Mathematics for the Undergraduate in the Social Sciences

Author(s): M. F. Dacey
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly , Aug. - Sep., 1971, Vol. 78, No. 7 (Aug. -
Sep., 1971), pp. 784-788
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Mathematical Association of
America

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 MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION

EDITED BY J. G. HARVEY AND M. W. POWNALL

Material for this Department should be sent to either of the editors: J. G. Harvey, Department
of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706; M. W. Pownall, Department
of Mathematics, Colgate University, Hamilton, NY 13346.

MATHEMATICS FOR THE UNDERGRADUATE IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

M. F. DACEY, Northwestern University

The social sciences are usually divided into the fields of anthropology, eco-
nomics, geography, political science, psychology, and sociology. Demography is
also included but is typically treated as a subdivision of sociology; linguistics
may be included but history seldom is. Because of this diversity, generalizations
about the social sciences are usually false; hopefully, though, the following
generalizations are true in a sufficiently large number of cases that they convey
some understanding of the position of mathematics in many undergraduate
social science programs. One limitation to generalization is that a small number
of social science courses encompass a multitude of mathematical topics at widely
varying levels of sophistication. As a consequence, a list of specific mathematical
topics is pertinent only to the contents of the social science courses on a few
campuses. Moreover, a summary of the mathematical contents of social science
courses fails to identify the role of mathematical training in the undergraduate
education of social science students. In lieu of a list of specific mathematical
topics, it seems more productive to examine some of the considerations that
affect the participation of social science students in mathematics courses. Identi-
fication of some of the key variables may assist in the design of courses that are
both useful and attractive to students and faculty of social science departments.

Characteristics of the Social Sciences.

1. The number of undergraduate social science courses using college level
mathematics is small.
2. Most social scientists know and use very little mathematics that is above
the level of first year calculus or introductory, pre-calculus statistics.
3. There is a small and slowly growing number of social scientists who have
reasonably strong mathematical training.
4. Some subdivisions of the social sciences make extensive use of math-
ematics and statistics.
These differing levels of mathematics usage reflect two conditions. One is that
at the research level the social sciences differ greatly in the use that is made of
mathematics, and these differences are reflected in the composition of under-
graduate courses. The other is the wide diversity of educational objectives of
students in social science courses.
Various social science fields differ greatly in the use of mathematics and
within each social science field there is also substantial variation. Mathematical
economics and econometrics are largely the analysis of mathematical models,

784

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 1971] MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION 785

but branches of economics such as public finance or labor economics make little
or no use of mathematics. Similarly, learning theory includes many math-
ematical models but the average clinical psychologist knows and uses little
mathematics. There is also variation at the departmental level. Many depart-
ments have no mathematically oriented social scientists, and few are exclusively
mathematical. Consequently, nearly all social science departments have rela-
tively many undergraduate level courses that are essentially nonmathematical
and nonstatistical in content.
This diversity becomes significant when related to the interests of social
science majors. In general, only a small proportion of students select a social
science major because it satisfies career objectives or is an entree to a graduate
program in the social sciences. A large group uses their undergraduate social
science training as a basis for admission to professional schools such as law, busi-
ness, or foreign service. Another group will enter occupations for which college
is deemed desirable, though there is not explicit use of their undergraduate
major. There is also a miscellaneous group without clearly defined professional,
academic, or employment objectives that evidently majors in a social science
because it is mildly interesting and not too difficult to get passing grades.
Because social science programs educate many students who do not have a
strong commitment to the field, this service function presents the dilemma of
how much mathematics should a social science department require of, say, a
pre-law student. A complicating factor is that many of these students dislike
mathematics and will select a sequence of courses that makes minimal use of
mathematics. To the degree that course content reflects the need to maintain
class enrollment, there is pressure to keep the mathematical prerequisites at a
low level. A department that stresses the use of mathematics in its under-
graduate courses risks decreasing enrollment of students whose educational
objectives are served equally well by any one of several social sciences.
One consequence is that very little mathematics is used in most under-
graduate courses, and the conditions of the academic marketplace are such that
imminent change of this condition is highly unlikely. For the mathematics
department that anticipates teaching mathematics to social science majors, the
preceding conditions imply that the demand for such courses may not be large.

