Bhusan

Sl Topic Page Name Roll No
no No
1. The Scope of Construction Materials in 02 Aioshi Sarkar 216302001
Building Construction
2. Transportation of Engineering 03-04 Bhakti Das 216302002
3. Environmental Engineering 05 Chamily Reang 216302003
4. Irrigation Engineering 06-08 Jessika Reang 216302005
Select Materials For Different Civil
5. Engineering Structures 09 Pallabi Debnath 216302006
1.Bricks
2.Flooring Tiles
6. Engineering Structures 10-11 Sayantika Das 216302007
1.Stone
7. Engineering Structures 12-17 Twimuk Debbarma 216302008
1.Timber
8. Asphalts and Bitumens 18-19 Brilean Debbarma 216302010
1.Super structure in building foundation
9. 2.Scaffolding structure 20-32 Janam Joy Reang 216302011
3.Cofferdam Underpinning
10. Select of Building Materials 33-37 Manash Debbarma 216302013
1)Concrete
Explain Suitability of Materials used in 38-40 Manideep Bhaumik 216302014
11. RCC Work
1)Grading of Aggregates Padma Bhusan
12. 2)Different mix Proportions and Their 41-42 Chakma 216302016
Specific use in Construction
13. 1)Water Cement Ratio 43-45 Rohit Bhowmik 216302017
2)Workability of Concrete
14. Slump Test of Concrete 46 Sayan Saha 216302018
15. Manufacturing process of cement 47-48 Subendu Biswas 216302020
16. Explain Suitability of Waterproofing 49-50 Sumit Biswas 216302021
Materials
17. Pile Foundation 51-53 Surajit Das 216302022
18. Swarnadeep Paul 216302023
19. Uses of Anti Termite Proofing Kritika Debbarma 216302209
20. 1)Plaster of Paris
2) Geopolymer Cement Arkajit Acharya 216302210
3)Fiber
INDEX
Name- Aioshi Sarkar
Roll No-216302001
Assignment Date-02/12/2022
Submission Date-02/01/2023
THE SCOPE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS IN BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION
The scope of Construction and Building Materials includes, but is not restricted to,
materials, NDT and monitoring aspects of new works and repair and maintenance of the
following: bridges, high-rise buildings, dams, civil engineering structures, silos, highway
pavements, tunnels, water containment structures, sewers, roofing, housing, coastal defences
and railways. There are many different types of building materials used in the construction
industry including Concrete, Steel, Wood and Masonry. Every single material is varied with
diverse properties like weight, strength, durability and cost making it suitable for certain types
of applications. The choice of materials for construction is based on cost and effectiveness to
resisting the loads and stresses acting on the structure. Architects and builders work closely
with their clients and decide on the type of Construction and Building Materials to be used in
each project.
Building materials form an integral part of the field of architecture. The site selected as
well as the nature of the surroundings, determine the building type, and choice of building
material. The type and form of structure is determined by the type of material used.The concept
of ‘building materials’ glorifies the endurance and visual aspects of design. Not only does it
provides meaning but also enhances the aesthetic quality of a building—venustas (beauty) and
firmitas (structure). This piece takes a look at the reasons that make building materials an
important aspect of architecture.
Building materials help to:

• Establish a relationship between visual quality and structural stability
• Select the appropriate technique of construction
• Provide character and visual appeal to the structure
• Decipher the time and era of construction of a building
• Trace the evolution of the art of construction
• Highlight the theme and concept of design of the building project
• Determine the appropriate site for a project based on availability of material and suitability to
the design
• Determine the budget of building projects
• Establish a relationship between quantity and quality generalizes the type of architecture
practiced in the construction. The concept of architectural symbolism is not isolated merely to
signify the changing trends in the field of architecture. Rather, it is defined irrespective of any
instinct and control
Name- Bhakti Das
Roll No-216302002
TRANSPORTATION OF ENGINEERING
The transportation sector has undergone a see change over the past few years, as more
cities pilot smart city initiatives with intelligent transportation system’s with ITS technology
cities can gather and analysis data to design Saper road, cleaner technical and more efficient
travel. New work city for example has installed camera and sensors at over 10,000 traffic
intersection to collect data and enact change that improve safety and traffic plow.
Professionals in transportation engineering careers play a pivotal role in the

implementation of transportation advancement by combining technical knowledge and creative
thinking skill.
 What is Transportation Engineering:-

Any system that moves people and goods from one place to another falls under the
scope of transportation engineering, which includes:
• Highway and roadways

• Railways
• Oil pipelines
• Public transport systems
• Traffic control systems
• Automated transport systems
• Space transport systems
 What does Transportation Engineering do:-

In Toplining projects, Transportation Engineers gather relevant data on the
population in the surrounding area, travel patterns, socioeconomic characteristics, laws and
ordinance, and financial recourses. They consolidate this information and use decision-
support tools to develop, design, and deliver various types of transportation projects in
consideration of various performance measures(e.g., operations, safety, Environmental
impacts).
While their professional duties vary based on job level and specialization, some of the
most common responsibilities of a transportation engineers:
Draft design and construction plans for new transportation system.
Investigate traffic problems and identify solutions
Analyse engineering data and draw conclusions and recommendations
Estimate project budgets for labour, materials, and equipment

Name- Bhakti Das
Roll No-216302002
Discuss plans with contractors, local organizations, and the public
Inspect completed projects to ensure safety and compliance to standards
Model transportation systems to assess impact
Oversee survey, staking, and layout of projects
Present reports and proposals to stakeholdersransportation engineering is a beanch of

Civil Engineering that involves the planning design operation and maintenance of
transportation systems to help build smart and liveable communities.
Name- Chamily Reang
Roll No-216302003
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 What is Environmental Engineering?
Environmental engineering is a professional engineering discipline that
encompasses broad scientific topics like chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, hydraulics,
hydrology, microbiology, and mathematics to create solutions that will protect and also
improve the health of living organisms and improve the quality of the environment.
Environmental engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering and chemical engineering.
While on the part of civil engineering, the Environmental Engineering is focused mainly on
Sanitary Engineering. Environmental engineering is the application of scientific and
engineering principles to improve and maintain the environment to: +protect human health,
+protect nature's beneficial ecosystems, +and improve environmental-related enhancement
of the quality of human life.
Environmental engineers devise solutions for wastewater management, water and

air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, and public health. They design municipal
water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems, and design plans to prevent
waterborne diseases and improve sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas. They
evaluate hazardous-waste management systems to evaluate the severity of such hazards,
advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. They
implement environmental engineering law, as in assessing the environmental impact of
proposed construction projects.
Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the

environment, addressing local and worldwide environmental issues such as acid rain, global
warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and
industrial sources.
Most jurisdictions impose licensing and registration requirements for qualified

environmental engineers.
Name- Jessika Reng
Roll No-216302005
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
 DEFINITION:-
Irrigation is defined as a
process of supplying water
to crops artificially. The science
of planning and designing
a water supply system to the
plants, crops, for their normal
growth during the period of
no rainfall with the help of dam.
weir, barrage, reservoir and canal
system with head works, cross drainage works, and miscellaneous works of canal like canal fall
is called Irrigation Engineering.
 NECESSITY OF IRRIGATION:-
 Improvement of Perennial Crops:-

Some of the perennial crop
requires water throughout the
year. But rainfall is not uniform
in all seasons of the year. These
crops cannot be produced
perennially without water for
all the seasons. For the growth
or production of those perennial
crops, irrigation is necessary.
 Development of Desert Area:-

The dry and desert areas can be converted to a beautiful cropland if irrigation
water can be supplied as per need.
Name- Jessika Reng
Roll No-216302005
 BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION:-
 Nutrition of Population:-
Due to irrigation, increased agricultural production takes place and this
production improves the
nutrition of the people.
 Recreation:-
Recreation facilities like
parks, restaurants may be
developed near the canal banks
or reservoir sites.
 Social and Cultural Improvement:-

If increases the cultural and social level of population living nearby canals and
reservoirs. Tourists interest in the area of newely constructed reservoir may be
enhanced.
 Self-Sufficiency in Food:-
Irrigation makes the country self-sufficient in food by improving the production.
 EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION:-
Besides benefits, there are some

ill-effects of irrigation also. However,
benefits are more than ill-effects.
 Effects on Raising Water Table:-

In unlined irrigation canal,
excessive seepage of water through bed
and sides takes place which raises the
water table of the surrounding areas. Soil in the root zone of the crop is saturated and
become alkaline which is harmful to the crops and plants. Thus the nearby area may be
waterlogged
 Damp Climate:-
Temperature of the command
area of an irrigation projects may be
lowered and damp climate
prevails, which adversely affect the
health of the community living in this
area.
Name- Jessika Reng
Roll No-216302005
 Breeding Places of Mosquitoes:-

Due to excess application of
water, seepage and leakage from canal, marshy
land may be formed leading to breeding
place of mosquitos.
 TYPES OF IRRIGATION:-
Two main types of irrigation are.
 Flow Irrigation:-
Flow irrigation is that type of in
which flow of water to crop field from
the source takes place due to component
of gravity force. This flow Irrigation may
be further classified into.
 Lift Irrigation:-
Lift Irrigation is the process of lifting
water normally from underground sources
and sometimes from surface source by
pump, i.e. mechanical power or man or
animal power and then direct this lifted
water is supplied to the agricultural field.
In remote villages, if electric energy is not
available in open well, shallow and deep
tube wells.
Name- Pallabi Debnath
Roll No-216302006
SELECT MATERIALS FOR DIFFERENT CIVIL ENGINEERING

STRUCTURES:-
 BRICKS:-
A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other elements in
masonry construction . Properly the term brick denotes a block composed of dried clay , but
is now also used informally to denote other chemically cured construction blocks . Bricks
can be joined using mortar , adhesives or by interlocking them . bricks are usually produced
at brickworks in numerous classes , types , materials and sizes which vary with region and
time period , and are produced in bulk quantities.
Block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of similar
materials, but is usually larger then a brick . Lightweight (also called lightweight blocks ) are
made from expanded clay aggregate .
Fired bricks are one of the longest – lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes
referred to as artificial stone , and have been used since circa 4000 BC . Air-dried bricks ,
also known as mudbricks , have a history older than fired bricks , and have an additional
ingredient of mechanical binder such as straw .
Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds , collectively known as
brickwork , and may be laid in various kinds of mortar to hold the bricks together to make a
durable structure .
 FLOORING TILES:-
Tile flooring is a catch-all term used to describe any hard-wearing flooring made up
of tiles, where the gaps among tiles have been filled with grout. Oftentimes, tile flooring is
made of ceramic, a clay-based material.
Name-Sayantika Das
Roll No-216302007

