Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269

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Energy Conversion and Management: X

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Effects of compression and mixing ratio on NH3/H2 fueled Si engine

performance, combustion stability, and emission
M.H. Dinesh *, G.N. Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore 575025, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Carbon-free fuels for the worldwide decarbonization movement are ammonia and hydrogen. The experiment is
Ammonia conducted under WOT conditions with a constant ignition timing of 24◦ CA BTDC to evaluate performance,
Hydrogen combustion stability, and emissions with varying CR (12 to 15), hydrogen energy fractions (5 to 21%), and
SI engine
engine speeds between 1500 and 1700 RPM. BP increased by 31.2% at 1700RPM and BTE increased by 39.0% at
Variable Compression Ratio
Combustion
1500RPM, despite a 9% decrease in volumetric efficiency at 1700RPM, from 5% hydrogen fraction at CR12 to
21% hydrogen fraction at CR15.The combustion process is sped up by the effect of hydrogen fraction and CR,
causing the flame development and propagation period to shorten. NOx emission was increased significantly
with hydrogen and CR, with an increase of 42.34% from 5% hydrogen at CR12 to 21% hydrogen at CR15 at 1700
RPM. Excessive NOx emissions are a drawback that can be successfully controlled by installing after treatment or
exhaust gas recirculation technologies. Ammonia is another important key element used to reduce NOx emissions
from vehicles because it is used in SCR.

1. Introduction green environment to provide a carbon-free chemical energy solution for

Nowadays, the worldwide population explosion has resulted in an
alarming increase in the use of fossil fuels in the transportation industry,
complex energy security issues, and the depletion of hydrocarbon fuels
is becoming increasingly imminent. Researchers are now focusing on
alternative and sustainable fuels to address severe environmental
pollution and energy crises. Hydrogen, ammonia, and alcoholic fuels are
among the most promising renewables. These fuels will soon allow so­
ciety to maximize global transportation activity while maintaining
urban air quality in energy- and the carbon-constrained world (Table 1.
The world is at a crossroads. The government and individuals must
all make sound decisions about the future of today’s global energy
system. It is thinking to provide a meaningful framework for improving
equality and promoting overall quality of life. The use of zero-carbon
alternative fuels in engines is the primary measure for achieving car­
bon neutrality, attracting a great deal of research on fuel production
chains, fuel safety, and fuel techno-economics [1]. Hydrogen is the
transportation system’s future primary source of energy carrier and
prospective, which improves living standards [2]. Hydrogen-rich carrier
fuels like ammonia, methanol, and methane can indirectly address
hydrogen storage issues. Ammonia is one of these, and it provides a
the transportation sector [3]. Another type of hydrogen ammonia has
been identified as a highly appealing alternative fuel to the global
decarbonization movement to address the problems caused by green­
house gas emissions [4]. Because of existing infrastructure, ammonia is
more accessible easier to store and transport than hydrogen [5].
Ammonia takes up 30% of the storage space and has a storage pressure
that is 87.5 times lower than hydrogen. As a result, ammonia storage and
transportation costs are significantly reduced [6]. The alternative in
ammonia gas is 18 % hydrogen by weight, 50 % more than compressed
or liquefied hydrogen in terms of hydrogen concentration [7]. Hence,
ammonia is a future energy source, and its volumetric energy density is
higher than that of methanol and hydrogen [8]. It is produced most
cheaply by reforming natural gas, and it is also made with minimal
environmental pollution using alternative sources such as water, solar,
wind, and tidal [9]. Fuel costs of the IA-PEMFC (indirect ammonia
proton exchange membrane fuel cell) system for power generation and
vehicle applications are 0.13 $/kWh and 0.024 $/km, respectively,
based on the average market prices for the past five years. The indirect
methanol PEMFC (IM-PEMFC) system is highly competitive with the
indirect ammonia PEMFC (IA-PEMFC) system. The IA-PEMFC system is
more cost-effective than systems that utilise gasoline-fuelled heat

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: anudina.kumar@gmail.com (M.H. Dinesh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2022.100269
Received 24 May 2022; Received in revised form 4 July 2022; Accepted 10 July 2022
Available online 13 July 2022
2590-1745/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269

