NATURAL RESOURCES

Definition

 Natural resources are substances or materials naturally existing in the

environment which can be exploited by human beings for survival.
 They are either organic (living) or inorganic (non-living) substances
obtained from the earth.
 Natural resources can be classified as renewable or non-renewable.

Non-renewable resources

 These are resources that get finished, depleted or exhausted as they are
being exploited.
 Once used up these take a very long time to replenish if at all they are
able to replenish.
 Most minerals are non-renewable.

Renewable resources

 These are the kind of natural resources that can be used over and over
again without getting exhausted.
 Such resources are said to be replenishable, which means they restock
naturally without human interference.
 Such resources include vegetation, water, sunlight and wild animals, to
mention a few.

Renewable resources Non- renewable resources

Solar energy Oil
Air, wind Coal
Flowing water Natural gas
Soil, plants, animals Iron
Aluminum
Copper

Table showing examples of natural renewable and non-renewable resources

Recycling

 Some resources can be re-cycled or re-used without them being

necessarily renewable. For example iron is a non-renewable mineral but
can be re-cycled and used again.
 Recycling is the conversion of waste material into reusable substances or
materials.
 Other examples of recyclable materials are plastic, paper, water, tires and
so on.
 Recycling may involve the resource retaining its original use. Iron is
smelted again and reused as iron, or plastic is reused as plastic.
 Some resource are reused for different purposes, for example, coal that is
used in generating thermal power produces coal rubble that is used in
construction.

EXPLOITATION OF RESOURCES
Various factors tend to affect the exploitation of resources depending on the
type of resource being exploited.

General factors affecting resource exploitation

1. Capital
 Availability of capital determines if resource can be exploited or not.
 Mining is capital intensive hence it may take time before certain minerals
are exploited. An example is platinum which has taken time to be fully
exploited in Zimbabwe.
2. Technology
 Availability technology enables resource exploitation.
 What could not be harvested yesterday can be harvested today with
development of new technologies.
3. Concentration of resource
 Extraction of certain resources depends on their concentration.
 Gold widely occurs in Zimbabwe but, in most cases, in concentration
levels that are sub-economic to commercially exploit.
4. Geological occurrence
 Some minerals occur deep down in the earth such that their exploitation
requires a lot of capital and operating costs are inhibitive.
 Other minerals may be found in complex geological formations that may
be too complicated to barrow through. BHP’s Hartely Platinum Mine at
Selous near Chegutu shut down because of these complications.

5. Opinion of environmentalists
 Environmentalist can cause the abandonment of resource exploitation
activities especially if they do harm to the environment or even when
they are perceived to do so.
 Massive protests halted the development of Lynas mine in Malaysia in
2014, for example.
6. Government policy
 Resource exploitation is often directed by government policy.
 In Zimbabwe, for example, uranium deposits have long been discovered
in the Zambezi Valley but government is reluctant to develop a policy to
enable it exploitation.
7. Accessibility of location and climate
 Some resources occur in very inaccessible areas such as seas, frozen
continents, swamps and mountainous regions which delays their
exploitation.
8. Political stability
 Politically unstable and strife torn countries such as Somalia, Iraq, Libya
and Syria are less attractive for exploitation of resources.

Mining

Mining involves the extraction of minerals from beneath the earth's surface.

Importance of mining

 Provides opportunities for employment.

 Brings foreign currency from exportation of minerals.
 Leads to the development of settlements such as Hwange and Zvishavane
in Zimbabwe.
 Leads to growth in economic activity and thus raising peoples' standards
of living.
 Provides base and raw materials for industrial growth and development.

Methods of mining

The common mining methods are opencast, shaft, drift/adit and panning.

Opencast mining

 Used when minerals occur within 50m below the earth's surface.
 The material that overlies the mineral known as the overburden is
stripped off using heavy machinery in order to reach the mineral.
 Sometimes blasting is necessary so that overburden is easily removed.
 Opencast mining is quite cheap and also of low risk to human life; large
quantities of the mineral can be extracted in a short time.
 Heavy and expensive machinery is used such as drag lines and
excavators.

Picture showing opencast mining in progress

Shaft mining

 When a mineral occurs at deep levels below the earth's surface, such that
opencast mining cannot be used and is not relevant, in such cases shaft
mining is used.
 Vertical shafts are dug to reach mineral seams.
 Some tunnels are also dug horizontally from the shafts so as to reach the
mineral.
 This is a very expensive method of mining as it involves the purchase of a
lot of equipment for the various processes involved.
 Workers are exposed to a lot of ventilation related diseases; these are
generally lung related diseases such as silicosis.
 There is also a high risk of mine collapse, underground flooding and gas
explosions.
 Conveyor belts, man trips (small trains used to transport miners
underground) and mining hoists are some examples of machinery used in
shaft mining.

A picture showing a tunnel in shaft mining

Adit/drift mining

 Some mineral ores are found on the sides of valleys and slopes.
 In order to extract such mineral ores, inclined or horizontal shafts are dug
in the valley or slope.
 When compared to the costs of shaft mining, this method is relatively
cheaper.
 There is however always the danger of loss life since the valley slopes
may collapse during extraction of the mineral ore.

Picture showing how drift mining is carried out.

Panning or alluvial mining

 Type of mining used for minerals found in alluvial deposits, along river
beds and valleys.
 Minerals mined using this method include tin, gold, platinum, and
diamonds.
 The major problem associated with this type of mining is environmental
degradation in that people leave numerous uncovered pits leading to
gullies.
 This type of mining is highly discouraged in Zimbabwe because of its
effects on the environment.
Picture showing alluvial mining

Factors affecting mining or exploitation of minerals

Technology

 Some minerals require advanced technology in order to be extracted and

without it, mining of the mineral can be impossible. For example, in the
case of oil drilling.