STRUCTURES
 STONE
1) Granite
i) It is igneous rock. Its main constituent minerals are quartz, felspar and mica.
ii) Its specific gravity is 2.64.
iii) Its crushing strength varies from 110 to 140 MN/𝑚2 .
iv) It has least fire resistance as it cracks under a strong fire.
v) Its colour depends upon that of felspar.
2) Basalt or trap
i) It is igneous rock (silicious variety). The main constituents are silica, alumina
and felspar.
ii) Its specific gravity is 2.96.
iii) Its crushing strength varies from 70 to 80 MN/𝑚2 .
iv) Its colour is greenish grey to dark grey.
v) It is suitable for paving sets and as road metal.
3) Slate
i) it is a metamorphic rock (argillaceous variety).
ii) It is composed of alumina mixed with sand or carbonate of lime.
iii) Its specific gravity is 2.8.
iv) It has dark blue or grey colour.
v) It is non-absorbent.
4) Gneiss
i) It is a metamorphic rock.it is also sometime called stratified granite.
ii) Its constituents are same as granite that is quartz and felspar.
iii) It is available in different colours so it is used for ornamental and decorative
purposes.
5) Sandstone
i) It is a sedimentary rock of siliceous variety.
ii) It contains sand or quartz cemented by lime, mica, aluminium, etc. or by a
mixture of these materials.
iii) Its specific gravity is 2.25.
iv) Crushing strength varies from 35 to 40 MN/𝑚2 .
v) Its durability depends upon the nature of cementing materials.
Name-Sayantika Das
Roll No-216302007
6) Limestone
i) It is sedimentary rock of calcareous variety.
ii) When in pure state it contains Calcium carbonate but frequently is mixed with
magnesium carbonate and small amount of silica and alumina.
iii) When both magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate are present nearly
in equal proportion it is known as DOLOMITE.
iv) Its specific gravity is 2.6.
v) Its crushing strength is 52 MN/𝑚2 .
7) Marble
i) It is a metamorphic rock of calcareous variety.
ii) It is changed from lime stone.it is crystalline hard compact stone having
calcium
iii) carbonate as main constituent.
iv) It is available in white, yellow, grey, green and black colours.
v) Its specific gravity is 2.72.
vi) Its crushing strength varies from 50 to 60 MN/𝑚2 .
8) Kankar
i) It is an impure limestone containing 30% of clay and sand.
ii) It is available in grey or khaki colour. iii) It has a porous structure.
9) Moorum
i) It is decomposed laterite.
ii) It has deep brown or red colour.
iii) It is used in surfacing fancy paths and garden walks.
10) Quartzite
i) it is composed of silica.
ii) It is dense, hard, and glassy in structure.
iii) Some of the varieties are considered as the hardest and strongest type of
building stones.
iv) It is strong and durable.
v) It is used as a road metal or railway ballast or in concrete.
Name-Twimuk Debbarma
Roll No-216302008
 TIMBER
INTRODUCTION
Timber is the wood suitable for building or engineering purpose and it is applied
to trees measuring not less than 0.6 in girth.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER
Following are the characteristics of good timber:-
1. It should have a uniform color.
2. A freshly cut surface should have a sweet smell.
3. It should have regular annular rings.
4. It should have straight and closed fibres.
5. It should be heavy in weight.
6. It should have moisture after cutting.
7. A good timber should be durable.
8. It should be fibre-resistant.
9. A good timber should be strong for working as structural member.
Note: - The heavier and dark coloured timber is usually strong.
 ADVANTAGE’S AND DISADVANTAGE’S OF TIMBER
Advantages:-
1. It is relatively easy to handle and can be planed, sawn and jointed with simple
carpenters tools.
2. It is easily available and can be quickly transported by simple means.
3. It is light in weight yet strong.
4. Boards may be cut rapidly by a saw and fastened firmly together with nails.
5. When properly protected timber structures may give good service for hundreds of
years.
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Disadvantages:-
1. The greatest disadvantage is its ready combustibility, which can be diminished but
not eliminated even by expensive treatment.
2. Frame buildings built closely together present a serious conflagration hazard.
3. Timber is destroyed by decay induced by fungi, and by insects that feed upon the
timber under favorable considerations.
4. Timber swells and undergoes shrinkage with changing atmospheric humidity.
 USES OF TIMBER
Timber is put to different uses, which are:-
1. It is generally used in the form of piles, posts, beams, lintels, door-window frames and
leaves, roof members, e.g., rafters, purlins, trusses etc.
2. It is employed for floring, ceiling, paneling and construction of partition walls.
3. It is used for formwork for concrete, for the timbering of trenches, centering for arch
work, scaffolding, transmission poles and fencing.
4. It is used in wagon and coach building, marine installations and bridges.
5. It is also used in making furniture, agricultural implements, sports goods, musical

instruments, well curbs, motor bodies carts and carriages, railway sleepers, packing
cases etc.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
1. Heart Shakes:- This are the splits or cracks widest at the centre and diminishing
towards the outside circumference. This defect usually occurs in over matured trees
and is probably caused due to the shrinkage of the heart wood.
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2. Star Shakes:- This are radial splits or cracks widest at the circumference and get
diminishing towards the centre of the tree.
3. Cup Shakes or Ring Shakes:- This are formed by the rupture of the tissues in a
circular direction across the cross-section of a lock.
4. Radial Shake:- This are similar to the star shakes but they are fine, irregular and
numerous. They usually occur when tree is exposed to sun for seasoning after being
felled down.
5. Honey Combing:- This defect is due to separation of the tissues in the interior of the
timber due to drying stresses, caused by incorrect kill seasoning as the interior wood
dries earlier then the external surface.
6. End-Splits:- These are the checks extending through two faces.
7. Dead Wood:- Dead wood is deficient in strength and weight and is the result of trees
being felled after maturity
 SEASONING OF TIMBER
INTRODUCTION
• Seasoning of timber is the process of drying timber or removing moisture or sap,
present in a freshly felled timber, under more or less controlled condition.
• Freshly felled timber contains a large quantity of moisture roughly from 100-200%
based on dry weight of wood. A well seasoned piece of wood may contain about 10- 12%
moisture.
Roll No-216302008
OBJECT OF SEASONING
Following are the main object of seasoning of timber:-
1. To check/minimize the tendency of timber or shrink, warp and split.

2. To increase strength, durability and electrical resisting power of the timber.
3. To maintain the shape and size of the components of the timber articles which are expected to
remain unchanged in form.
4. To make timber safe from attack of fungi and insects.
5. To reduce the weight for transport purposes, handling, and thereby reduction in costs.
6. To make timber fit for receiving treatment of paints, preservatives, varnishes etc.
ADVANTAGE OF SEASONING
1. Seasoning makes the timber less liable to attack by insects and fungus.
2. It decreases the weight of timber and make it lighter.
3. It enables timber to be easily painted, polished and preserved.
4. It improves the strength properties of the timber and makes it more stable.
5. It improves working qualities of timber
METHODS OF SEASONING OF TIMBER
1. Natural Seasoning:- There are two methods of natural seasoning.
i)Air drying/seasoning:- In this method of seasoning timber the sawn timber is stacked in a dry
place above 30cm above floor level with longitudinal and cross pieces arranged one upon
another, leaving a space of a few cms between, for free circulation of air. To keep wood clear of
the ground, as suitable foundation is provided. To protect the stacks of wood from direct
sunlight either a pitched roof covering is used or stacks are kept in shade.
ii) Water seasoning:- This method of seasoning timber consists in keeping logs of wood
completely immersed in a running stream of water; the longer ends of the logs being kept
pointing up-stream. By this process, the sap, sugar and gum etc are leached out of the wood and
replaced by water. The logs are then taken out and left to dry in an open place..
2. Artificial Seasoning:- Artificial seasoning methods consists of:-
i) Kill seasoning:- In this system the timber is seasoned under control temperature and
humidity conditions with proper air circulation and ventilation system. The rise in temperature
should be such
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that the timber retains the original strength and elastic properties. The required humidity level
is maintained to avoid warping and cracking.
ii) Chemical seasoning:- This is also known as the salt seasoning. In this method the timber is
immersed in a solution of soluble salt.
iii) Electrical seasoning:- This method of seasoning works on the principle that heat is produced
when poor conductors are placed in the field of high frequency.
DECAY OF TIMBER
1. Moisture
2. Imperfect seasoning
3. Vegetable growth
4. Attacks of insects
5. Bad storage or stacking of timber
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
Preservation of timber refers to the art of treating the timber with some chemical so as to
increase its life.
The object of preservation of timber are
1. To protect the timber structure from attack of destroying agencies such as fungi, insects etc.
2. To lengthen the life of timber structures.
3. To make the timber structures durable.
METHODS OF PRESERVATION
1. Tarring:- It consists in applying a code of tar or tarmixed with pitch. It is employed for rough
types of works, such as timber fences, ends of door and window frames etc.
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2. Charring:- It is done to prevent dry rot and the attacks of insects and is carried out at the
lower ends of the posts to be embedded in the ground. The posts are charred to the depth about
1.5cm over a wood fire and then quenched in water.
3. Painting:- Painting should be carried out on the thoroughly season wood otherwise the paint
may confine the sap and caused the decay. Oil paint preserves the wood from moisture are
prolongs its life. The well known oil paints are solignum paints which are available in various
shades. They can effectively bear wide ants attacks.
4. Fire proofing:- Wood cannot be fire proof without destroying its structure or modifying it so
greatly that the product should scarcely be called wood. A coating of any non-combustable
material protects the surface of the wood from direct contact with flying embers as well as from
radiant heat. If this materials are applied as a paint, the binder should also be noncombustible.
Name-Brilean Debbarma
Roll No-216302010
ASPHALTS AND BITUMENS
Asphalt and bitumens form an inter?related group or materials that have wide
application in construction engineering. You'll know different types of Asphalt here.
The term asphalt is used somewhat differently in different countries. Thus in the USA, by
Asphalt it is understood a solid or semisolid product in which the dominating constituents are
the bitumens.
 Types of Asphalt-
1. Native Asphalt-
Pure asphalts occur in nature in the form of solid or semi·-solid deposits in certain parts
of the world. The best known are the Lake Asphalt deposits of Venezuela. Sometime the
asphalt rock may contain other mineral impurities.
2. Asphalt Rock- It is a type of limestone converted to asphalt rock. This has happened
at places where natural bitumens have entered the crevices of limestone rock and
changed it to an asphaltic comoosition. The asphalt rock is used at places of occurrence
for road paving and road making.
3. Asphaltites- These are actually asphalt like in composition and have low softening
points (200° For so).
Some asphaltites are used considerably in electrical storage batteries,
thermo?plastic molded goods, mastic flooring and pipeline coatings.
 Uses of Asphalts-
Asphalts are used, generally in combination with other materials, in many
engineering fields. Some examples are given below:
1. Electrical uses-
High-grade asphalts are used in electrical industry on mixing with wood tar,
pitch, rubber, and resin. The battery containers are its best examples.
2. Roadway construction-
Asphaltic bitumens are characterized by a set of useful properties such as:
resistance to weather, water proofness, binding capacity and ability to provide a flexible
surface.
For these qualities, they are used extensively in highway construction both in
the road foundations and as surface materials.
Three types of the asphaltic mixture used in roads are:
1. Rolled Asphalt,
2. Mastic Asphalt,
3. Compressed Rock Asphalt.
The rolled asphalt is used for paving only. The mastic asphalt is rich in bitumens. It is used
mixed with aggregates when it forms a water proof and plastic material which can be given any
desired shape while in hot condition.
Name-Brilean Debbarma
Roll No-216302010
3.Assphaltic paints-
Bituminous asphalts are used as essential ingredients in certain paints. Such paints are
especially useful for damp walls and over concrete structures.
4. Asphalt concrete-
Some asphalt is refined to specifications that give it excellent binding properties. It is
called asphalt cement, and when mixed with fine and coarse aggregates, it gives asphalt
concrete.
It is in this form that the asphalt is generally used in highway and airport paving,
where it gives the pavement desired flexibility and strength at the same time.
Name-Janam Joy Reang
Roll No-216302011
Super structure in building foundation

 Describe super structure in building foundation?
The two major components of buildings
are the substructure and superstructure. The substructure
is the part of the building that is underneath the ground,
while the superstructure is everything that is above
ground.
Substructure
The purpose of the substructure of a building is to transfer loads of the
superstructure to the soil that is underneath. This is why the substructure is right
against the soil that supports it. Now, it is important that you spend time working with
structural engineers to ensure that all support beams, columns, and foundations are
incorporated properly to ensure that nothing will collapse within the substructure.
Most of the time, the substructure is made from plain cement concrete or
reinforced cement concrete. Once that is in place, stones, bricks, or additional concrete
is added until it all reaches the plinth level. It is necessary for a damp-proof course to be
laid on top, so that moisture doesn’t penetrate any part of the substructure.
Superstructure
The superstructure of a building is where people will spend most of their time.
This area includes the first and second floors inside a home and any number of floors in
larger buildings. The superstructure includes beams, columns, finishes, windows, doors,
the roof, floors, and anything else.
The parts of the superstructure are much lengthier than the parts of the
substructure. This shouldn’t be surprising since the superstructure is much larger than
the substructure.
Parts of the Superstructure
The Floor
The floors of the superstructure are what separates the different levels of a building. Of
course, it is also the area where you walk around, place furniture on, and store numerous items.
The Roof
Snow A roof is necessary on every building because it keeps the floors, and the rest of
the superstructure, out of the elements. There is not a one roof fits all solution when it comes to
roofing options, so depending on where you are constructing a building, you can choose from
different types of roofs. Flat roofs are often used within the plains, while sloped roofs are best
near the mountains or where there is a lot of.
The Lintel
The lintel is the area over any doors and windows, and it is there to support the wall
over the larger openings. A lintel beam is normally made from reinforced cement concrete, but
it can also be made from concrete and bricks. The width of the lintel is usually the same as the
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width of the wall. When it comes to the thickness though, the lintel should never be thinner than
four and a half inches. However, it should also never be thicker than its width.
The Parapet
The external walls that extend past the roof slab are called parapets. The purpose of this
part of the superstructure is to keep water from pouring over to the entrance of the building,
while also offering a safe spot for those who are up on the roof.
The Sun Shade