Table 1 aids in cooling the instream charge, increasing volumetric efficiency

Properties of ammonia compared with hydrogen, and gasoline [44–49]. and thus BTE [24]. The effects of equivalence and compression ratios on
Properties Ammonia Hydrogen Gasoline laminar burning velocity and adiabatic flame temperature are signifi­
cant [25]. The turbulent to laminar velocity ratio of NH3/H2 fuel mix­
Chemical formula NH3 H2 Various
Molecular weight (kg/kmol) 17.03 2.02 95–120 tures is twice that of CH4/H2 mixtures, and this difference increases
Lower heating value [MJ/kg] 18.8 120 44.5 with increasing hydrogen ratio and flame radius. However, adding fuels
Higher heating value [MJ/kg] 22.5 141.9 47.3 such as hydrogen or methane or dimethyl ether to ammonia combustion
Laminar flame velocity[m/s] 0.015 3.51 0.58 increases laminar burning velocity exponentially and linearly,
Auto-ignition temp [℃] 651 536 ~230
Absolute min. ignition energy [mJ] 8.0 0.018 0.14
improving combustion efficiency [26,27,28]. As temperatures climbed,
Research Octane number >130 >100 90–98 the LFV induced by mixtures with varying hydrogen blending ratios
Stoichiometric Air/fuel ratio [mass] 6.04 34.3 ~14.5 showed a rising trend, increasing its growth rate.
Flammability Limits in the air (vol.%) 15–28 4.7–75 0.6–8 Furthermore, as the hydrogen mixture ratio increased, the laminar
Volumetric energy density (GJ.m − 3) 11.3 4.7 33
flame speed in the mixes became steeper, and it burned a more signifi­
Energy content, stoichiometric mixt. [MJ/ 2.8 3.3 2.7
kg] cant mass percentage, which aided in the improvement of output power.
Adiabatic flame temperature (0C) 1800 2100 2138 When 40% of hydrogen is in the mixture, the laminar flame velocity is
Latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg) 1371 461 380 approximately 50% faster than 30% hydrogen at 780 K [29]. When
ammonia blends with hydrogen under lean-burn conditions, the en­
gine’s performance and efficiency improvements and maximum ITE and
engines and H2-fueled PEMFC (with end-user CO2 emission). On the
IMEP were achieved [30]. The ratio of ammonia addition increases, the
basis of source-to-tank costs from renewable electricity, the fuel costs of
maximum cylinder temperature and its pressure decrease, thus
the IA-PEMFC system are approximately 0.23 $/kWh and 0.043 $/km,
decreasing the heat load [31]. In ammonia combustion, the NHR is the
which is approximately 25 % less than those of the H2-PEMFC and IM-
energy released during combustion less the heat loss to the walls of the
PEMFC systems, making NH3 a promising energy for the long-term
cylinder, which positively impacts engine performance. Because of the
carbon-free future [10].
rapid increase in temperature caused by large mass burning at the same
The combustion qualities of dual-fuel are improved. Carbon-neutral
crank position, additive hydrogen raises the HRR [32]. The heat emitted
fuels have been proposed in green vehicle internal combustion engines,
by ammonia/air combustion and the maximum velocity of the laminar
such as ammonia-hydrogen. Hydrogen is a good ammonia additive
flame is approximately 40% and 20% of the fuel burned by conventional
because it eliminates the cold start problem to improve ammonia com­
hydrocarbon fuel combustion, respectively. The addition of the
bustion behavior [11]. Pure ammonia is difficult to burn due to its low
hydrogen energy fraction, on the other hand, maximizes it, increasing
specific energy, laminar burning speed, high self-ignition temperature,
the engine’s overall combustion efficiency [33]. Compared to pure
and high ignition energy. However, it overcomes all of these issues [12].
ammonia, hydrogen is relatively more energy-efficient and reduces fuel
It is used as a fuel for modern engines, making the SI engine fuel-efficient
consumption, so less fuel is needed to produce the required engine
with little or no modification when hydrogen as a combustion promoter;
output power. Concerning the combustion performance, pure hydrogen
performance and stability of the engine improved, most notably in the
addition under the engine modes tested in this study is promising [34].
early stages of combustion [13]. The strong molecular diffusivity of
The ignition delay duration was very sensitive to ammonia concentra­
hydrogen increases mixture homogeneity and, as a result, combustion
tion, particularly at the lowest chamber temperature (535◦ Celsius) [35].
efficiency [14].
The delayed ignition raises thermal conditions at the moment of the
Similarly, in hydrogen, ammonia oxidation begins at low tempera­
spark, lowering the CA10, but after reaching a minimum, the CA10-90
tures. As a result, pure ammonia begins to react at 1200 K. When
starts to rise [36].At the flame front, the radicals important for flame
hydrogen is present in the fuel mixture; ammonia oxidation begins at
stability, notably H, O, and OH radicals, exhibited a high degree of
950 K [15]. The delay time in the combustion of the binary mixture
sensitivity [37]. In an observation that NOx emission increases due to
gradually begins to behave like hydrogen as the hydrogen ratio in the
OH and O radical structure [38]. Tmax drops due to the delayed ignition,
mixture increases. The addition of H2 to ammonia reduces the duration
which helps to lower NOx emissions [39]. The results showed that a 2%
of the combustion delay, according to the results of the experiments
ruthenium coating on 3.175-mm aluminium pellets broke ammonia gas
[16,17]. Hydrogen’s higher calorific value releases a large amount of
into hydrogen and nitrogen gases. In addition, the cylinder pressure
energy despite low fuel consumption, whereas ammonia, methane, and
increases by using the catalyst, and the combustion efficiency increases,
C3H8 emit less energy than hydrogen. As a result, hydrogen has the
resulting in improved hydrogen combustion and a significant reduction
highest flame temperature [18]. As the starting pressure of the mixture
in NOx emissions [40]. NOx formation is a complex chemical process in
increases, the non-expanding LBV of pre-mixed NH3/air flames reduces;
which the composition of the fuel mixture controls the contribution of
yet, ammonia combustion at lower pressure is conceivable [19]. Because
levels of fuel NOx and thermal NOx and is thus highly dependent [41]. In
ammonia is more resistant to self-combustion, keeping the injection
the case of ammonia combustion, in observation fuel NOx has a signif­
time constant results in better torque [20]. Increasing the injection time
icant impact on total NOx. Researchers have proposed effective post-
and the ammonia’s ignition timing increased the engine’s total power
treatment systems to counteract this effect, including EGR, SCR,
[21].
NSCR, and SNCR. Ammonia is also a critical element is used to reduce
The highest-octane rating in ammonia/hydrogen mixtures has the
NOx emissions from vehicles [42,43].
advantage of allowing a higher compression ratio in SI engines,
Research benefits of ammonia/hydrogen as a fuel for internal com­
increasing the likelihood of compensating for air intake during con­
bustion engines. Few scholars have performed exhaustive research on
sumption. The compression ratio has an impact on the efficiency of SI
the subject. Recently, ammonia/hydrogen has gained popularity as a
engines. It has several advantages, including an excellent anti knocking
fuel because of its carbon-free structure and properties. To establish a
effect. It raises the MGT, cylinder wall, and manifold temperatures,
carbon-free economy in the twenty-first century, the scientific commu­
resulting in ammonia cold starts caused by high latent heat. It improves
nity must investigate, promote, and expand research on ammonia as an
engine breathing by lowering pumping loss and increasing volumetric
internal combustion engine fuel. The usage of ammonia/hydrogen fuels
efficiency, enabling higher power output and thermal efficiency
in SI engines will likely be sustainable. The researchers have not, how­
[22,23]. Researchers discovered that ammonia’s wide flammability
ever, explored the variables with which we can work. Consequently, our
limit and low quenching distance aid in near-complete combustion,
research provided significant insight into dealing with ammonia/
increasing BTE. The highest latent heat of vaporization, 1371 kJkg-1,
hydrogen-fuelled SI engines with variable characteristics. Thus, the

