fit to drink can be
used for mixing with cement to
make the concrete paste. Water that
is not fit to drink can still be used.
• If there is any doubt about the
quality of water, strength & setting
time, test can be made to compare
it with samples made from the
water that is suitable for making
concrete
AIR VOIDS
2 TYPES OF AIR IN CONCRETE:
1. Entrapped Air
2. Entrained Air
Entrapped Air
• Not desirable for concrete
• Are visible to the eye
• When we place and consolidate
concrete, we try to squeeze out all
the entrapped air that we possibly
can.
Entrained Air
• Desirable for concrete
• Entrained air bubbles are barely
visible to the eye
• The first air-entrained concrete were
made accidentally, took some good
detective work to find that grease
and oil had dripped into some
cements during is manufacture.
• This soapy materials produced
billions of tiny bubbles when
scrubbed against the sand when the
concrete was mixed
• Concrete pavements containing the
tiny air bubbles were much durable
than pavements that contained
entrapped air voids.
Total Air
• Both entrained air and a small
amount of entrapped air will be
 present in air-entrained concrete,
and the field test made by a
concrete technician will measure
their sum (Total air)
Air Void Analyzer
• AVA device can characterize the air
void structure (volume, size and
spacing) of fresh concrete
• The clear advantage of the AVA is its
ability to characterize the air void
structure on fresh concrete in less
than 30 minutes
• With this information, adjustments
can be made in the production
process during concrete placement
CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE
Admixtures are the materials other
than the basic ingredients of concrete
cement, water and aggregates – added to
the concrete mix immediately before or
during mixing to modify one or more of the
specific properties of concrete in the fresh
or hardened state.
Purpose of Admixtures
Admixtures are used in concrete to
improve concrete properties, to aid in
construction procedures, to provide
economy, and to fulfill other special
purposes.
Types of Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
(AASHTO M 194)
1. Type A - Water-reducing
Admixtures (or plasticizers)
An admixture that reduces
the quantity of mixing water
required to produce concrete of a
given consistency.
These admixtures are used to:
• Obtain a high strength by decreasing
the water cement ratio maintaining
the same workability as an ordinary
mix.
• Achieve the same workability by
decreasing the cement content
• Increase the workability so as to
ease placing of mix in inaccessible
locations.
ASTM Standard C 494-79 classifies
admixtures which are water-reducing only
as Type A, but if the water reducing
properties are accompanied by set
retardation, the admixtures are classified as
Type D.
The reduction in the quantity of mixing
water varies between 5% and 15%.
2. Type B – Retarding Admixtures
These admixtures generally slow
down the setting of concrete. They can
delay setting time up to 4 hrs.
Retarders are useful in concreting
during hot weather, when the normal
setting time is shortened by the higher
temperature, and in preventing the
formation of cold joints. They are also
used to reduce the incidence of thermal
cracking and to maintain concrete
workability during large pours or long
ready-mix hauls.
3. Type C – Accelerating Admixtures
Admixtures used to speed up
the initial set of concrete are called
accelerators. These are added to
concrete either:
• To increase the rate of
hydration of cement, and
hence to increase the rate of
development of strength
• To shorten the setting time
Calcium chloride is commonly
used to accelerate the setting and
strength development of the
concrete. A calcium chloride content
of 1 to 2% of the mass of the cement
is generally used. This admixture is
used when concrete is to be placed
 at low temperatures or when urgent
repair work is required. It must meet
the requirements of Standard
Specification for CaCl2 (AASHTO
M144).
The use of 2% calcium
chloride by mass of cement can
reduce the setting time by one-third
and increase flexural strength by
10% to 80% of one day and up to
12% at 28 days.
4. Type D – Water-Reducing and
Retarding Admixtures
An admixture that decreases the
quantity of mixing water required to
produce concrete of a given
consistency and delays the time of
setting of concrete.
5. Type E – Water-Reducing and
Accelerating Admixtures
An admixture that decreases the
quantity of mixing water required to
produce concrete of a given
consistency and hastens the time of
setting and early strength
development of concrete.