The sunshade is put in place with the lintel and it protects both doors and windows from
the sun and the rain.
The Beams
Beams are horizontal elements that withstand all vertical loads. All the weight from
those vertical loads are supported at the endpoints of the beams and that weight is then
transferred to the columns or the beam supports.
The Columns
Columns are vertical structures that can hold a lot of weight. Any columns that are not
put in place properly will collapse once additional weight is put on top of them. Of course, all
that weight goes from the columns down to the foundation.
The Walls
Without walls inside a building or a home, we would all have large wide-open spaces.
However, since none of us wants our bedroom right next to the kitchen, walls are always
installed to enclose specific areas of buildings. Most walls are made from concrete or masonry
and they hold the weight from the roof, slabs, and even the beams.
The Doors, Windows, and Other Openings

All the doors, windows, and other openings in a house or building are also considered
part of the superstructure. The number of doors, windows, and other openings will be
dependent on how large the building or house is.
Stairs, Ramps, Lifts, and Other Vertical Transportation Structures

All those vertical transportation structures that you see in buildings and homes are part
of the superstructure. While stairs and ramps are often the only things seen in homes, buildings
will also usually have escalators and elevators.
All the Finishing Touches

Most people forget that all the finishing touches inside a building or a home are part of
the superstructure. This includes trim, flooring materials, curtains, blinds, and even heating and
cooling units.
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Differences Between the Substructure and Superstructure of a Building

You can probably see the difference between the substructure and superstructure of
buildings now, but to make sure, we have created a handy recap below.
Substructure
 The structure that is below the damp proof course that includes the ground floor and
foundation
 The structure that is below the plinth
 This structure transfers the loads that are received from the superstructure and
transfers it to the foundation
 Includes the foundation, pier, and abutment
Superstructure
 The internal and external elements of a building that is over the substructure
 The structure from the top of the plinth to the top of the building
 This structure transfers the loads from the upper part of the building to the substructure
 The structures above the baring and the wearing surface
 Includes walls, beams, columns, windows, doors
As you can see, both the substructure and the superstructure are important parts of
buildings and you cannot successfully have a building, or a home, without both of them in place.
If you try to build just a superstructure without a substructure underneath, the entire
superstructure will eventually collapse under the weight of the very top.
Therefore, make sure that your substructure is always very stable before you add an
even sturdier superstructure on top. That is the only way that you will have a home, or a
building, withstand the elements and everything else that Mother Nature and humans bring
their way.
Scaffolding structure
 Scaffolding structure?
As a general definition, scaffolding is a temporary structure that is used to
support workers and materials during construction or maintenance work.
However, scaffolding is used for a wider range of specific purposes, depending on
circumstances. To suit these distinctions, there are many types of scaffolding. Here
are twelve common types of scaffolding used in construction.
Bamboo Scaffolding
As its name implies, bamboo scaffolding is a type
of scaffolding that is made out of bamboo.
This type of scaffolding is more commonly used in Asia, especially in Hong Kong. It’s
utilized in everything from low-rise projects, such as small theatre houses, to high-rise projects
that scale up to 60 stories tall.
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To construct a bamboo scaffold, pieces of bamboo of

several meters long are tied together using nylon straps. These
pieces are tied repeatedly to create multiple vertical squares of
around 75 cm by 75 cm, until it covers the building’s structure.
The bamboo structure serves as both a working and climbing
platform for the workers, as well as support for the building.
Despite the rise of other scaffolding types, bamboo scaffolding is still favored in much of
Asia because it’s strong, lightweight, cost effective, and easy to assemble and disassemble. The
biodegradable material is also eco-friendly.
Besides that, it’s appreciated by many local craftsmen as part of their cultural heritage.
Cantilever Scaffolding
Cantilever scaffolding, also known as needle scaffolding,
is a type of scaffolding that is angled out from a construction
structure, whether that’s a building or an extension of another
larger scaffold.
Cantilever scaffolding is used in situations that prohibit an access platform from being
based on the ground. These include architectures with an uneven base surface or when there
are obstacles on the ground. It’s also used when there is no base surface to work with, and the
scaffold needs to be angled out from the building’s main structure. Hence, cantilever scaffolding
is usually used in the construction of sloping roofs, glazed roofs, and stairs.
To set up cantilever scaffolding, a ‘needle’ is projected or ‘cantilevered’ out of the

supporting structure, like the construction building’s wall or a scaffold tower built from the
ground. This needle is fully braced on every side and a working platform is built upon it.
Barriers and edge protection are also placed to minimize fall hazards.
Cantilever scaffolding provides a safe working space when building a scaffold from the
ground is not possible or cost-effective.
Cuplock Scaffolding
Cuplock scaffolding is a type of system scaffolding

with a unique locking system. Its official name is Cuplok – a
product of scaffolding manufacturer SGB. It’s one of the
most popular types of scaffolding in modern construction.
Due to its versatility, Cuplock scaffolding is seen all

over the world, from simple domestic buildings to complex
industrial structures. It can also be used in renovation
scaffolding, façade scaffolding, masonry scaffolding, and staircase towers, as well as in more
specialized applications, such as shipbuilding.
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Besides that, it’s especially suitable for curved structures as the horizontals can be
locked from almost any angle.
To install, up to four horizontal tubes are attached to a standard, which is then locked
into position with a single hammer blow. The locking device is formed by fixed lower cups that
are welded to the standards at 0.5 m intervals, and sliding upper cups. The upper cups drop
over the blade ends of the horizontals and rotate to lock them firmly into place.
Cuplock scaffolding has many strengths. The locking system is not only flexible, but
saves time and cost as it’s easy to assemble. It requires fewer connectors and has fewer loose
fittings. On top of being heavy duty, it has a strong connection point. Accessories such as ladder
safety gates and advanced guardrails can be added for maximum safety.
Frame and Brace Scaffolding

Also known as sectional scaffolding, frame and
brace is a type of scaffolding with stacked vertical frames,
connected by cross-braces.
This type of scaffolding is commonly seen in North

America and parts of Europe. It’s suitable for residential
and commercial projects, especially those where scaffolding
could be made mobile.
To erect a frame and brace scaffolding, pre-engineered sectional pieces are stacked and
braced using cross-bracing. The cross braces run along each bay and are set in square-shaped
configurations. Planks are then laid across the frames to provide a working platform.
Frame and brace is popular for being light, economical, and easy to erect. However, it’s
not as strong as or versatile as system scaffolding.
Kwikstage Scaffolding
Kwikstage is a style of system scaffolding (often
referred to as “modular”scaffolding), the name of which
derives from ‘quick stage,’ reflecting how quickly
scaffolders can assemble and disassemble it.
This type of scaffolding is used extensively in

Australia, South Africa, Scotland, and Ireland. It is
employed in projects of all types and scopes, from
home construction to mining and refining operations.
To assemble a Kwikstage scaffold, erectors connect ledgers and transoms to standards

using pins hammered into pockets, often called “V-pressings” due to their shape, on the
verticals. To further accommodate the project, accessories such as side brackets (also known as
cantilever brackets or hop-ups), non-slip platforms, double guardrails, toe boards, and mesh
guard panels may be used.
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As the name suggests, Kwikstage is favored for its speed. The fewer basic components
make supplying equipment for a project more straightforward and the widespread availability
of painted (non-galvanized) Kwikstage makes it a very affordable equipment option. Besides
that, the fewer loose fittings ensure a stable vertical alignment, which allows optimum safety
and productivity.
Mast Climbing Scaffolding

Mast climbers are a type of scaffolding
that supports construction work at various
elevated heights.
They’re suitable for work on brick or

block walls as it can be adjusted to get to various
heights in small increments. It’s also used for
projects with limited ground area because it has
a small base footprint.
Unlike suspended scaffolding’s wiring adjustments, mast climbers rely on fixed mast
structures that are placed on the ground, with a powerful drive unit that controls the up and
down movement of the platform. Guardrails must be included to provide fall protection.
Besides being a safe and efficient option for works at greater heights, mast climbers are
also optimum for carrying extra heavy loads.
Mobile Scaffolding
Mobile scaffolding, also known as movable
or rolling scaffolding, is a type of scaffolding with
moving working platforms.
This type of scaffolding is mainly for

domestic use, small-scale projects, or jobs that
involve a small team needed access to a series
of specific locations. It’s suitable for tasks that
require frequent changes in position, such as
painting and plastering. It’s a safer and sturdier alternative to a ladder.
Mobile scaffolding is essentially an independent tower set on wheels or casters. Four

vertical standards are connected horizontally and transversely to create a scaffold bay. The
wheels come with wheel brakes that must be locked when a worker is standing on the
scaffolding to ensure safety.
Mobile scaffolding provides an excellent balance of the ease and mobility of a ladder
with the safety and stability of an erected scaffold. It’s compact and can be stored easily.
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Pump Jack Scaffolding

Pump jack scaffolding is a scaffolding system with planks that can be raised and
lowered, similar to an automobile jack.
Pump jacks are used for construction and

maintenance work that runs across multiple levels.
These include painting and roofing projects that scale
up to 48 feet.
It consists of scaffold planks that are supported

and moved by adjustable brackets on vertical poles.
Each pump jack bracket must have two positive gripping mechanisms to prevent any failure or
slippage.
Pump jacks are similar to suspended scaffolding as they’re both used for projects that
require moving up and down multiple levels. But the difference lies in the type of support they
use. Suspended scaffolding relies on suspended ropes, while pump jack scaffolding relies on
vertical poles to maneuver up and down.
Pump jack scaffolding is popular because it’s inexpensive and easily adjustable for
various heights.
Ringlock Scaffolding
Ringlock is one of the most sophisticated
types of system scaffolding with a unique rosette
mechanism. It’s also known as pinlock scaffolding.
This versatile scaffolding system is often

utilized in the construction of more complex,
especially angular or rounded structures. It’s
also used for support and access structures in
offshore construction, industrial maintenance,
and ship building.
To install ringlock scaffolding, up to four braces and four horizontals are attached to a
single rosette using a hammer to lock the connecting pin in place. As with other system
scaffolding, it has fewer basic components and multiple accessories that can be added to suit
the construction project. For ringlock, accessories include rosette clamps, davit arms, spigot
adapter clamps, swivel adapter clamps, and toggle pins.
Like most system scaffolding, Ringlock is favored for its high degree of flexibility and
stability. It can be constructed and adapted to support various forms of structures. On top of
that, it lacks loose components which make usage, maintenance, and storage easy.
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Suspended Scaffolding
Suspended scaffolding is a type of scaffolding
that is suspended from the top of a building. There
are many types of suspended scaffolding, including
Catenary, Two-Point (Swing Stage), Float, Interior
Hung, Multi-Level, Multi-point Adjustable, Single-point
Adjustable, and Needle Beam.
Suspended scaffolding is used for tasks that

require workers to climb up and down various heights,
such as window washing, ongoing high-rise building maintenance, and high-rise painting. This
is why it’s often seen on skyscrapers and bridges.
This type of scaffolding consists of a platform suspended from above by cables and
stirrups on each side of the platform. In some instances, an electric motor is used to raise and
lower the platform as the situation requires.
Suspended scaffolding is highly beneficial for projects involving tall structures. It

extends to greater heights than pump jack scaffolding, up to 72 feet. It’s also easy to set up,
making it a time- and cost-effective solution. However, it’s not the best type of scaffold to
transport heavy materials.
System Scaffolding
System scaffolding, also known as modular
scaffolding or prefabricated scaffolding, is an umbrella
term for types of scaffolding consisting primarily
of vertical and horizontal pre-engineered components
that connect together in a systematic fashion. Some
types of system scaffolding include ringlock, cuplock,
kwikstage, and proprietary types like HAKI, Safway,
and Turner OCTO.
System scaffolding is used in all kinds of construction and maintenance work. But
because the components are custom designed, it provides an excellent balance of speed and
flexibility—faster than tube & clamp to erect and more flexible than frame & brace.
While each type requires different set-ups, all system scaffolds are constructed using a
latching mechanism. This mechanism is used to connect vertical posts to horizontal or diagonal
tubes, often at various angles. All system scaffolding consists of few basic components and
many optional add-ons to adapt to various projects.
Many contractors opt for system scaffolding because it’s highly flexible, easy to erect,
and reliable. Having fewer loose fittings makes the structure stable and safe.
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Tube & Clamp Scaffolding