2
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269

Fig. 1. Schematic of the test set-up.

Fig. 2. Experimental Test-rig.

current research focuses on mixing energies with varied CR at different

Table 2
speeds.
Specifications of Engine.
Engine Model Kirloskar TV1 2. Experimental research set-up and procedure
Bore Diameter 87.5 mm
Stroke Length 110 mm 2.1. Experimental set-up
CR Variable (12:1 to 15:1)
Spark Timing Variable
Number of Cylinders 1
Experiments are carried out on the SI engine, a 661 cc single-cylinder
Dynamometer Water-cooled Eddy current type four-stroke water-cooled SI engine modified by the CI engine. It has a
Crank angle sensor Resolution 1 Deg, Speed 5500 RPM with TDC pulse hydraulic system and can be lifted the combustion chamber vertically to
Data Acquisition device NI USB-6210, 16-bit, 250 kS/s change the compression ratio while the engine is running and connected
ECU PE3-8400
to the bolt and nut system. The original cylinder head has been modified
to include a spark plug and a pressure transducer. A throttle system with
a Manifold Air Pressure sensor replaces the intake manifold. The exhaust
manifold is replaced with a calorimeter connected to an exhaust line and
a K-type thermocouple installed 180 mm away from the cylinder head.
The Capacitive Discharge Ignition (CDI) system is installed and powered
by a battery. Modified flywheel with a spur gear on one end is mounted
on the crankshaft and connected to the starter motor.