Mathematics Taught in Social Science Departments. The preceding obser-

vations do not imply that social scientists receive no mathematical training. Few
escape mathematics completely. Many social science departments, possibly
a majority, have a statistics sequence that is frequently required for majors.
Typically, the statistics is pre-calculus and stresses computations and the use
of statistical tables. In addition, a few social science courses utilize a wide variety
of mathematical tools, including elementary calculus and differential equations,
linear and matrix algebra, set theory, graph theory, linear programming, and
simulation methods. The mathematics required for each course is frequently
summarized in appendices of textbooks and, with the possible exception of basic
calculus, the mathematics is usually taught in the course as need arises. Two

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 786 M. F. DACEY [September

pervasive characteristics of these courses are the emphasis on computation and

the rarity of mathematics prerequisites.
The mathematical content of these courses presents two challenges. Is it
possible to construct a sequence of mathematics courses that encompasses these
mathematical topics? If such a course sequence were developed and offered,
would it be used by social science majors?
In the design of suitable mathematics courses, there is an immediate conflict
between the theoretical orientation of mathematics and the emphasis in social
science courses on computations and applications. A mathematics course that
will attract social science students will be a compromise between these con-
flicting interests. The possibility of a compromise largely depends upon the
interests and personalities of the particular individuals in the appropriate
departments on a campus.
Another problem is that the theory underlying the diverse types of math-
ematics used in social science courses is too extensive to be accommodated within
a single course or sequence. This means that a mathematics course is limited to
a selection of topics. However, at many institutions each social science depart-
ment will argue that their students require a particular mix of mathematical
topics that is incompatible with the mixes required by other social sciences.
Moreover, students will be motivated only by a course that emphasizes the
particular applications in their major field.
Even if mathematics and social science departments are able to resolve these
conflicting interests, specially designed courses may still fail to attract sizeable
numbers of social science students. One reason is that mathematically oriented
social scientists like to teach mathematically oriented social science courses and
may resist innovations and courses that diminish their participation in the
mathematical training of students. A related reason is that many of these social
scientists feel they are more capable of teaching mathematics to social science
students than are mathematicians. Also, many social science faculty feel that
mathematicians are unresponsive to the needs of social science students, and
thus are reluctant to encourage their students to take mathematics courses
offered in mathematics departments.

Undergraduate Mathematics in Graduate Social Science Programs. If the

preceding comments suggest that mathematics training is incompatible with
the social sciences, this is not the case, because the reconciliation between math-
ematics and social sciences largely occurs in graduate training and research.
Because this training usually involves undergraduate and beginning graduate
level mathematics, it is pertinent to comment on the undergraduate training of
these students and their training in mathematics as graduate students.
One small group is undergraduate social science majors who receive exten-
sive mathematical training. A second group has undergraduate degrees in
mathematics, physics, or engineering. Many mathematically oriented social
science departments actively seek such students with the encouraging assurance
that "undergraduate training in the social sciences is not required for admission."

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 1971] MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION 787

The third group has had little college level mathematics, but is required to
participate in a crash program that attempts to establish a basic competence in
calculus and finite mathematics. Summer programs, programmed learning, and
first semester math review courses are among the devices used. While mathe-
matics departments may cooperate in these activities, most remedial math-
ematics is concentrated within the concerned social science department.
These three types of students predominate in programs that make intensive
use of mathematics and encourage or require the continued acquisition of math-
ematical skills by students throughout their graduate program. Some of this
continuing training is acquired in mathematics courses; however, most of it is
obtained in social science courses or in applied mathematics courses in statistics,
operations research, and similar departments. As a consequence, many graduate
students acquire a reasonably high level of mathematical competence without
exposure to the advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate level courses
offered in the mathematics department.