Also known as tube and coupler scaffolding.
As the name suggests, this is a type of scaffolding that
consists of steel tubes and clamps (couplers). It’s one
of the oldest types of scaffolding using steel.
Due to their flexibility, these scaffolds are

frequently used in congested areas. These scaffolds
can be assembled in multiple directions, making them
an excellent option for work surfaces with irregular
dimensions.
To assemble, horizontal tubes are connected to vertical tubes using right-angle clamps.
Diagonal tubes are periodically connected to the scaffold via swivel clamps in order to stabilize
the scaffold. The horizontal tubes act as support for walking platforms.
An advantage of using tube and clamp scaffolding is that it’s easy, if time- consuming, to
assemble as only four basic parts are required. This simplicity also makes material planning
more straightforward. The steel in this type of scaffolding is corrosion resistant, meaning it can
withstand ha
Cofferdam Underpinning
 Cofferdam Underpinning?
The cofferdam is a temporary structure

to exclude water from water-logged soil, river,
or the sea to enable the excavation and construction
to be carried out in the dry. Cofferdams are most
commonly used to facilitate the construction or
repair of dams, piers, and bridges.
The cofferdam can be made out of the earth, concrete,
sheet piles, or sheet cell.
There are different types of cofferdams are available.
 Table of Contents
o Types of cofferdams
o Earth cofferdam
o Single sheet pile cofferdam
o Double-wall sheet piling cofferdam
o Rockfill cofferdam
o Braced cofferdam
o Cellular cofferdam
o Diaphragm Type:
o Circular Type
o Crib cofferdam:
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 Difference between cofferdam and caissons

 Types of caissons
o Box caisson
o Open caisson
o Pneumatic caisson
Types of cofferdams
 Earth cofferdam.
 Single sheet pile cofferdam.
 Double-wall sheet piling cofferdam.
 Rockfill cofferdam.
 Braced cofferdam.
 Cellular cofferdam.
 Diaphragm type cofferdam.
 Circular type cofferdam.
 Crib cofferdam.
Earth cofferdam
The earthen cofferdam is possible in shallow water with a low velocity of the current.
The earthen bank is constructed 1 meter from the top water level. It is well suited for depths of
water up to 3 meters Due to economic considerations, it is not possible to form it completely
water-tight. Due to water seeping and leaking such a dam can fail. Therefore constant watch is
necessary.
The bank should be a combination of clay and sand or clay and gravel. The water collected
through seepage is pumped out of the excavation site to keep the construction area as dry as
possible. The earth embankment cofferdams are often constructed with a minimum freeboard
of about 1m to prevent waves or high tides. Sand-bag cofferdams are also used, primarily in an
emergency situation.
Single sheet pile cofferdam

Single sheet piled cofferdam can be constructed by using a floating structure with
machinery and crew. Single sheet piling coffer dams are generally used to enclose small
foundation sites in water for bridges at a relatively small depth. In this type of cofferdams, there
is a single row of cantilever sheet piles. The piles are sometimes heavily braced. Joints in the
sheet piles are properly sealed. This type of cofferdams is suitable for moderate-flow velocities
of water and for depth up to 4 m. The depth of penetration below the ground surface is about
0.25h for coarse sand and gravels, 0.5h for fine sand, and 0.85h for silts, where “h” is the depth
of water.
Sometimes single-sheet coffer dams are provided with earth fills on one or both sides to
increase m stability. The figure of the single sheet pile cofferdam is shown on the right. Workers
handling piles should wear leather gloves. A competent person should constantly supervise.
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Double-wall sheet piling cofferdam

Double-wall sheet piling cofferdams are consist of two straight, parallel vertical walls of
sheet piling, tied to each other, and the space between walls filled with soil. The width between
the parallel piles is empirically set as (h/2 + 1.5m); where “h” is the height of water. Double-wall
sheet piling cofferdams higher than 2.5m should be strutted. Sometimes, an inside berm is
provided to keep the phreatic line within the berm.
The material to fill should have a high coefficient of friction and unit weight so that it
performs as a massive body to give the cofferdam stability against sliding and overturning.
Suitable measures should be adopted to reduce the uplift on the cofferdam. This is generally
done by driving the sheet piling upstream as deep as possible.
The double-wall sheet piling cofferdam has the advantage of having less leakage than
that in a single-wall cofferdam. These cofferdams are suitable up to a height of 10m.
Rockfill cofferdam
Rockfill cofferdams form of rockfill is sometimes adopted to enclose the site to be
dewatered. A rock-fill cofferdam is better than an earth fill. These are permeable and are
generally provided with an impervious membrane of soil to reduce seepage.
The crest and upper part of the impermeable membrane are provided with a rap to
protect against the wave action. In the case of rockfill coffer dams, the overtopping does not
induce serious damage. The slopes of a rockfill cofferdam can form as steep as 1 horizontal to
1.5 vertical.
Braced cofferdam
A braced cofferdam is formed by driving two rows of vertical sheeting and bracing with
wales and struts. These are similar to sheeting and bracing system with one basic difference
that braced cuts need for excavations in dry areas. Whereas braced cofferdams are used to
isolate a working area surrounded by water. The braced cofferdams are susceptible to flood
damage.
Braced cofferdams are usually adopted as land coffer dams to stop the entry of
groundwater into the foundation pit and to support the soil so as to stop the cave. When the
water is removed from the pit, the structural concrete. The cofferdam is removed when
concreting has been completed above the water level.
Cellular cofferdam
A cellular cofferdam makes by driving sheet piles of special shapes to form a series of
cells. These cells are designed to be interconnected to form a watertight wall rigid enough to
retain water. The cells are filled with soil to provide a stabilizing force against lateral pressure.
This type of cofferdam is most suitable for deepwater areas, most commonly used for marine
construction such as dams and wharves. Basically, two types of cellular cofferdams are
commonly used. (1) Diaphragm Type (2) Circular Type
Diaphragm Type:
This type of cellular cofferdam consists of circular arcs on the inner and outer sides
which are connected by straight diaphragm walls. The connection between the curved parts and
the diaphragms is made by means of a specially fabricated Y-element. The cofferdam is thus
made from inter-connected steel sheet piles.
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The cells are filled with coarse-grained soils which increase the weight of the cofferdam
and also its stability. The leakage through the cofferdam is also reduced. To avoid the rupture of
diaphragms due to unequal pressure on the two sides, it is essential to fill all the cells at
approximately the same rate. One advantage of the diaphragm type is that the effective length of
the cofferdam may be increased easily by lengthening the diaphragm.
Circular Type
Circular type cofferdams are consist of a set of large diameter circular cells
interconnected by an area of smaller diameter. The walls of the connecting cells are
perpendicular to the walls of the main circular cells of large diameter. The segmental arcs are
joined by special T-piles to the main cells.
The circular type cellular cofferdams are self-sustaining, and therefore independent of
the adjacent circular cells. Each cell can be filled independently. The stability of such cells is
much greater as compared with that of the diaphragm type.
However, the circular cells are more expensive than the diaphragm type, as these
require more sheet piles and greater skill in setting and driving the piles. Because the diameter
of circular cells is limited by interlock tension, their ability to resist lateral pressure due to high
heads are limited.
After erecting the cofferdam, the inside water is pumped out. The excavation is done in
dry soil up to sound strata, the foundation is laid down and the structure is built. The cofferdam
is dismantled thereafter.
Crib cofferdam:
Crib cofferdam Constructed on land and floated into place. The lower portion of each cell
is matched with the contour of the river bed. It uses rock ballast and soil to decrease seepage
and sink into place, also known as “Gravity Dam”.
It usually consists of 12’x12’ cells. It must be properly designed to resist lateral forces such as
tipping/overturning and sliding. This is commonly used in deep waters where the ground is
particularly hard. A crib is a framework of wooden horizontal & cross beams. This crib is open
at the bottom and is filled with rock or earth.
Difference between cofferdam and caissons

The main difference between the caissons and cofferdams is that the caissons are
permanent structures and form an integral part of the bridge or building foundation and
cofferdam is a temporary structure that is removed after work is completed.
A caisson is a box-type structure to be used as a part of the foundation. Both caissons
and cofferdams are water-tight structures used in underwater constructions or repairs of dams,
piers, and bridges. Caissons are made of a material such as timber, steel, masonry, and
reinforced concrete, etc. The caissons are of three types.
Types of caissons
o Box caisson
A box caisson is closed at the bottom but opens at the top to the atmosphere. The
box caisson is possible where no much excavation is required underwater. The box is
prepared of concrete or stone masonry.
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o Open caisson
An open caisson is open at both ends. The open caisson is a hollow cylinder or
rectangular hollow shaft made of timber, masonry, or RCC. Its bottom edge is V- shaped
and it is also known as cutting edge.
o Pneumatic caisson
A pneumatic caisson has a working chamber with a roof in which air pressure is
maintained to prevent the entry of water and soil into the excavation.
Where open caisson is not possible, the pneumatic caisson is created
by compressed air to drive water out of the working space for men and voids in the material
which is being excavated and thereby making the inside dry for easy working.
Name- Manash Debbarma
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SELECTION OF BUIDING MATERIALS
CONCRETE
Definition
Concrete is mixture of cement(or lime),and,brick or stone ballast and water,which when
placed in forms and allowed to cure,becomes hard like stone.The hardening is caused by the
chemical reactions between the cement and water.Cement is called the”binding material”.The
stone or brick ballast is called the”coarse aggregate”as distinguished from the”fine
aggregate”which is sand.The mortar used in concrete is called “matrix”.
Cement concrete when used by itself is known as “mass concretre”
Ingredients
The various ingredients of plain cement concrete are enumerated and discussed below:
1.Cement
2.Sand(fine aggregate)
3.Coarse aggregate(broken stone,gravel,brokenbricks,etc).
4.Water.
Cement
Cement is used as a building material in the concrete required for different engineering
works where strength and durability are of significant importance.
Functions
(i)It makes the concrete impermeable by filling up the voids existing in the fine aggregate.
(ii)It binds the aggregate into a solid mass.
(iii)It imparts strength to the concrete.
Sand
It consists of small angular or rounded grains of silica(SiO2)and is formed by decomposition of
sand stone under the effect of weathering agencies.It may be either natural sand(e.g.,river
sand,nalah sand,pit sand and sea sand)or artificial Sand(prepared by crushing stones and gravel
to powder form).
Functions
(i)It fills the voids present in the coarse aggregate.
(ii)It assists in hardening of cement by allowing water to penetrate through its voids.
(iii)It minimizes shrinking and cracking of concrete.
(iv)It prepares concrete economically,of any required strength,by varying its proportions.
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Coarse aggregate:
It acts as main filler,and forms the main bulk of concrete,around the surfaces of which
the binding materials adhere in the form of film.
Functions
(i)It imparts greater volumetric stability and durability to concrete(as compared to the cement
paste alone)
(ii)It makes a solid and hard mass of concrete(with cement and sand).
(iii)It increases the crushing strength of concrete.
(iv)It is cheaper then cement hence directly helps in achieving economy in concrete
manufacture.
Water
It plays an important role in mixing,laying,compaction,setting and hardening of
concrete.Water influences the strength development and durability of concrete.
Functions
(i)It wets the surface of the aggregate.
(ii)It facilitates spreading of cement over the fine aggregate.
(iii)It lubricates the surface of the aggregates which influences the workability and compaction
of concrete during plastic stage
Properties
In order to obtain quality concrete,its properties in plastic as well as hardened stage
play important roles.These properties are enumerated and disciussed below
Plastic stage
(i)workability
(ii)segregation
(iii)bleeding
(iv)harshness Hardened stage
(v)strength
(vi)durability
(vii)impermeability
(viii)dimensional changes
Workability
It is define as the ease with which concrete can be compacted fully without segregation
and bleeding. Segregation It implies the separation of coarser particles from the mix which
results in non-homogeneity of the concrete mix.In order to avoid segregation.The concrete
should not be thrown from a height.