3
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar
Fig. 3. Variations in BP with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at different speeds.
Furthermore, the crankshaft is loaded using an Eddy-Current Dyna­
mometer. This dynamometer is equipped with an S-beam strain gauge
(Make-Sensotronics Sunmar Ltd., Model 60001). A spur gear precision
disc with a trigger mark is used to measure crank angles with an optical
crank position sensor (Make-Kubler, Model 8KIS40.1361.0360, Photo­
electric cell). Eight K-type thermocouples are used, and their placement
is shown in the schematic diagram in Fig. 1. The panel box houses an
airbox connected to an airflow transmitter (Make WIKA, Model SL-1-A-
MQA-ND-ZA4Z-ZZZ), a 16-bit DAQ (NI-USB-6210), a glass-type fuel
burette, a water-filled U tube manometer, and two rotameters (Make
Eureka, Model PG 5 Range 25-250lph for calorimeter, and model PG 6
Range 40-400lph for engine) for manual readings. It also has a throttle
control knob, an ignition switch, a load, speed, and cooling water on/off
switch, as well as temperature indicators as shown in Fig. 2. The
LabView-based program performs analytical and graphical analysis on
data collected by sensors using DAQ. To control the ignition angle,
ignition duration, and spark timing, a fully programmable ECU (Make-
Performance Electronics Model PE3S) is used..
The hydrogen and ammonia supply lines are separate in the gas fuel
supply line. The hydrogen gas is supplied by a hydrogen cylinder (150
bar), connected to a wet-type flame arrestor built in the lab using a mild
steel pipe and plates. It has a pressure gauge (0–10 bar) and a safety
valve (A020002, 3/8 Inch, 1–7 bar, Make-ELGI equipment). An H2
rotameter is installed on the H2 fuel line. Similarly, ammonia is supplied
from an ammonia cylinder, which stores it at 9 bar and has a pressure
4
Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269
regulator to control the flow.
Furthermore, the ammonia cylinder’s supply valve is linked to a
rotameter (Tansa Equipment, 0–5 kg/hr, least count 0.2 kg/hr). The
hydrogen and ammonia lines have an NRV installed before the mixing
chamber, followed by an electronic sequential pressure regulator (Make-
Auto Fuels, 1.2 bar to 3 bar output). Following the injection timing
commands from the reprogrammable Electronic Control Unit installed
for controlling the fuel injector, the blended fuel is supplied to an
electronically controlled fuel injector (Make-Stag, Model-AC-W03).
Both fuels are delivered at 1.2 bar, and the flow rate is controlled by
valves connected to rotameters. All sensor data is synchronized to a
LabView-based program for parametric analysis. The exhaust gas
emissions are measured using a gas analyzer.
1.Engine,2.Dynamometer,3.Computer,4.Calorimeter,5.Ammoniacy­
linder,6.Hydrogen cylinder,7.Wet Type Flame Trapper (H2),8.Exhaust
Gas Analyzer,9.Flywheel,10.Starter motor,11. Manometer,12. Fuel
burette,13.Airbox,14.Water Rotameter,15.Load knob,16. Open ECU
(main),17.Gas ECU,18.Battery,19.Capacitor,20.Throttle-body,21.
Sequential reducer,22. Fuel tank,23.T7 display,24.Inlet-manifold,25.
Exhaust manifold,26.Spark-plug,27.Water inlet (dynamometer),28.
Water inlet (engine),29.Water outlet(dynamometer),30.Water outlet
(engine),31. Water inlet (calorimeter),32.Water outlet (calorimeter), 33.
Valve of Control,34. Line Pressure Indicator, 35.Delivery Pressure In­
dicator, 36⋅NH3 & H2 mixing chamber, PG-Pressure gauge, SV- Safety
valve, NRV-Non returning valve, M- MAP Sensor, C- Crank Position
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269

32 1500 RPM 32
CR12 CR12 1600 RPM
CR13 CR13
CR14 CR14
30 30 CR15
CR15

28 28
BTE (%)

BTE (%)
26 26

24 24

22 22

20 20
5 9 13 17 21 5 9 13 17 21
Hydrogen fraction (% of energy input) Hydrogen fraction (% of energy input)

32 1700 RPM
CR12
CR13
CR14
30 CR15

28
BTE (%)

26

24

22

20
1 5 9 13 17 21
Hydrogen fraction (% of energy input)

Fig. 4. Variations in BTE with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at different speeds.

Sensor, P- Pressure Transducer, R- Gas rotameter, T1- Thermocouple
(inlet water, engine & dynamometer), T2- Thermocouple (outlet water,
engine), T3- Thermocouple (inlet water, calorimeter), T4- Thermocouple
(outlet water, calorimeter), T5- Thermocouple (exhaust gas inlet, calo­
rimeter), T6- Thermocouple (exhaust gas outlet, calorimeter), T7-
Thermocouple (exhaust gas, manifold).
2.2. Methodology
All the experiments are performed under wide-open throttle (WOT)
conditions, for which the ECU software checks the throttle position
sensor (TPS) data. Simultaneously, the load is adjusted to obtain the
required speed. Three speeds ranging from 1500RPM to 1700RPM at
100RPM difference are selected at four CRs ranging from 12 to 15 as
shown in Table 2, with each CR and speed utilizing 5, 9, 13, 17, and 21%
hydrogen energy fraction with ammonia for ignition time (SOI) 24◦ CA
BTDC. Although CR can be altered while the engine is running, the
cylinder block is replaced with one that is hydraulically liftable and
features a stud-and-bolt arrangement for increasing or decreasing the
length of the cylinder liner. This method is employed when the
compression ratio can be adjusted without affecting the combustion
geometry. The compression ratio can be altered within the permissible
range without having to stop the engine using this method. Following
the establishment of the initial CR for corresponding speed studies are
carried out with changing CR and hydrogen energy fraction. The in­
jection pressure of the mixture is maintained at 1.2 bar at all times. Due
to ammonia’s LHV and stoichiometric air need, the ECU optimizes the
injection time, 12mS, based on the overall duration of the inlet valve
opening. After completing a series of tests, the engine is shut down and
allowed to return to its initial temperature by allowing cooling water to
flow. Each series of experiments is done twice, and the averaged findings
are analyzed. The sampling rate is fixed at 100 cycles per second. All
100cycle data are elaborated in Microsoft Word-formatted reports
generated by Enginesoft software, the averages of which are analyzed.
The cooling water flow rates for the engine and calorimeter are fixed at
150LPH and 200LPH, respectively. The emission information is ob­
tained from the exhaust gas analyzer.
The NH3/H2/air combustion global stoichiometric reaction is as
follows:

( ) ( )
3 − xH2 3 − x H2 1 − xH2 3 − x H2
(1 − xH2 )NH3 + xH2 H2 + (O2 + 3.76N2 )→ H2 O + + 3.76 + N2 (1)
4 4 2 4

5
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269

Fig. 5. Variations in ηvol with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at different speeds.

[51], error analysis is performed for instrumental variables such as

Here, the molar fraction of hydrogen xH2 is found through the energy speed and load and dependent variables such as brake power (BP) and
fraction xH2 by equation 2, efficiencies. The calculated overall uncertainty is found to be ± 1.8%.
(xH2 × E)
x H2 = (2) 3. Results and discussion
lcvH2 × MH2

here, E is the total fuel energy supplied in kJ, lcvH2 is the lower CV of The experiments are carried out with caution; as previously stated,
hydrogen in kJ/kg, and MH2 is the molecular weight of hydrogen in kg/ stopping the engine and returning to the initial temperature is priori­
mol. tized. The experimental results are verified after each set of examina­
Exhaust gas emissions are reported in percent of vol and ppm, which tions, and repeating experiments are also conducted under similar
are converted to specific emissions on a dry basis using equation 3 [50]. circumstances. The experimental results are compiled based on speed for
all the CR and hydrogen energy fractions and compared through graphs
{ }
Mi ṁex one by one for each parameter of performance, combustion, and emis­
SEi = VEi × (3) sion, glimpses of which are provided below with probable explanations;
Mex BP

ṁex = mass flow rate of exhaust = ṁf + ṁair (4) 3.1. Brake power (BP)

Mex = Exhaust molecular weight calculated using stoichiometric

The output power generated by the engine is referred to as BP.
combustion.
Improving the engine’s developing power is critical because it entails
SEi = Any entity’s specific emission.
optimizing the combustion duration and fuel consumption. Ammonia/
VEi = Emission data collected by the entity’s analyzer.
hydrogen mixtures have a higher-octane number allows a higher
Mi = Entity’s molecular weight.
compression ratio before engine knock. It means that the engine delivers
BP both economically and efficiently manner. Fig. 3 shows experimental
2.3. Error analysis results of brake power. The mixtures used in this experimental study are
responsible for maximum power generation at high speeds. However, as
The accuracy of the measurements used in the experiment is CR increases, it can be seen that the rate of growth at any speed im­
measured using error analysis. Using the method described in reference proves. As shown in our empirical results, the engine-developed BP has

6
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269

22 1500 RPM CR12 38 1500 RPM CR12

CR13 CR13
21 CR14 CR14
CR15 36 CR15
20

19 34

CA10-90 (°CA)
CA10 (°CA)

18
32
17

16 30

15
28
14

13 26
5 9 13 17 21 5 9 13 17 21
Hydrogen fraction (% of energy input) Hydrogen fraction (% of energy input)

1600 RPM 1600 RPM

22 CR12 38 CR12
CR13 CR13
21 CR14 CR14
CR15 36 CR15
20

19 34
CA10-90 (°CA)
CA10 (°CA)

18
32
17

16 30

15
28
14

13 26
5 9 13 17 21 5 9 13 17 21
Hydrogen fraction (% of energy input) Hydrogen fraction (% of energy input)

1700 RPM
22 1700 RPM CR12 38 CR12
CR13 CR13
21 CR14 CR14
CR15 36 CR15
20

19 34
CA10-90 (°CA)
CA10 (°CA)

18
32
17

16 30

15
28
14

13 26
5 9 13 17 21 5 9 13 17 21
Hydrogen fraction (% of energy input) Hydrogen fraction (% of energy input)

Fig. 6a. Variations in CA0-10 with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at Fig. 6b. Variations in CA10-90 with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at
different speeds. different speeds.

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M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269

Fig. 6c. Variations in CA50 with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at Fig. 6d. Variations in CA100with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at
different speeds. different speeds.

progressively increased regardless of CR. The maximum increasing rate Ammonia reduces BP because it slows the flame and reduces the tem­
of BP at 1700 RPM is 6.84 % value per CR. Increasing the CR has resulted perature of combustion. Consequently, it can be enhanced by employing
in higher cylinder pressure and temperature, which has increased the a hydrogen combination [52]. The energy fraction of hydrogen used in
fuel evaporation rate, reducing the effects of latent heat of ammonia. this experiment is responsible for the maximum power generation.