6. Type F – Water-reducing High
Range, Admixtures
An admixture that decreases the
quantity of mixing water required to
produce concrete of a given
consistency by 12% or greater.
7. Type G – Water-Reducing, High
Range, and Retarding Admixture
An admixture that decreases the
quantity of mixing water required to
produce concrete of a given
consistency of 12% or greater and
delays the time of setting of
concrete.
It is also known as
superplasticizer or fluidizer.
Superplasticizers are a new type of
water-reducing admixtures that are
used to produce flowing concrete.
Such concrete is useful for placing in
very heavily reinforced sections,
inaccessible locations, or where very
rapid placing is required. Another
use of superplasticizers is in the
production of concrete of normal
workability but with an extremely
high strength due to a very low
water/cement ratio.
In general, superplasticizers can
reduce the water content by 25% to
35% and increase the 24-hour
strength by 50% to 70%.
The plasticizing action of
superplasticizers is of short duration
(perhaps 10 min.). After some 30 to
90 minutes, the workability returns
to normal. As such, it should be
added to the mix immediately prior
to placing.
DIFFERENT PROCESS OF MIXING CONCRETE
1. Manual – flat surface with shovels
and buggy
2. Small Power – a manual mixing
rotating drum
3. Bagger Mixer – equipped with diesel
engine and pump operated
mechanical mixing drum (1 or 2
bags) or rotating mixing drum at the
back of a truck
METHODS OF TRANSPORTING A CONCRETE
1. Ready Mixed – concrete mixed at
batch plant for delivery by an
agitator to construction site
2. Shrink Mixed – concrete partially
mixed at the batch plant then mixed
completely in a truck mixed then
route to construction site
3. Transit Mixed – concrete dry batch
at a batch plant & mixed at truck
mixer then route to construction site
 4. Gunite – or “Shotcrete” for diameter, and can be purchase by piece or
lightweight construction where by mass.
concrete mix is pumped through a
hose and sprayed at high velocity
over reinforcement until desired Things to consider in estimating reinforcing
thickness is reached. bars
1. Grade, commercial length, mass
and diameter of rebars
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
2. Hooks and bends
1. Cast-In Place – concrete deposited, 3. Splicing
formed and cured and finished in its 4. Tie wires (in kilograms)
final position as a part of structure
2. Slip Form – a form that can be
Grade
moved slowly and continuously as
concrete is being placed during the There are three common grades of
construction of concrete pavement rebars namely Grade 33, Grade 40 and
or building Grade 60. The number in each grade
3. Lift Slab Construction – structural indicates the yield strength of the rebars in
members are sequentially lifted into terms of kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi).
final position These common grades has weldable
4. Tilt-Up Construction – structural counterparts (Grade W33, Grade W40 and
members are custom pre-casted on Grade W60)
site then hoisted into final position
5. Pre-Stressing – pre-tensioning and
post-tensioning Commercial Length
Rebars can be bought in 6-meter,
7.5-meter, 9-meter, 10.5-meter and 12-
REINFORCING BARS
meter lengths. Of these five, 6-meter
Steel reinforcing bars play a major deformed bars are the most readily
role in controlling cracks on structural available. Commercial lengths of 13 meters
concrete that are caused mainly by the and 15 meters are also available, but in
application of loads that induce tensile and special orders.
shearing stresses. They also improve the
tensile properties of concrete, in which
aspect the concrete is deemed very weak Bar Diameter
at, as well as assist in the compression
Rebars can also come in different
resistance on areas requiring small
diameters. The table shows the sizes
structural member’s sections. Steel
available in the country, as per the
reinforcements for reinforced concrete
Philippines National Standards (PNS) for
members are usually deformed to prevent
rebars.
the likelihood of slippage from the
surrounding concrete and create a bond
that will ensure that both the concrete and
steel reinforcement will act as one unit.