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Bleeding
Bleeding refers to the appearance of water along with cement particles on the surface of
freshly laid concrete on compaction and finishing.It occurs either due to excessive compaction.
Harshness
“Harshness”is the resistance occurred by concrete to its surface finishing.It is due to the
presence of lesser fines,lesser cement mortar,and use of properly graded crushed or angular
aggregate and insufficient water content required fot workability.
Strength
“Strength”of concrete is its resistance to bear loads after it has hardened. The strength of
concrete is commonly measured in terms of its compressive strength which is an important
property of hardened concrete;it generally varies from 5N per mm2 to 45N per mm2 .
Durability
“Durability”of concrete refers to its resistance to deterioration under the force of
environment(e.g.,weathering,chemical attack,fire,and corrosion of steel etc.)
Impermeability
“Impermeability”is the resistance of the concrete to the flow of water through the pore-
spaces in it.
Dimensional changes
In concrete,dimensional changes are due to shrinkage(of concrete),thermal changes,elasticity
and creep in concrete.The dimensional changes may induce certain stresses in concrete which
may lead to its cracking.
Classification
The concretes are classified as follows:
I.According to binding materials
II.According to design
III.According to purpose
According to binding material

The concrete,according to binding material,are classified as follows:
Cement concrete
Cement concrete consists of cement,sand and a coarse aggregate,mixed in suitable
proportions in addition to water.
Uses:
(i)stair and steps
(ii)roofing and floorings
(iii)lintels,arches etc.
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Lime concrete
Lime concrete consists of lime,a fine aggregate and a coarse aggregate,mixed in suitable
proportions in addition to water.
Uses:
(i)It also exhibits volumetric stability when matured lime is used and lime concrete is cured
suitably over a long period.
(ii)It can be prepared easily and made available at much cheaper rates.
(iii)It also resists weathering effects very well and is quite durable.
According to design
The concretes,according to design,are classified as follows:
1.plain cement concrete
2.reinforced cement concrete(R.C.C)
3.pre-stressed cement concrete(P.C.C)
Plain cement concrete

The cement concrete in which no reinforcement is provided is called plain cement
concrete or mass cement concrete.
Uses:
It is commonly used in the construction of columns foundation,bed blocks,massive
gravity dams,heavy foundations etc.
Reinforced cement concrete(R.C.C)

It is the cement concrete in which reinforcement is embedded for taking
tensile,excessive compressive or shear stresses.
Uses:
It is commonly used for the construction of beams,slabs,lintels,raft or mat foundations.
Pre-stressed cement concrete(P.C.C)

It is the cement in which high compressive stresses are artificially induced Before its actual use.
Uses:
It is used where high stresses develop and it is uneconomical to use ordinary reinforced
cement concrete.
According to purpose
The concrete, according to purpose,is classified into various types as discussed below:
1.light-weight concrete
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2.cellular or aerated concrete
3.sawdust concrete
4.vacuum concrete
5.white and coloured concrete
6.high early strength concrete
7.no-fines concrete
Light-weight concrete:
It is prepared by using the following materials:
(i)Binding material…Ordinary Portland cement and its varieties(lime-slag,lime-cinder etc)
(ii)Aggregates…The loose porous materials such as ceushed light-weight rocks.
(iii)Steel…The light weight concrete should be made adequately dense whenused for R.C.C
work.
(iv)Water…Pure drinking water should be used for preparing the concrete.
Cellular or aerated concrete:

It is made by adding aluminium powder to a rather wet mix of cement,sand,lime and
water.
Saw dust concrete:

It is prepared by mixing Portland cement with sawdust in spacified proportion In
addition to water.
Vacuum concrete:
It is the concrete in position from which air and excess water are removed with a
vacuum pump.
White and coloured concrete:

The concrete in which white cement is used as a binding material is called white
concrete.
High early strength concrete:

In this type of concrete high early strength cement is used as a binding material.
No-fines concrete:
It consists of cement,coarse aggregate and water;fine aggregate or sand is eliminated.
Name- Manideep Bhaumik
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EXPLAIN SUITABILITY OF MATERIALS USED IN RCC WORK
➢ Following four materials are used in making R.C.C

A. Cement
B. Aggregrates
C. Steel
D. Water
1.Cement:
Before the introduction of ordinary Portland cement, the lime was used as a cementing
material. Most of the cement concrete work in building construction is done with ordinary
Portland cement at present. But other special varieties of cement such as rapid hardening
cement and high alumina cement are used under certain circumstances. The cement should
comply with all the standard requirements.
2. Aggregates:
These are the inert or chemically inactive materials which form the bulk of cement
concrete. These aggregates are bound together by means of cement. The aggregates are
classified into two categories – fine and coarse.
The material which is passed through BIS test sieve no. 480 is termed as a fine
aggregate. Usually, the natural river sand is used as a fine aggregate. But at places, where
natural sand is not available economically, the finely crushed stone may be used as a fine
aggregate.
The material which is retained on BIS test sieve no. 480 is termed as a coarse aggregate.
The broken stone is generally used as a coarse aggregate. The nature of work decides the
maximum size of the coarse aggregate. For thin slabs and walls, the maximum size of coarse
aggregate should be limited to one-third the thickness of the concrete section.
The aggregates to be used for cement concrete work should be hard, durable and clean.
The aggregates should be completely free from lumps of clay, organic and vegetable matter, fine
dust, etc. The presence of all such debris prevents adhesion of aggregates and hence reduces the
strength of concrete.
(i) Natural aggregates
(ii) Artificial aggregates.
(i) Natural Aggregates: The term natural aggregate is used loosely to designate aggregates
which need only be removed from their natural deposits as unconsolidated sediments. The
aggregates obtained from such deposits are called gravel and sand while those produced from
ledge rock, boulders or cobble stones are known as crushed stone.
• Thus the natural aggregates can be divided into the following three types:-
(a) Crushed rock aggregate;
(b) Gravel;
(c) Sand.
(a) Crushed Rock Aggregate:

The crushed rock aggregate is obtained by crushing rock pieces into suitable sizes. It is
evident that the quality of the crushed rock aggregate will be controlled by the nature and type

Roll No-216302014
of rock from which it is crushed. The rocks are classified into three major divisions according to
their origin, namely, igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks.
The igneous rocks are formed originally by cooling from a molten rock material known
as magma. They are further classified as plutonic rocks, hypabyssal rocks and volcanic rocks.
The plutonic varieties are brittle due to the presence of large crystals and the main types of
rocks under this variety are granite, syenite, diorite, etc. The main types of rocks under this
group are porphyry, dolorite, porphyrite and diabase. They are excellent for building
constructions .
(b) Gravel:
The term gravel is used to mean the coarse material resulting from the disintegration of
natural rock due to weathering and carried away by water and subsequently deposited on the
river banks. The properties of gravel will by and large be governed by the properties of the basic
rock constituents and usually, the hard varieties of gravel are found dumped along river banks
or along strata which had earlier been under water. The larger varieties of gravel, known as
boulders, do not require special tests, if they are to be used as soling or base course.
(c) Sand:
The final residue of the resistant mineral grains resulting from the weathering action
upon the rocks is known as sand and the final form has often been reached after many cycles of
deposition and weathering. The most important mineral in sand is quartz and it is hardly
affected by the ordinary weathering agents.
(ii) Artificial Aggregates:

The blast furnace slag is perhaps the only artificially prepared aggregate which is used
in the construction. It is obtained as a byproduct in the manufacture of steel. If slag is specially
manufactured under controlled conditions, it can certainly prove to be an excellent aggregate of
uniform quality.
3. Steel:
The steel reinforcement is generally in the form of round bars of mild steel. The
diameters of bars vary from 5 mm to 40 mm. Sometimes the square bars or twisted bars or
ribbed-torsteel are used as steel reinforcement. For road slabs and such other constructions, the
reinforcement may also consist of sheets of rolled steel of suitable thickness. The hyrib which is
a steel path may also be used as steel reinforcement.
4. Water:
This is the least expensive but most important ingredient of concrete. The water, which
is used for making concrete, should be clean and free from harmful impurities such as oil, alkali,
acid, etc. In general, the water which is fit for drinking should be used for making concrete.
It may be noted that sometimes the ingredients other than above are added in concrete
to give it certain improved qualities or for changing different physical properties in its fresh and
hardened stages. These ingredients or substances are known as the admixtures. The addition of
an admixture may improve the concrete with respect to its strength, hardness, workability,
water-resisting power, etc.
5.Bricks :
Bricks and mortar constructions are made with using bricks fixed to a mixture of
cement, sand and water. They are widely used as a structural as well as non structural element
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in construction. When used as a structural member, bricks are used for the construction of
walls, retaining walls, arches, claddings etc, and as a non-structural member, they can be used as
fillers and for ornamental purpose. Properly, the term brick denotes a block composed of dried
clay, but is now also used informally to denote other chemically cured construction blocks.
Name-Padma Bhusan Chakma
Roll No-216302016
GRADING OF AGGREGATES
 DEFINATION:-
The grading of aggregates is the art of doing gradation (particle size distribution) of
an aggregate as determined by sieve analysis.
Fine and coarse aggregates to be used in a concrete mix, should be well graded
because grading of an aggregate has considerable effect on workability, uniformity and
finishing qualities of plastic concrete (which ultimately affect the economy, strength,
durability and other properties of hardened concrete).
The grading of a fine aggregate has a marked effect on workability, uniformity and
finishing qualities of plastic concrete as compared to that of a coarse aggregate.
 FINENESS MODULUS:-
The fineness modulus of an aggregate is an index number which is proportional to
the average size of the particles in the entire quantity of aggregates
"The coarser the aggregates the higher the fineness modulus"

The standard tests for determining fineness modulus are carried out with the help of
a set ten (10) BIS sieves (Metric sieves). The fineness modulus is obtained by adding the
percentage of the weight of material retained on 1.8 sieves and dividing the sum by 100.
For all in aggregates: 80 mm; 40 mm; 20 mm: 10 mm; 4.75 mm (no.480) 2.36 mm
(240); 1.18 mm (no.120) 600 a to 601 300 uno.30), 150 15
For coarse aggregate: 80 mm; 40 mm; 20 mm; 10 mm; 4.75 mm(no. 480)
For fine aggregate: 4.75 mm (no. 480); 2.36 mm (no.240): 1.18 mm (no.120): 600 μ
(ne.60); 300 u (no.30), 150 p (no.15
It has been observed that certain values of fineness modulus for the fine and coarse
aggregates and mixed aggregate give good workability, with a minimum quality of cement. The
limits of fineness modilii are:
Sl No. Types Of Aggregates Maximum Size Of Fineness Modulus