8
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar
Fig. 7. Variations in Pmax with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at different speeds.
Because both the speed of the laminar flame and the adiabatic flame
temperature of hydrogen are high, a considerable amount of the
ammonia must be burned more quickly. The engine’s ammonia com­
bustion rate accelerates, resulting in increased isochoric combustion,
which has a favorable effect on boosting BP. The maximum increase rate
of BP from 5% to 21% of the hydrogen energy fraction is 13.62%. As the
speed increases, it is clear that the engine-developed BP increases for all
speeds. At 1500RPM, 1600RPM, and 1700RPM, the overall increase in
BP is 28 %, 30.23 %, and 31.2 %, respectively. Finally, speed has the
greatest influence on the engine-developed BP in all three variables.
3.2. Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
BTE is a global parameter that represents fuel economy and engine
performance. Fig. 4 depicts the differences in BTE; the graph shows that
BTE increases with hydrogen energy fraction and CR but decreases with
increasing speed. If BTE is to be improved, engine knock is the greatest
limiting factor, hence the strong knock resistance potential of both fuels
is likely to increase the compression ratio as BTE improves. At 1500RPM
and 5% hydrogen fraction, the average increase in BTE for each CR is
2.24%. As a result, increasing CR leads to a rise in BTE. Pumping losses
can be reduced by increasing the CR it improving the BTE. CR boosts the
air–fuel mixture within the engine cylinder, decreases the residual mass
fraction, and prevents choking, hence enhancing engine performance
[53,54]. Hydrogen intensifies ammonia’s heat release, hence reducing
9
Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269
heat loss and enhancing performance. Hydrogen’s high heating value is
the fundamental cause for this enhanced performance. At 1500RPM and
12CR, an average increase of 6.90% in BTE for the 5% hydrogen frac­
tion. The results revealed that the use of dual-fuel mode could increase
fuel-conversion efficiency. Adding hydrogen energy can considerably
increase BTE because raising the rate of ammonia combustion results in
more isochoric combustion. A hydrogen-based mixture diffuses more
quickly than a mixture without hydrogen; hence, heat loss is prevented
and heat is utilised, thereby increasing the force pushing the rotors.
Moreover, the injection of hydrogen causes the ammonia/air mixture to
burn entirely when the exhaust valves are opened, and its “quenching
action” lowers fuel waste. The best improvement in BTE can therefore be
attained by supplementing with hydrogen. The overall BTE decrease
from 1500RPM to 1600RPM is 3.97 %, while the overall BTE decrease
from 1600RPM to 1700RPM is 4.46 %. Due to the influence of speed on
BTE, the rate of BTE reduction is accelerated. Finally, higher energy
conversion at higher hydrogen energy fractions.
3.3. Volumetric efficiency (ηvol)
Volumetric efficiency is primarily determined by the fuel and in­
jection space and the injection time to synthesize the engine’s volu­
metric efficiency. Due to the charge cooling effect of ammonia fuel, the
in-cylinder charge has the benefit of lowering the temperature, so
increasing volumetric efficiency can also boost BTE. Fig. 5 depicts the
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar
Fig. 8. Variations in Tmax with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at different speeds.
volumetric efficiency (ηvol) to study the effect of CR, engine speed, and
hydrogen energy fractions on the cylinder filling process. At
1500RPM&12CR, the average ηvol decreases 3.55 % by 5 % to 21 %
hydrogen energy fraction, resulting in similar trends observed at higher
speeds for equivalent hydrogen fractions. Because hydrogen has a low
density, it displaces a large amount of the cylinder’s incoming air,
reducing the amount of air available in the cylinder [55]. When
considering CR, the average increment of ηvol is 2.59 % at a hydrogen
energy fraction of 5%, and at 1500 RPM and a hydrogen energy fraction
of 21%, the increment is 1.5 %. It is clear that while CR increases due to
high hydrogen content, the volumetric efficiency decreases by 1.09 %.
As a result, similar trends can be seen at higher speeds, though the
reduced volumetric efficiency caused by increasing CR may be partially
offset. The overall average decrement of ηvol is 7.04% irrespective of CR
and hydrogen energy fractions. The increasing speed is found respon­
sible for the increased mass of residual gas fraction (RGF) and the
exhaust manifold pressure. That results in a relatively longer expansion
of RGF, which reduces the ηvol [56].
3.4. Combustion duration
Ammonia causes poor flame propagation because it slows flame
expansion and has low flame strength. However, adding hydrogen to
ammonia enhances combustion stability, reducing combustion time
[57].Figs. 6a, 6b, 6c, and 6d depict the CA0-10, CA10-90, CA50, and
CA100. As observed in the graphs, the percentage of hydrogen energy
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Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269
increases from 5% to 21%, while the period of flame formation and
propagation is drastically reduced. CA0-10 at 1500 RPM, 12CR, and 5%
hydrogen fraction is 2.21% and 4.9% at 21% under similar conditions.
Similarly, the CA0-10reduction values for 15CR are at 5% and 21%