Rebars are available in the market in
terms of grade, commercial length and

We can also use the formula of Unit
Mass, Unit Mass = D2/162.2, which is
derived in this manner.
Unit Mass = Density of Steel x Cross
Sectional Area of Steel Bar
The density of steel is 7,850 kg/m3, hence,
Unit Mass = 7,850 x 0.25πD2
= 6,165,375D2
= 6,165,375D2/1,000,000
(Converting the dia. from mm2 to
m2 )
Unit Mass = D2/162.2 (in kg/m)
Markings
ASTM Bar Marking Sequence (retrieved
from the Concrete Reinforcing Steel
Institute)
1. First Mark – Designated symbol of
the producing mill or manufacturer
2. Second Mark – Bar size. For
weldable bars, the number is
followed by “W”
3. Third Mark – Type of steel
4. Fourth Mark – Grade of steel
5. Ribs
• No Rib – Grade 33
• One Rib – Grade 40
• Two Ribs – Grade 60
6. Color – Found at the tip of the bar
• Grade 33 – White
• Grade 40 – Yellow
• Grade 60 – Green
• Grade W33 – White/Red
• Grade W40 – Yellow/Red
• Grade W60 – Green/Red
• Quenched/Tempered - Silver
FORMWORKS AND FALSEWORKS
Forms are used in holding wet
concrete and molding them into the shapes
of structural members as desired in the
plans. Forms usually come in steel, plastic
or timber.
Things to consider in estimating forms and
scaffoldings
1. Size and commercial length of ply
2. Size and commercial length of
lumber
3. Nails (in kilograms)
Shuttering vs Centering
Generally, there are two types of
formworks; shuttering and centering forms.
A shuttering is a type of formwork that
supports vertical side structural members,
such as reinforced concrete wall, columns,
pedestal, and footings.
On the other hand, a centering
supports the undersize of horizontal
structural elements such as beams andslabs.
Scaffolding and Staging
Falsework is defined as the
temporary constructions, which usually
comes in the form of scaffolds. Not to be
confused with formworks, falseworks are
the one supporting them in place, especially
in the case of slabs and beams until they are
cured, and forms are ready to be strike (or
removed).
Scaffolds are temporary
construction used to; 1) supports forms,
and structural elements while being
hardened and/or platform for working men.
It is set up in stages (levels) in the process
called staging.
MASONRY
A Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU) –
also called as concrete block, cement block
and foundation block, is large rectangular
block used in construction. Concrete blocks
are made from cast concrete. Two types of
masonry are load bearing and non-load
bearing. Load bearing CMU is used for
exterior walls while non-load bearing CMU is
used for interior walls.
CMUs are usually come in 4”, 5” and
6” thickness, with face dimensions of 20cm
x 40cm (8” x 16”). The number of concrete
masonry units to be used is given by
dividing one square meter of the wall or
fence by the area of one lateral face of one
block.
Number of CMUs = 1sqm/ (0.2*0.4)
Number of CMUs = 12.5 pcs per
sqm.
TINSMITHRY AND OTHER ROOFING
MATERIALS
Tinsmithry is the term for the art or
trade of shaping and installing tin and other
lightweight sheets of metal to form roof
coverings, rainwater collectors and
conductors, and metal claddings.
Roofing Sheets
Typical roofing sheets used in
residential construction are corrugated
galvanized iron or ribbed type galvanized
iron. They are usually delivered in lengths
ranging from 1.2m to 3.6m, though long
span sheets are also available and are ideal
for large roofing areas.
Corrugated vs Ribbed Type Roofing Sheets
Aside from the shape, which is
obvious, corrugated, and ribbed type
roofing sheets differ in terms of effective
width and rigidity. Corrugated sheets
typically have an effective width of 0.8 to
0.96 meters. Given this, and assuming that
one will use same gauge of sheet in
covering the same roofing area, corrugated
sheets will cost 11% to 33% more than
ribbed type ones.