Aggregate Maximum Minimum
a) Fine Aggregate 2.0 3.5
20mm 6 6.9
b) Coarse Aggregate 40mm 6.9 7.5
75mm 7.5 8.0
150mm 8 8.5
20mm 4.7 5.1
25mm 5 5.5
c) Mixed Aggregate 32mm 5.2 5.7
40mm 5.4 5.9
75mm 5.9 6.3
150mm 6.3 7.0
Name-Padma Bhusan Chakma
Roll No-216302016
DIFFERENT MIX PROPORTIONS AND THEIR SPECIFIC USE IN

CONSTRUCTION
RECOMMENDED MIX FOR CONCRETE
Sl No. Proportion of Concrete Grade of Maximum size of Nature and Work

mix Concrete Aggregate
(Cement:FA:CA)
Heavily loaded RC.C columns, piles and
1. 1:1:2 M25 12 to 20mm Long span R.CC arches
Small pre-cast members of concrete such

2. 1:2:2 12 to 20mm as poles for fencing telegraphs, long piles,
watertight construction and heavily
stressed members of the structures.
3. 1:1 1/2:3 M20 20mm Water retaining structures, piles, pre-cast
products etc.
Water tanks, concrete deposited under
water, bridge construction and sewers.
1:2:3 or For all general R.C.C works in building
4. 1: 1 1/2 : 3 1/2 20mm such as stair, beam, column, weather
shed, slab, lintel, etc., machine
foundations subjected to vibrations and
R.C.C piles.
5. 1: 2 1/2: 3 1/2 25mm Footpaths and road works.
For all general R.C.C works in building
6. 1:2:4 M15 40mm such as stair, beam, column, pillars, Piers,
weather shed, slab, lintel, etc., machine
foundations subjected to vibrations and
R.C.C piles
Mass concrete work in culverts, retaining
7. 1:3:6 M10 50mm walls, etc. Block masonry walls.
8. 1:4:8 M7.5 60mm
Mass concrete work for heavy walls,
9. 1:5:10 60mm foundation footings etc.
10. 1:6:12 60mm
Name-Rohit Bhomik
Roll No-216302017
WATER CEMENT RATIO
What is water cement ratio?

It is the retio of the mass of water to the mass of cement added to concrete. the water
cement ratio directly affects the strength of the concrete mix. the typical w/c ratio for difference
grades of concrete varies between 0:40 to 0.60
Importance of Water Cement Ratio?

In concrete, the most important ingredient that influences the property of concrete is
cement and water,
In concrete, the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement is called the water- to-
cement ratio (w/c). Cement and water are the two main ingredients responsible for binding
everything together.
The water-cement ratio is the ultimate factor for the strength and durability of the concrete
when it is cured properly.
For example, if the W/C ratio is 0.40 that's meant for every 100 lbs of cement used in the
concrete, 40 lbs of water are added.
Water Cement Ratio Table:-

The following table indicates the water-cement ratio for different grades of concrete as
per exposure condition,
Water Cement Ratio Table

Name-Rohit Bhomik
Roll No-216302017
Unworkable Concrete
Also known as "harsh concrete" - unworkable concrete is a mix that uses very little
water. This kind of mix has a high segregation of aggregates as cement is not typically lubricated
enough to stick to them. It can be very difficult to maintain the homogeneity of concrete mix and
compaction needs a lot more effort. The water to cement ratio is typically below 0.4.
Medium Workable Concrete

This is concrete with medium workability. It is used in most construction works as it is
easier to mix, transport, place and compact without much segregation and loss of homogeneity.
Generally it is used in construction with light reinforcement. The water to cement ratio is
typically between 0.4 to 0.55.
Highly Workable Concrete

Highly workable concrete is a more fluid mix that is very easy to mix, transport, place
and compact. This kind of concrete is normally used where effective concrete compaction is not
possible or in mass concrete. It flows easily and will settle with minimum effort. An example of
this kind of mix is self-compacting concrete that contains a cement to water ratio of 0.55 or
more.
Factors Affecting Workability of Concrete

The workability requirements for a concrete construction depends on:-
Type of construction work
Method of mixing concrete
Thickness of concrete section
Extent of reinforcement
Method of compaction
Distance of transporting
Method of placement
Environmental condition
Water Cement Ratio Formula

The water-cement ratio (w/c ratio, or water-to-cement ratio, sometimes also called the
water-cement factor, f) is the ratio of the mass of water (w) to the mass of cement (c) used in a
concrete mix
(F-mass of water/mass of cement = w/c)
The typical values of this ratio f = w/c are generally comprised in the interval 0.40 and 0.60.
Name-Rohit Bhomik
Roll No-216302017
WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
What is the workability of Concrete?
Workability of Concrete is a broad and subjective term describing how easily freshly
mixed concrete can be mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished with minimal loss of
homogeneity. Workability is a property that directly impacts strength, quality, appearance, and
even the cost of labor for placement and finishing operations. But opinions don't matter much
when testing and documenting concrete properties, so how are these qualitative characteristics
defined in quantitative terms? This blog post will cover everything you need to know about
concrete workability, factors that can affect it, tests that define it, and slump testing equipment
to test it.
Factors Affecting Workability:

Proportions and characteristics of materials and properties of admixtures all have an
impact on the workability and other qualities of every concrete mix design, factors affecting
workability include:
 Aggregate Size and Shape: As aggregate surface area increases, more cement paste is
needed to cover the entire surface of aggregates. So mixes with smaller aggregates are
less workable compared to larger size aggregates. Elongated, angular, and flaky
aggregates are difficult to mix and place and have a greater surface area to cover,
decreasing workability. Rounded aggregates have a lower surface area, but lack the
angularity to develop sufficient bond strengths with the cement paste. Crushed
aggregate with the proper proportions provides a better bond with the cement matrix
and adequate workability.
 Admoxtures: Many types of admixtures alter the workability of fresh concrete, either
by design or as a side-effect. Surfactants such as super plasticizers reduce attraction
between cement and aggregate particles, allowing mixes that can be quite flow able
without the negative strength and segregation effects of too much water. Air entraining
admixtures for freeze/thaw durability produce air bubbles within a controlled size that
can make for easier finishing, although using too much produces a sticky mix with the
opposite effect
Name- Sayan Saha
Roll No-216302018
SLUMP TEST OF CONCRETE
THEORY:-
The concrete slump test measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It is
performed to check the workability of freshly made concrete, and therefore the ease with which
concrete flows. It can also be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch.
PROCEDURE:-
I. The test is carried out using a metal mould in the shape of a conical frustum known as a
slump cone or Abrams cone, that is open at both ends and has attached handles.
II. The tool typically has an internal diameter of 100 millimetres (3.9 in) at the top and of
200 millimetres (7.9 in) at the bottom with a height of 305 millimetres (12.0 in).
III. Then cone is placed on a hard non-absorbent surface. This cone is filled with fresh
concrete in three stages. Each time, each layer is tamped 25 times with a 2 ft (600 mm)-
long bullet-nosed metal rod measuring 5/8 inch (16 mm) in diameter.
IV. At the end of the third stage, the concrete is struck off flush with the top of the mould.
The mould is carefully lifted vertically upwards, so as not to disturb the concrete cone.
V. The concrete then slumps (subsides). The slump of the concrete is measured by
measuring the distance from the top of the slumped concrete to the level of the top of
the slump cone.
RECOMMENDED SLUMP TEST OF CONCRETE:-

According to IS 456-2000, the slump value (in mm) of the concrete used in ordinary RCC
work for beams and slabs, etc. is 50 to 100 mm. For concrete work, low workable concrete is
preferred.
CURING OF CONCRETE :-
CURING IS THE PROCESS OF MAINTAINING SATISFACTORY TEMOERATURE AND

MOISTURECONDITIONS IN CONCRETE LONG ENOUGH FOR HYDRATION TO DEVELOP THE
DESIRED CONCRETE PROPERTIES. THE POTENTIAL STRENGTH AND DURATION OF
CONCRETE WILL BE FULLY DEVELOPED ONLY IF CONCRETE IS PROPERLY CURED.
Name- Subendu Biswas
Roll No-216302020
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF CEMENT

 Manufacturing process of cement.
=> Calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are used in the manufacture of portland
cement. The calcarious materials are used are cement rock, limestone, marl, chalk and
marine shell. The argillaceous material sconsists of silicates of alumina in the form of
clay, shale, slate and blast furnace slag. From the above materials, others like lime, silica,
alumina, iron oxide and small quantities of the other chemicals are obtained cement can
be manufactured either by dry process or wet process.
1.Dry process
This process is usually adopted when the raw materials are quite hard. The process is
slow and the product is costly. Limestone and clay are ground to fine powder separately and are
mixed. Water is added to make a thick paste. The cakes of this paste, which contain, about 14
per cent of moisture, are dried and are charged into rotary kiln . The product obtained after
calcination in rotary kiln is called linked. The clinker is obtained as a result of incipient fusion
and sintering at a temperature of about 1400°C-1500°C. Because ferric oxide has lower melting
point than the other oxides, it acts as a flux. Aeration of cement clinker, which is commonly
practised to slake free lime, also causes an absorption of some moisture and CO₂ (carbon
dioxide). Absorption of moisture tends to decrease the setting whereas that of carbon dioxide
accelerates setting.
The clinker is cooled rapidly to preserve the meta stable compounds and their solid
solutions-dispersion of one solid in another - which are made as the clinker is heated. Clinker is
then cooled and ground in tube mills, where 2-3% of gypsum is added. Generally, cement is
stored in bags of 50 kg. The purpose of adding gypsum is to coat the cement particles by
interfering with the process of hydration of the cement particles. This retards the setting of
cement
Name- Subendu Biswas
Roll No-216302020
2.Wet process
The operations involved in wet Process are
A. Mixing B. Burning C. Grinding
The crushed raw materials are fed into ball mill and a little water is added. On operating
the ball mill, the steel balls in it pulverize the raw materials which form a slurry with water. This
slurry is passed to silos (Storage tanks), where the proportioning of the compounds is adjusted
to ensure desired chemical composition. The corrected slurry having about 40 per cent
moisture content, is then fed into rotary kiln where it loses moisture and forms into lumps or
nodules. These are finally burned at 1500-1600°C. The nodules change to clinker at this
temperature. Clinker is cooled and then ground in tube mills. While grinding the clinker, about 3
per cent gypsum is added. The cement is then stored in silos from where it is supplied.
3. Comparison of Wet and Dry Process

The chief advantages of wet process are the low cost of excavating and grinding raw
materials, the accurate control of composition and homogeneity of the slurry, and the
economical utilization of fuel through the elimination of separated drying operations. On the
other hand the longer kilns, essential in the wet process, cost more and are less responsive to a
variable clinker demand than the short kilns which can be used in the dry process.
Name- Sumit Biswas

Roll No-216302021
EXPLAIN SUITABILITY OF WATERPROOFING MATERIALS

Here are five types of waterproofing materials, and these are-
a) Cement Based Waterproofing Materials.
b) Liquid Waterproofing Membrane Materials.
c) Liquid Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing Materials.
d) Membrane Waterproofing Materials.
e) Polyurethane Liquid Membrane Waterproofing Materials
 Cement Based Waterproofing Materials.

Explain:-
Cement-based waterproofing is the easiest waterproofing method used in
construction projects. It is easy to apply by mixing cementbased waterproofing
materials.
USE-
This method is generally used in areas that are in the interior of the building and have
high contact with water, such as toilets and bathrooms.
 Liquid Waterproofing Membrane Materials.

Explain:-
The liquid waterproofing membrane method is a thin coating, usually consisting
of a primer coat and two coats applied by spray, roller, or trowel. It offers more
flexibility than cement-based waterproofing types. For this reason, it is used more
intensively today.
 Liquid Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing Materials.