hydrogen fractions are 4.42 and 7.41%, respectively. At 1600RPM and
1700RPM, a similar pattern was observed. Hydrogen is a fast-burning
fuel that helps to burn ammonia fast. As the hydrogen fraction in­
creases, so flame growth increases. An increase in CR is one of the
promising solutions to overcome the problem of slow reaction, which
increases the temperature inside the cylinder, reduces the delay period,
and accelerates the flame. It helps to make significant progress in
developing relatively low flame, reducing CA0-10. CR increases from
CR12 to CR15, and CA0-10 is 17.93% and 22.50% less in the 1500RPM
and 5% and 21% hydrogen fractions, respectively. Similar tendencies
were seen at both 1600 and 1700 RPM. Furthermore, increasing the
speed also helps with faster combustion, reducing CA0-10 and CA10-90.
Unlike CA0-10, CA10-90 falls more frequently during the expansion stroke;
when the pressure drops faster leads to a rapid drop in temperature [58].
This, too, causes a slight reduction in the speed of the flame. In addition,
the low adiabatic flame temperature of ammonia makes its flame energy
weak. These two contribute to the slow flame propagation, which leads
to an increase in CA10-90. However, increasing the CR and hydrogen
fraction accelerates the combustion process, reducing CA10-90. The CA50
& CA100 behave in the same way. The CA50&CA100 decreases with CR&
hydrogen fractions continuously at all speeds.
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar
Fig. 9. Variations in HRRmax with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at different speeds.
3.5. Maximum cylinder pressure (Pmax) and temperature (Tmax)
Figs. 7 and 8 depict the maximum pressure and temperature attained
by the ammonia/hydrogen-fuelled VCR SI engine. Figures shows that
the increase in hydrogen, CR, and speed causes a continuous increase in
the maximum pressure and temperature in the engine cylinder. Superior
ignition control provided by the ammonia/hydrogen fuel mixture’s
spark timing results in higher BTE, Pmax, and Tmax. It is mainly due to the
increased fuel volume injected into the engine cylinder, which demon­
strates a strong diffusion level of combustion. One of the causes is the
high latent heat of the evaporation of ammonia, which can significantly
reduce the pressure inside the engine cylinder due to its cooling effect.
However, good spark advance timing (SAT), throttle position (WOT),
high hydrogen fraction, high CR, and high speeds can help deliver
ammonia to maintain the desirable combustion stage. In the 5%
hydrogen fraction, CR increases from 12 to 15, and at 21%, Pmax is 3.34
% and 3.63 %. At 1600RPM and 1700RPM, similar trends were observed
in the variable compression and mixing ratios. CR varies from 12 to 15,
5% hydrogen fraction overall Tmax is 6.3 %, while at 21% it is 8.58%. At
1600RPM and 1700RPM, similar trends were observed in different
compression ratios and mixing ratios. Aside from that, increasing the CR
improves the volumetric efficiency, allowing more amounts to enter. As
a result, more fuel is supplied, and combustion efficiency improves,
resulting in increased Pmax and Tmax. Similarly, increasing the mixture
ratios results in increasing Pmax and Tmax. At 5% to 21% at 12CR and 15
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Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269
CR at 1500RPM, the overall increment of Pmax is 12.69% and 13.66%,
respectively, and Tmax is 8.67% and 11%, respectively. The blend burns
faster because hydrogen has a higher laminar flame speed than any other
fuel. It causes rapid combustion and release high energy, increasing
pressure and temperature, and thus an increase in Pmax and Tmax [59].
Pmax and Tmax, on the other hand, are observed to increase with
increasing speed, most likely due to insufficient cooling, an increase in
the mean cylinder temperature, and an increase in pressure. However, as
speed increases, volumetric efficiency decreases significantly, as does
ammonia’s low laminar flame speed, which limits pressure and tem­
perature slightly.
3.6. Maximum heat release rate (HRRmax)
Fig. 9 depicts the trends in HRRmax. It is clear that increasing
hydrogen fraction, CR, and speed increases HRRmax. The average in­
crease in HRRmax when accelerating from 1500 RPM to 1700 RPM due
to improved burning speed is 33.59 %. Increasing the CR during com­
bustion increases the pressure and temperature inside the cylinder,
increasing the tumble moment and mixture homogeneity and reducing
the combustion delay, which reduces the flame growth period and
causes flame propagation, resulting in an HRRmax [60]. As a result,
HRRmax increase as CR increases. When the CR from 12 to 15, the mean
increase in HRRmax at 5% hydrogen energy fraction and 1500RPM is
14.85% and 15.43% at 21%. At higher speeds, similar trends were
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar
Fig. 10. Variations in EGT with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at different speeds.
observed. The fastest flame speed is that of hydrogen. HRRmax is high.
The increase in HRRmax at 1500 RPM and 12CR is 13.8 % and 14.4 % at
15CR under different hydrogen fraction ranging from 5% to 21%. At
1600RPM and 1700RPM, similar trends were observed. As hydrogen
level increases, combustion phenomena improve even more, resulting in
shorter combustion times. Hence, HRRmax improves.
3.7. Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
The rate of heat released in the combustion chamber is reflected in