Summary. The preceding comments illustrate the typical role of mathemat-

ics in the undergraduate education of social scientists. While the generalizations
may not pertain to the situation on every campus, they suggest some of the
variables that determine the types of mathematics programs that can effectively
complement undergraduate social science programs.
One key variable is that the role of mathematics in a social science curriculum
depends greatly on the social science faculties at each institution. The mathe-
matics department that initiates the development of mathematics courses for
social science students needs to be aware of the teaching and research interests
that prevail at its institution. This suggests that there is no pressing need for
a master plan labelled "Mathematics for Social Scientists." The CUPM report
[1] has many fine attributes and identifies course contents that are suited to
numerous social science programs; yet the report has been largely ignored by
social scientists. Instead of being guided by a list of courses and mathematical
topics, a more effective approach is for the mathematics department to explore
the local situation and enlist the cooperation of relevant social science faculties
in the joint development of courses appropriate to local needs and interests.
Instead of assuming that there is one best sequence of courses, there is need
to experiment with a variety of solutions, each adapted to the local situation
and each attuned to the interests of the particular individuals in the concerned
departments. Some of the preceding comments on the diversity of mathematical
tools used in the social sciences and on the competitive position of social science
courses in the marketplace of undergraduate education may help to identify the
obstacles that confront the cooperative development of mathematical social
science programs.
Because the education of many social scientists in undergraduate math-
ematics is acquired as a graduate student, at many universities, it may be fruit-
ful to explore the possibility of offering remedial and accelerated undergraduate
math courses designed for the special needs of research in the social sciences. A

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 788 MARY L. BOAS [September

recent report [2] suggests thi

improvement in teaching methods. Chapter 9 of this study identifies some of
the problems that inhibit implementation of such courses and suggests solutions
that primarily involve the use of new methods in mathematical sciences teach-
ing. However, the prime considerations are the particular circumstances at each
institution and the establishment of rapport and cooperation between indi-
viduals in the concerned departments.

This is a revision of a paper given at the Section A session on Mathematics for the Under-
graduate at the AAAS meetings, Chicago, 1970.

References

1. CUPM, Tentative Recommendations for the Undergraduate Mathematics Program of

Students in the Biological, Management and Social Sciences, Berkeley, California, January, 1964.
2. William H. Kruskal, ed. Mathematical Sciences and Social Sciences, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, 1970.

MATHEMATICS FOR THE UNDERGRADUATE PHYSICS STUDENT

MARY L. BOAS, DePaul University, Chicago

It has been traditional to have a course for graduate students in mathemati-

cal methods of physics. A similar course at the undergraduate (say sophomore-
junior) level has never become very customary and I think this is too bad. At
the present time the usual physics major 'picks up" much of his knowledge of
mathematical techniques in his physics courses. The few mathematics courses
he does take go into much greater detail than he finds either interesting or useful.
Meanwhile the topics not studied in mathematics classes must be mastered from
sketchy introductions in the physics textbooks. If the student is not over-
whelmed by the new physical ideas he is trying to master, he is likely to be by
the combination of new physics and a new mathematical technique presented
simultaneously.
The physics teacher's counter argument here is that the motivation of the
immediate use of a technique is very important and that for this reason the
mathematics should not be taught separately. Years of experience have con-
vinced me otherwise. It is quite possible in a mathematical physics course to
tell the students enough about some of the simpler applications of the topic at
hand to keep up interest.
Mathematics teachers may argue that the science major should study math-
ematics with as much detailed proof as mathematics majors. My only objection
to this is lack of time to cover so many courses. What alternative is there?
After about ten years' experience with a course at DePaul University and
writing a book (Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences, Wiley, New
York, 1966), which we now use as our text, I think I am in a position to say that
a mathematical physics course of about one year's length covering the needed
topics can be given. How? First, such a course must be taught as a scientist's
methods course and not as a mathematicians' theory course, This does not have

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