Explain-
Liquid bituminous coating is a type of coating used for waterproofing and
flexible protective coating in accordance with its formulation and degree of
polymerization. Its flexibility and protection against water can be affected by the quality
of the polymer grade as well as the fiber from which it is produced. Liquid bituminous
pavement is also called asphalt pavement. Liquid bitumen coating is made using
bitumen rubber-based materials.
USE-
It is used the isolation of closed areas in the interior of the house such as bathrooms,
kitchens, and toilets.
Membrane Waterproofing Materials.

Explain:-
Membrane waterproofing materials are one of the most preferred waterproofing
materials in the construction industry. This material; is also very preferred in roof insulation
applications with its ease of use, and price/performance advantage. Membrane waterproofing
covers are applied with the help of a torch flame source and thus adhere to the surface very
well.
Name- Sumit Biswas

Roll No-216302021
USE-
It is used under the coating in wet areas such as terraces and sloping roofs, balconies, flower
beds, garden terraces, retaining and basement walls, sewage treatment plants, water tanks,
ponds, swimming and ornamental pools, kitchens, bathrooms.
Polyurethane Liquid Membrane Waterproofing Materials.

Explain:-
The polyurethane liquid membrane waterproofing method is used for the flat roof area
and provides insulation of the roof against external factors. Highly flexible polyurethane liquid
membranes are designed not to be affected by external factors.
Name- Surajit Das
Roll No-216302022
PILE FOUNDATION
WHAT IS PILE FOUNDATION
Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation, is actually a slender column or long cylinder
made of materials such as concrete or steel, which are used to support the structure and
transfer the load at desired depth by either end bearing or skin friction.
Pile foundations are deep foundations. They are formed by long, slender, columnar
elements typically made from steel or reinforced concrete, or sometimes timber. A foundation is
described as 'piled' when its depth is more than three times its breadth
WHEN TO USE PILE FOUNDATION:-
Following are the situations when using a pile foundation system can be beneficial:-
a. When the groundwater table is high foundation pilings are the best solution.
b. Heavy and un-uniform loads from superstructure are imposed.
c. Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible. When the soil at shallow depth is
compressible.
d. When there is the possibility of scouring, due to its location near the river bed or seashore,
etc.
e. When there is a canal or deep drainage system near the structure.
f. When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth due to poor soil conditions.
g. When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by pumping or by any other
measure due to heavy inflow of seepage.
TYPES OF PILE FOUNDATION:-

Piling foundations can be classified based on function, materials and installation
process, etc. The followings are the types of pile foundations used in construction:
A. Based on Function or Use:-

1.Sheet piles.
2. Load Bearing piles.
3. End bearing Piles
4. Friction Piles.
5. Soil Compactor Piles.
B. Based on Materials and Construction Method:-

1. Timber Piles
2. Concrete Piles
3. Steel Piles
4. Composite Piles
Name- Surajit Das

Roll No-216302022
SHORT NOTE:-
BASED ON FUNCTION OR USE:-
A. SHEET PILES :-
This type of piles is mostly used to provide lateral support. Usually, they resist lateral
pressure from loose soil, the flow of water, etc. They are usually used for cofferdams, trench
sheeting, shore protection, etc. They are not used for providing vertical support to the structure.
They are usually used to serve the following purpose:-
i. Construction of retaining walls.
ii. Protection from river bank erosion.
iii. Retain the loose soil around the foundation trenches.
iv. For isolation of foundation from adjacent soils.
v. For confinement of soil and thus increase the bearing capacity of the soil.
B. LOAD BEARING PILES :-

This type of building pile foundation is mainly used to transfer the vertical loads from
the structure to the soil. These load-bearing pile foundations transmit loads through the soil
with poor supporting property onto a layer that is capable of bearing the load. Depending on the
mechanism of load transfer from pile to the soil, load-bearing piles can be further classified as
flowed.
C. END BEARING PILES :-

In this type of piles foundation, the loads pass through the lower tip of the pile. The
bottom end of the end-bearing piles rests on a strong layer of soil or rock. Usually, the pile rests
at a transition layer of a weak and strong slayer. As a result, the pile acts as a column and safely
transfers the load to the strong layer. The total capacity of end bearing pile foundation can be
calculated by multiplying the area of the tip of the pile and the bearing capacity at that
particular depth of soil at which the pile rests. Considering a reasonable factor of safety, the
diameter of the pile is calculated.
D. FRICTION PILE :-
The Friction pile transfers the load from the structure to the soil by the frictional force
between the surface of the pile and the soil surrounding the pile such as stiff clay, sandy soil, etc.
Friction can be developed for the entire length of the pile or a definite length of the pile,
depending on the strata of the soil. In friction piles, generally, the entire surface of the pile
works to transfer the loads from the structure to the soil. The surface area of the pile multiplied
by the safe friction force developed per unit area determines the capacity of the pile.
E. SOIL COMPACTOR PILES :-
Unlike other pile foundation types, this type of pile does not carry any direct loads. This
type of piles is driven at placed closed intervals to increase the bearing capacity of soil by
compacting.
Name- Surajit Das

Roll No-216302022
BASED ON MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION METHOD :-
A. TIMBER PILES :-
Timber piles are the types of piled foundations that are placed under the water level.
They last for approximately about 30 years. They can be rectangular or circular in shape. Their
diameter or size can vary from 12 to 16 inches. The length of the pile is usually 20 times the top
width.
They are usually designed for 15 to 20 tons. Additional strength can be obtained by
bolting fish plates to the side of the piles.
B. CONCRETE PILES :-
Pre-cast Concrete Pile The precast concrete pile foundation is cast in a pile bed in
horizontal form if they are rectangular in shape. Usually, circular piles are cast in vertical forms.
Precast piles are usually reinforced with steel to prevent breakage during their mobilization
from the casting bed to the location of the foundation. After the piles are cast, curing has to be
performed as per specification. Generally curing period for pre-cast piles is 21 to 28 days.
C. STEEL PILES :-
Steel piles may be of I-section or hollow pipe. They are filled with concrete. The size may
vary from 10 inches to 24 inches in diameter and the thickness is use. Because of the small
sectional area, the piles are easy to drive. They are mostly used as end bearing piles.
Advantages Of Pile Foundation :-

1.This can be pre-ordered.
2. You can get it customized.
3. Reduced construction time.
4. Suitable for all sizes of land.
5. Suitable for deep installations.
6. Best for wetlands.
7. Long-lasting.
8. Good for places where drilling and creating holes are tough.
The Disadvantages Of Piling :-

1. Damage. Piles can sometimes be very easily damaged when being driven or screwed
into the ground below.
2. A lot of planning. Preparation is a huge part of installing piles, furthermore it is
essential for professionals to fit them.
3. Cost.
4. Not effective on all soils.
Causes Of Pile Foundation Failure :-

Following are the causes of pile foundation failure:-
1. Load implied on the pile is greater than designed load.
2. Defecting workmanship.
3. Dislocation of reinforcement of pile.
4. End bearing pile resting on soft strata.
5. Faulty soil investigation.
6. Selecting the wrong type of pile.
7. Under-reinforcement of the pile
Name- Swarnadeep Paul

Roll No-216302023
Name- Kritika Debbarma
Roll No-216302209
USE OF ANTI TERMITE PROOFING

Introduction:
Termites are known to cause damage to buildings throughout the tropics, sub-tropics
and temperate regions. But there are insufficient data to accurately assess their economic
impact world-wide. Regional differences in cost of living, cultural practices, and human attitude
toward termites all contribute to the uncertainty. For example, an organized service industry
providing termite control is scarce in much of the tropics where most of the destructive termite
species are found, yet the presence of a single species such as the Formosan subterranean
termite, Coptotermes Formosan’s Shiraki, in the United States can sustain a 437 multimillion-
dollar termite control industry. Based on sales figures for liquid termiticides
Anti-termite treatment:
Anti-termite treatment is a chemical procedure carried out for soil, masonry, wood, and
electrical fixtures to provide the building with a chemical barrier against the subterranean
termites before and after construction.
Anti-termite chemicals, pre and post construction treatment, preventive measures,
safety, advantages and disadvantages of anti-termite treatment are discussed in this article.
The chemicals used for anti-termite treatment in buildings as per Indian Standards (IS 6313
Part3) are:
1. Chlorpyrifos 20 EC
2. Lindane 20 EC
Pre-Construction Anti-Termite Treatment:

The procedure for pre-construction anti-termite treatment is given below –
1. For the excavation made for foundation, the sides and the bottom surface of the
foundation trenches and pits are treated with an anti-termite chemical to a height of
about 30cm at the rate of 5 Lit. Per square meter of surface area.
2. For flooring, the earth surface is firstly cleaned from wooden and any other garbage
particles.
Roll No-216302209
3. The entire surface should be leveled to the required elevation.
4. Holes of 30 cm depth at an interval of 15 cm are made.
5. An emulsion of correct concentration (as mentioned in manufacturer’s specification)

shall be made by adding water to the chemical.
6. This emulsion shall be poured in the holes by pouring jars and sprayed on the surface
by using pressure pumps and sprayers.
7. The chemical is allowed to get soaked through the holes fully.
Post-Construction Anti-Termite Treatment:
1. Inspection
Before undertaking any type of treatment, a thorough inspection shall be made of the
infestation in the building with a view of determining the extent to which it has spread, and the
routes of entry of termites into the building.
2. Extermination of Termites in Building

The inspection of the infestation gives the location of termites. The extermination inside
the building shall be carried out in a thorough manner, seeking the termites in their hideouts,
such as ceilings behind wooden paneling’s, inside electrical wiring battens, conduits,
switchboards and similar locations.
Preventive Measures:
1. The primary function of soil treatment is to establish a chemical barrier between the
termites in the soil and the building to be protected.
2. To treat the soil outside of foundations, the soil in contact with the external wall of the
building shall be treated with the chemical emulsion at the rate of 7.5 lit/Sq m of the
vertical surface of the substructure to a depth of 300 mm.
Roll No-216302209
3. The termites seek their way inside the building floor through the cracks or voids at
the following locations –
(a) At the junction of the floor and walls as a result of shrinkage of the concrete.
(b) Cracks formed on the floor surface due to construction defects.
(c) At construction joints and expansion joints in a concrete floor.
4. Chemical treatment should be done in the building area of the ground floor wherever
the cracks are noticed. This is done by drilling vertically 12 mm holes at the junction of
floor and walls, constructional and expansion joints mentioned above at 300 mm
interval to reach the soil below.
5. Treatment for wood is done at the points of contact of the woodwork. All the locations
where the woodwork in the building is in contact with the woodwork must be treated
with anti-termite treatment.
6. This is done by spraying at the points of contacts with the adjoining masonry with the
chemical emulsion of concentration by drilling 6mm holes at a downward angle of about
45° at the junction of woodwork and masonry.
7. Treatment of electrical fixtures such as switch boxes in the wall is done by removing
the outer coverings and treating the internal parts with 5 percent Malathion dusting
powder.
Fig: Anti-termite treatment in foundation
Safety:
1. All works shall comply with the safety procedure or instruction as set out in project
safety plan and municipality rules and regulations.
2. Basic Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) shall be worn by all staff or laborers.
3. All operatives shall be inducted before entering the site.
Advantages of Anti-Termite Treatment:

1. It provides immediate protection to any structure from termites, rodents, and pests.
2. It lasts for several years.
3. It eliminates the problem of gaps forming in the protection barrier, allowing termites
to enter the home.
4. Liquid termiticides are relatively inexpensive when compared to other forms of
termite control.
Roll No-216302209
Disadvantages of Anti-Termite Treatment:

1. Anti-Termite treatment can lead to water contamination in areas close to waterways
or wetlands.
2. Drilling into areas that show evidence of termite entry, or concrete may be necessary,
which can reduce the strength of the member or structure.
3. Any small negligence or left out portion can lead to problems with an infestation in
future.
Uses of Thermal Insulating Materials:

This is a material that features a wide range
of applications, ensuring proper insulation of the
building, its effective acoustic insulation (it dampens
air and shock sounds), as well as having a fire-protective
and vapor-permeable properties. Mineral wool consists
basically of two products with very similar parameters –
rock wool and glass wool. The former is made from
basalt (high resistance to very high temperatures),
while the latter is made from quartz sand or recycled
glass. Fig: Mineral wool
Mineral wool has high durability and resistance to deformation, and it does not degrade
in contact with substances containing solvents. However, mineral wool absorbs water, which
impairs its thermal insulation properties. To eliminate water absorption, mineral wool is
impregnated with mineral oil. Incorrectly made (placed) thermal insulation made of mineral
wool may result in the appearance of thermal bridges in the near future, which will significantly
affect the energy efficiency of the entire building. Moreover, wool is a material which is quite
difficult to apply (e.g. gaps in the attic), especially for inexperienced persons, which also
increases the risk of heat loss in the building.
Uses of Sound Insulating Materials:

Sound insulation is a way to control sound transmission from one area to another
and/or control sound within a space. Acoustica produce barriers, absorbers and composite
materials, construction systems to absorb or contain the sound depending upon the individual
application or requirements. A good sound insulator should have low density, porous texture,
resistance to moisture, and a pleasing look. It should be incombustible, light in weight, and easy
to handle and fix, resistant to attacks of vermin, insects termite, and dry hot.
Name- Arkajit Acharya
Roll No-216302210
PLASTER OF PARIS
Plaster of paris, quick-setting gypsum plaster consisting of a fine white powder (calcium
sulfate hemihydrate), which hardens when moistened & allowed to dry. Known since ancient
times, plaster of paris is so called because of its preparation from the abundant gypsum found
near Paris.
Plaster of paris does not generally shrink or crack when dry, making it an excellent
medium for casting molds. It is commonly used to precast and hold parts of ornamental
plasterwork placed on ceilings and cornices. It is also used in medicine to make plaster casts to
immobilize broken bones while they heal, though many modern orthopedic casts are made of
fibreglass or thermoplastics. Some sculptors work directly in plaster of paris, as the speed at
which the plaster sets gives the work a sense of immediacy and enables the sculptor to achieve
the original idea quickly. In medieval and Renaissance times, gesso (usually made of plaster of
paris mixed with glue) was applied to wood panels, plaster, stone, or canvas to provide the
ground for tempera and oil painting.
Plaster of paris is prepared by heating calcium sulfate dihydrate or gypsum, to 120–180
°C (248–356 °F). With an additive to retard the set, it is called wall, or hard wall, plaster, which
can provide passive fire protection for interior surfaces.
FORMULA:- CaSO4·1/2H2O
APPLICATIONS: -
1. Used in making casts and patterns for moulds and statue.
2. Used as cement in ornamental casting and for making decorative materials.
3. Used as a fire proofing material and for making chalks.
4. Used in hospitals for immobilising the affected part in case of bone fracture or strain.
5. Used to fill small gaps on walls & roofs.
6. Asts an patterns or mo san statues are ma e using as er o
7. Plaster of Paris is used as the cement in ornamental casting
8. It is also used for making decorative materials
9. It is used as a fireproofing material
10.It is used in making chalks
11.ans
12.Incase of bone fracture or sprain , it is used to make a cast bandage to prevent
movement of the affected part
13.It is used to fill small gaps on walls & roofs
GEOPOLYMER CEMENT
From a terminological point of view, geopolymer cement [1] is a binding system that
hardens at room temperature, like regular Portland cement. If a geopolymer compound requires
heat setting it may not be called geopolymer cement but rather geopolymer binder. Geopolymer
cement is an innovative material and a real alternative to conventional Portland cement for use
in transportation infrastructure, construction and offshore applications. It relies on minimally
processed natural materials or industrial byproducts to significantly reduce its carbon footprint,
while also being very resistant to many of the durability issues that can plague conventional
concretes Creating geopolymer cement requires an alumina silicate material, a user-friendly
alkaline reagent [2] (sodium or potassium soluble silicates with a molar ratio MR
SiO2:M2O>1,65, M being
Roll No-216302210
Na or K) and water (See the definition for "user-friendly" reagent below). Room temperature
hardening relies on the addition of calcium cations, essentially iron blast furnace slag.
Geopolymer cements cure more rapidly than Portland-based cements. They gain most of their
strength within 24 hours. However, they set slowly enough that they can be mixed at a batch
plant and delivered in a concrete mixer. Geopolymer cement also has the ability to form a strong
chemical bond with all kind of rock-based aggregates. On March 2010, the US Department of
Transportation Federal Highway Administration released a TechBrief titled Geopolymer
Concrete that states [3]: The production of versatile, cost-effective geopolymer cements that can
be mixed and hardened essentially like Portland cement represents a game changing
advancement, revolutionizing the construction of transportation infrastructure and the building
industry
PRODUCTION:- Production of geopolymer cement requires an aluminosilicate precursor

material such as metakaolin or fly ash, a user-friendly alkaline reagent[2] (for example, sodium
or potassium soluble silicates with a molar ratio MR SiO2:M2O ≥ 1.65, M being Na or K) and
water (See the definition for "user-friendly" reagent below). Room temperature hardening is
more readily achieved with the addition of a source of calcium cations, often blast furnace slag.
Geopolymer cements can be formulated to cure more rapidly than Portland-based cements;
some mixes gain most of their ultimate strength within 24 hours. However, they must also set
slowly enough that they can be mixed at a batch plant, either for precasting or delivery in a
concrete mixer. Geopolymer cement also has the ability to form a strong chemical bond with
silicate rock-based aggregates. In March 2010, the US Department of Transportation Federal
Highway Administration released a TechBrief titled Geopolymer Concrete that states:[3]
APPLICATIONS: - The growing concern in the Reuse and Recycling of wastes has provoked
research interests in exploring ways for the transformation of industrial wastes into useful
building materials. This work aims to characterize and study the feasibility of using the Cotton
textile effluent from the Mercerizing process for developing Geopolymer concrete blocks. The
cotton mercerizing process uses large quantities of caustic soda (NaOH) solution which is then
disposed of into agricultural lands, landfills or nearby rivers. This effluent from the mercerizing
process is used as a partial replacement of the alkaline activator solution of Geopolymer
concrete in the manufacture of blocks. Effluent from the various processes was collected and
was checked for the molar ratio which ranged from 0.015 to 0.751. The effluent from the
mercerizing process with molar ratio (SiO2/Na2O) of 0.54 was chosen and replaced with the
alkaline activator solution in varying percentages of 0,25,50,75 and 100.The preliminary
investigations were conducted on geopolymer mortar and the optimum replacement of textile
effluent was found to be 50% with a molarity of 6M with alkaline Liquid to Binder ratio as 0.4
and 0.5. With the optimum parameters geopolymer concrete blocks were manufactured and
tested for their mechanical properties. The results show that the cotton mercerizing effluent can
be used as a partial replacement for the alkaline activator solution of Geopolymer Concrete.
Roll No-216302210
FIBER
Fiber Reinforced Concrete is a composite material consisting of fibrous material which
increases its structural integrity. It includes mixtures of cement, mortar or concrete and
discontinuous, discrete, uniformly dispersed suitable fibers. Fibers are usually used in concrete
to control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and to drying shrinkage. They also reduce the
permeability of concrete and thus reduce the bleeding of water. Steel fiber is a metal
reinforcement. A certain amount of steel fiber in concrete can cause qualitative changes in
concrete’s physical property. It can greatly increase resistance to cracking, impact, fatigue, and
bending, tenacity, durability, and others. For improving long-term behavior, enhancing strength,
toughness, and stress resistance, SFRC is being used in structures such as flooring, housing,
precast, bridges, tunneling, heavy-duty pavement, and mining. The types of steel fibers are
defined by ASTM A820 are, Type I: cold-drawn wire, Type II; cut sheet, Type III: melt-extracted,
Type IV: mill cut and Type V: modified cold-drawn wire
FORMULA:- A 6% polymer solids dose means we need 33.4 lb * 0.06 (or 6%) = 2.0 lb of polymer
solids (not liquid polymer). To calculate how much liquid polymer (what is poured out of the
bucket) is needed, perform this calculation: 2.0 lb polymer solids / 0.51 (or 51% solids content)
= 3.9 lb of liquid polymer
APPLICATIONS: -
• Fibers reinforced concrete may be useful where high tensile strength and reduced
cracking are desirable or when conventional reinforcement cannot be placed
• It improves the impact strength of concrete, limits the crack growth and leads to a
greater strain capacity of the composite material
• For industrial projects, macro-synthetic fibers are used to improve concrete’s

durability. Made from synthetic materials, these fibers are long and thick in size and may
be used as a replacement for bar or fabric reinforcement
• Adding fibers to the concrete will improve its freeze-thaw resistance and help keep the
concrete strong and attractive for extended periods.
• Improve mix cohesion, improving pumpability over long distances
• Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing
• Minimizes steel reinforcement requirements
• Controls the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability
• Reduces segregation and bleed-water
• FRC, toughness is about 10 to 40 times that of plain concrete
• The addition of fibers increases fatigue strength
• Fibers increase the shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams

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THE SCOPE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS IN BUILDING

Building materials help to:

• Select the appropriate technique of construction

• Provide character and visual appeal to the structure

• Decipher the time and era of construction of a building

• Trace the evolution of the art of construction

• Highlight the theme and concept of design of the building project

• Determine the budget of building projects

Professionals in transportation engineering careers play a pivotal role in the

 What is Transportation Engineering:-

• Highway and roadways

 What does Transportation Engineering do:-

Draft design and construction plans for new transportation system.

Investigate traffic problems and identify solutions

Analyse engineering data and draw conclusions and recommendations

Estimate project budgets for labour, materials, and equipment

Discuss plans with contractors, local organizations, and the public

Inspect completed projects to ensure safety and compliance to standards

Model transportation systems to assess impact

Oversee survey, staking, and layout of projects

Present reports and proposals to stakeholdersransportation engineering is a beanch of

Environmental engineers devise solutions for wastewater management, water and

Environmental engineers study the effect of technological advances on the

Most jurisdictions impose licensing and registration requirements for qualified

 Improvement of Perennial Crops:-

 Development of Desert Area:-

 Social and Cultural Improvement:-

Besides benefits, there are some

 Effects on Raising Water Table:-

 Breeding Places of Mosquitoes:-

Two main types of irrigation are.

SELECT MATERIALS FOR DIFFERENT CIVIL ENGINEERING

SELECT MATERIALS FOR DIFFERENT CIVIL ENGINEERING

SELECT MATERIALS FOR DIFFERENT CIVIL ENGINEERING

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER

Following are the characteristics of good timber:-

1. It should have a uniform color.

2. A freshly cut surface should have a sweet smell.

3. It should have regular annular rings.

4. It should have straight and closed fibres.

5. It should be heavy in weight.

6. It should have moisture after cutting.

7. A good timber should be durable.

9. A good timber should be strong for working as structural member.

Note: - The heavier and dark coloured timber is usually strong.

 ADVANTAGE’S AND DISADVANTAGE’S OF TIMBER

2. It is easily available and can be quickly transported by simple means.

3. It is light in weight yet strong.

2. Frame buildings built closely together present a serious conflagration hazard.

4. Timber swells and undergoes shrinkage with changing atmospheric humidity.

Timber is put to different uses, which are:-

2. It is employed for floring, ceiling, paneling and construction of partition walls.

4. It is used in wagon and coach building, marine installations and bridges.

5. It is also used in making furniture, agricultural implements, sports goods, musical

6. End-Splits:- These are the checks extending through two faces.

Following are the main object of seasoning of timber:-

1. To check/minimize the tendency of timber or shrink, warp and split.

METHODS OF SEASONING OF TIMBER

1. Natural Seasoning:- There are two methods of natural seasoning.

2. Artificial Seasoning:- Artificial seasoning methods consists of:-

The object of preservation of timber are

ASPHALTS AND BITUMENS