EGT [61]. Any fuel that burns slower will cause a more prolonged period
after the burning period, so the temperature of the exhaust gas increases.
Additionally, the cylinder wall does not allow adequate heat storage
when the quenching gap is significant, increasing the exhaust gas tem­
perature. These effects are essential in ammonia combustion and can be
seen in Fig. 10. However, increasing CR shortens the period of com­
bustion, resulting in quick cooling of the working fluid and a decrease in
EGT [54]. At 1500RPM, the decrease in EGT in CR 12 to 13 and in 5%
hydrogen fraction is 1.25%, similar trends were observed in CR13 to 14
EGT decreases 0.84% followed by CR14 to CR15 in 0.21% increase in
EGT. The rise in EGT from CR 12 to 13, CR13 to 14, and CR14 to 15 was
0.43%, 0.65%, and 1.07%, respectively, during the 21% hydrogen
fraction. A similar trend was observed at 1600RPM and 1700RPM. All
these developments were initially observed; increasing the hydrogen
fraction, improving the speed of combustion, and decreasing the
quenching distance would reduce the EGT. However, increasing the
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Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269
hydrogen ratio after a certain threshold minimizes the ratio of ammonia,
increasing average cylinder temperature and dominance. The change in
EGT is dominated by the speed as the speed increases, effectively
reducing engine cooling so that when the cylinder temperature rises, the
EGT rises as well. The average increase in EGT when speed increases
from 1500RPM to 1700RPM is 2.45 %. According to these findings, the
effect of speed on EGT is to be greater than any other effect.
3.8. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions
One of the most significant pollutants emitted by vehicles is a ni­
trogen oxide (NOx). NOx is a by-product of combustion processes in
internal combustion engines, and it is formed during the direct com­
bustion of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen within the engine’s com­
bustion chamber. The oxygen content, usually nitrogen-based fuel, the
temperature in the cylinder, and the high temperature of the combustion
all play a role in NOx formation. In our research, the ammonia/hydrogen
mixture’s combined effect is to form NOx; increasing the hydrogen ratio
will increase NOx emissions. Fuel NO is predominant in NOx production
due to ammonia in the fuel mixture, as shown in Fig. 11. High hydrogen
ratios form thermal NOx, the temperature is primarily caused by N2
oxidation, and the oxidation of N atoms creates fuel NOx during the
ammonia oxidation process [62]. Hydrogen fraction changes from 5% to
21% at 1500RPM and all CR, the average increase in NOx is 9.34 %;
similarly, when the hydrogen fraction changes from 5% to 21% at
1600RPM and 1700RPM, the average increase is 21.12 % and 32.36 %
M.H. Dinesh and G.N. Kumar
Fig. 11. Variations in NOx with CR and hydrogen energy fractions at different speeds.
for the same conditions. The combustion temperature inside the engine
cylinder rises as the CR rises, increasing the rate of NOx emissions. Ac­
cording to our findings, the average incremental value of NOx at
1500RPM and 5% hydrogen energy fraction from CR 12 to CR15 is 39.45
%, while at 21%, it is 18.15 % under similar conditions. We will see a
similar trend at higher speeds. As a result, it appears that fuel NOx is
more dominant than thermal NOx. Fuel NOx is less temperature-sensitive
and, more importantly, is influenced by free radicals produced by NH3
oxidation. However, the amount of NOx emissions increased as the en­
gine speed increased.
4. Conclusions
The experiment was carried out on different CRs to investigate the
behaviour of a port injection SI engine running on Ammonia/Hydrogen
mixtures. Experiments are carried out at different speeds ranging from
1500 to 1700 RPM under wide-open throttle (WOT) circumstances. The
findings are briefly discussed in the preceding section, and the following
conclusions are formed as a result;
1. In dual-fuel mode, hydrogen is the most effective additive because it
ultimately ignites most ammonia and improves performance. As
evidenced by the results, the SI engine’s performance improves.
2. Ammonia has the best anti-knock performance and thermal effi­
ciency due to its high latent heat of vaporization and high-octane
number.
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Energy Conversion and Management: X 15 (2022) 100269
3. Ammonia/hydrogen operation, the maximum BP and BTE are
around 31.2% and 39%, respectively. As the ratio of hydrogen and
speed increase, volumetric efficiency falls to 9%.
4. CA0-10 was decreased by about 33.51% as compression ratio,
hydrogen energy fraction, and variable speed increased.
5. Peak cylinder pressure, temperature, and heat release rate suffer
from ammonia’s low energy content and slow combustion speed,
which improves slightly with increasing CR and significantly with
increasing hydrogen fraction.
6. As a result, it appears that fuel NOx is more dominant than thermal
NOx. Fuel NOx is less sensitive to temperature and, more importantly,
is influenced by free radicals produced by NH3 oxidation. NOx levels
have been steadily rising, with our results showing a 42.34% in­
crease, which can be significantly reduced through the use of selec­
tive catalytic reduction (SCR) and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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