In terms of rigidity, on the other
hand, the number of corrugations of
corrugated sheets will make it more rigid
than ribbed type sheets. More rigidity
means that a thinner and lighter gauge is
enough to prevent dents, equating to lesser
cost.
Parts of the Roof
1. Ridge Roll/Hip – Serve as a cover for
the joint of two or more adjacent
roofing sheets.
2. Capping
a. End Capping – A capping used to
“cap” or cover the fascia when a
gutter is not present.
b. Wall Capping – A capping used
to cover the top and sidewall of
a firewall adjacent to the roof
sheet.
3. Flashing – A sheet of plain metal
that direct water away from opening
in the roof, that way cause leaks.
 4. Gutter – Also known as collectors, is
the part of the roof that catches
water from the roof surface and
transfers it to the downspouts (or
roof conductors).
Some Accessories for Tinsmithry
Works:
1. Tek screws - For roof sheet to purlin
connections
2. Blind Rivets – For roof sheet to roof
parts connections and roof sheet to
fascia connections
3. Sealant - To seal out leaks on joints
and connections
Things to consider in estimating metal
works for trusses or rafter
1. Mass or pieces of structural bars
used for:
a. Trusses/Rafter
b. Purlins
c. Sag rods
d. Fascia Backing
2. Pieces of MS Plates for base plates
3. Anchor bars
4. Dynabolts/Expansion Bolts (if
necessary)
5. Mass or Boxes of Welding Rod
TILES
Tiles serve more than just their
function as a protective surface for areas of
your home. They play an important role in
the interior design of your home by creating
an atmosphere which adds to the look and
feel of the living space
Types of Tiles
1. Ceramic Tiles - Ceramic tiles are
waterproof, which makes them a
natural fit for any bathroom or
shower stall, including open-concept
bathrooms with perhaps a marble
look. Since they are non-absorbent
and easy to clean, tiles are also
popular in kitchens, where you
might find them in eye-catching
backsplash arrangements
2. Porcelain Tiles - The density of
porcelain tile makes it more durable
than ceramic tile while being less
subject to wear and tear. This makes
it more suitable for commercial use
as well as in the home. Water
Resistance: Porcelain tile is almost
impervious to water compared to
ceramic tile.
3. Vinyl Tiles - Vinyl tile is essentially
the same material as is used for
sheet vinyl flooring—a very thin,
manmade product made from PVC
plastic with a felt or fiberglass
backing layer and covered with a
printed design layer and clear wear
layer.
4. Mosaic Tiles - Mosaic tile is any
combination of tile sizes, colors,
shapes and/or materials, set in a
sheet for easy installation. They can
be ceramic, porcelain, glass, natural
stone and even metal or mirror, set
randomly or in a pattern, and
usually on a mesh-mounted sheet.
5. Marble Tiles – A natural stone, these
tiles are usually used in benches,
high traffic floors and exterior walls.
6. Granite Tiles – Usually used in high
traffic areas because of their
thickness, it is a natural stone that
has the same feel and look of a
marble.
7. Limestone Tiles - Fortunately,
limestone is very durable. It can also
be treated with sealers that can help
protect the surface of the tiles and
keep it stain free, as well as helping
to make the flooring easier to clean.
As well as providing a fabulous
 natural surface indoors, limestone Typical types of Ceiling for Residential
flooring can also be installed
1. Conventional Ceiling - A
outdoors.
conventional ceiling construction
type is commonly found in homes.
These ceilings have a standard
8. Travertine Tiles – It is used for
drywall finish and are made of
swimming pool decks and exterior
lower-cost materials, requiring easy
walls. Like other natural stone tiles,
installation.
travertine tile is porous and prone
2. Suspended Ceiling - Suspended
to wear and stains, making it
ceilings are secondary ceilings
expensive to maintain.
suspended from the structural floor
slab above, creating a void between
Good Characteristics of Tiles the underside of the floor slab and
the top of the suspended ceiling.
1. Durable – Can withstand impact.
3. Trayed/Dropped Ceiling - Modern
2. Stain-resistant – Easy to clean
dropped ceilings were initially
3. Abrasion-resistant – Can withstand
created to hide the building
scratches
infrastructure, including piping,
4. Slip-resistant – Has high coefficient
wiring, and/or ductwork, by creating
of friction. Ideal for restrooms, stairs
a plenum space above the dropped
and balcony tiles.
ceiling, while allowing access for
Tile Adhesive repairs and inspections. Drop
ceilings may also be used to hide
Tile adhesive is used to prevent
problems, such as structural
crazing and shedding of tiles. It is very easy
damage.
to use a tile adhesive, as ready-made bags
4. Shed/Sloped Ceiling - A shed ceiling
are available and only water is to be mixed.
is a type of vaulted ceiling that
Pre-mixed tile adhesives are also now
angles upward or downward from
available in the market. They are also used
low to high but only on one side. Its
to fix or prevent seeping of water
rise angle is not as steep as like that
underneath the tiles.
of the cathedral ceiling, meaning it
Tile Grout can provide better insulation and
ventilation. This ceiling style is
Grout offers a number of valuable
typically seen in homes with attic
benefits: It gives your floor or wall a crisp
spaces.
finished appearance. It helps keep dirt and
debris from getting in between and under Parts of a Suspended Ceiling System
your tile. It adds rigidity and strength to the
tile installation.

CEILING
Ceiling is the overhead surface of a
room which hides the roof framing, floor
slab and joist under slab or the MEPF
piping, fixtures, and pieces of equipment in
it and hanging from it from sight.
 1. Plaster board dissolve and be transported into
2. Double Furring substrates.
3. Carrying Channel a. Flatwall Enamel
4. Hangers b. Semi-Gloss Enamel
5. Wall Angle c. Quick Drying Enamel
6. Furring Clip d. Lacquer
7. Carrying Clip
8. Expansion Bolt
9. Blind Rivets COMMON CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS
Backhoe - They can tackle both flat surfaces
PAINTING and inclines. Backhoes are versatile. They
come with a bucket and digging arm that
Paint is a fluid or a mastic that is
can perform many different tasks, such as
applied on surfaces as a coating to provide
digging, small demolitions, moving
decoration, texture, protection from
materials, landscaping, breaking asphalt,
mildew, rust, moisture and heat and other
and paving roads.
functions.
Excavator - The excavator is typically a
Basic Components
better fit for demolition projects, mining,
1. Pigment – the one that gives color to driving piles, drilling shafts for rock blasting,
the paint. and overall large-scale industrial projects.
2. Binder – It binds the pigments to
Bulldozer - A bulldozer is an earthmoving
create a dry surface. It also provides
machine designed to push large quantities
gloss retention, and adhesion to the
of rubble, soil, sand and other loose
substrate. It also plays a great role in
materials.
the washability of the paint.
3. Vehicle/Liquid/Solvent – Component Grader - Graders are commonly used in the
that allows the paint to be construction and maintenance of dirt and
transported into substrate. Example gravel roads for creating a flat surface
of which are water for latex paints where the asphalt will be placed.
and thinner for alkyd paints.
Compactor - A compactor is a machine or
4. Additives – the one that provides
mechanism used to reduce the size of
additional properties for the paint
material such as waste material or biomass
like additional gloss, viscosity,
through compaction.
defoaming ability and film.
Dumptruck - an automotive truck for the
Types of Paint Based of Vehicle
transportation of bulk material that has a
1. Water-based Paints – these types of body which tilts to dump its contents.
paint contain pigments, fillers and
Crane - a large, tall machine used for
binders with water as the vehicle.
moving heavy objects by suspending them
These paints are water-soluble when
from a projecting arm or beam.
applied but become water-resistant
when dried. Jackhammer - A jackhammer is a powerful
a. Acrylic demolition tool that's used to break up hard
b. Latex surfaces like asphalt, brick, and tile.
c. Acrylic Latex
2. Solvent-based Paints – these types
of paints are oil-based and needs
thinning agents like paint thinner to