Demand

 Some minerals such as diamonds and gold have a high demand in the
market.
 Such minerals therefore attract a lot of investment because of their high
return even though they might be more expensive to extract.

Distance from the market

 Mineral ores which are in easily accessible areas attract more investment
than those in areas where transport and communication networks are
very poor.
Quantity of the ore

It is important to know the quantity of the ore available beforehand in order

to decide whether it would be profitable to extract the mineral.

Coal mining in Zimbabwe

 Coal in Zimbabwe mostly comes from Hwange.
 Hwange is located 336km from Bulawayo and 106km from Victoria Falls.

Coal

Geological occurrence

 Coal mined at Hwange is a sedimentary rock produced from organic

matter that was deposited seasonally in layers sometimes referred to as
strata.
 These strata were then subjected pressure of overlying rocks over a
period of about 300 million years.
 The coal seam found underground reaches depths of up to about 900
meters below the earth's surface.
 The coal seam itself is approximately10 to 12 meters thick.

Quality

 The coal mined at Hwange is called bituminous coal which is the most
occurring coal type making up about 80% of the world’s coal reserves.
 The quality of coal is measured by the amount of carbon in it.
 The more the carbon content, the more the heat value in the coal.
 Hwange coal contains about 74% of carbon giving it a good heat value. It
however contains high ash content of 13, 5% which lowers its value
because ash cannot be burnt.
Mining methods

 Coal is mined at Hwange through a shaft called a colliery and from four
opencast mines.
 The above two mining methods explain a shift in terms of operation costs.
 Probably the level of coal was now expensive and too deep to use open
cast mining method.

Uses of coal

 Used in thermal power stations as fuel burnt to produce steam in head

water for example at Munyati Thermal Power Station.
 Also used in manufacturing industries in Zimbabwe for example in tar
production.
 Used in tobacco curing.
 Used as fuel to move locomotives.
 Coal is carbonized in coke ovens to produce coke.
 By products of the coke making process include tar, benzene,
naphthalene and ammonia.

CASE STUDY: Copper mining in Zambia

 Copper is the single largest foreign currency earner for the Zambian
economy.
 It is mined along the Copperbelt which extends from Central Zambia
northwards into Katanga Province of the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC).
 This belt contains up to one fifth of the world’s copper reserves.
 The distribution of copper deposits is given in the map of Zambia below.
Factors affecting exploitation of copper

1. Geology
 Copper ore is found in sedimentary rocks along the Copperbelt of
Central Zambia.
 Ore concentration is between 2.5% to 5% which is commercially
viable.
 Owing to its occurrence in folded undulating sedimentary rocks, mining
method is either shaft or open cast.
2. Capital
  Capital comes from large multinational corporations (MNCs) because
mining is very capital intensive.
 The two biggest companies are Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines
(NCCM) and Roan Consolidated Mines Limited (RCML).
3. Labour
 Large labour force comes from Zambia itself and neighboring SADC
countries such as Malawi, Zimbabwe and DRC.
4. Technology
 Foreign direct investment by large MNCs enables acquisition of the
latest mining technology.
5. Political stability
 Zambia has experienced a relatively very peaceful stretch of time of
late and is favourable for investment.
 Political strife was experienced during liberation wars of 1970s to
1990s in Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Namibia and South Africa.
 The civil wars of Mozambique and Angola also caused problems during
the same period.
6. Transport
 Zambia is landlocked and has gateway to the sea via Tazara to Dar es
Salaam, Benguela to Angola, and Zimbabwe.
 Transport costs are therefore quite high and are a huge disadvantage
when copper prices are low.
7. Power
 Hydroelectric power (HEP) comes from Kariba and Kafue HEP stations
as well as imports from DRC.
8. Markets
 Coppers mostly destined for markets in Europe and Japan.
 Some of it is taken up by South African industry.
 Copper prices are set on the world market.
 The copper prices have been falling for the last five years.

Uses of copper

 It is used to make wire because of its quality of being ductile (bending

easily).
 It is malleable (soft) and shiny, so it can be used to make ornaments.
 It is alloyable (can be mixed) with other metals.
 Resists corrosion and so it is alloyed with steel to make water pipes,
heating elements and other utensils or tools that need to avoid rust.
  It conducts electricity well hence it is used to make cables and
conductors.

Benefits to Zambian economy

 Provides employment to locals and regionally.

 Has led to urbanisation of Zambia.
 It is the single most important foreign currency earner providing 85%
of total earnings.
 Its mining has led to development of infrastructure such as roads, rail,
electricity and other amenities.
 It provides raw materials for industries.

Disadvantages of copper mining in Zambia

 Has led to depopulation of rural areas.

 Has led to neglect of agriculture.
 There is overdependence on copper and this leaves the Zambian
economy vulnerable when there is fall in world prices or when
resources dwindle.
 Land dereliction as huge pits and mine dumps are left behind.
 Open pit mining in the Copperbelt

 Influx of migrant labourers which disrupts local cultures.

 Pollution of land and water resources.
 Frequent landslides resulting from mine dumps.
 Mines are owned by foreign MCNs posing challenges of empowerment
and sovereignty of government.

CASE STUDY: Oil Mining in Nigeria

 It is done the Niger Delta region.

 Nigeria is largest producer of oil in Africa.
 Niger Delta
Factors affecting exploitation of oil
1. Geological occurrence
 Is found trapped between impervious sedimentary rocks.
 Oil was formed by dead living creatures that were buried millions of
years ago.
 Geological occurrence of oil/petroleum

 The Niger Delta is one of the world’s richest oil fields.

2. Labour
 Labour is found in Nigeria which has Africa’s largest population.
3. Capital
 Investment comes from foreign capital.
 MNCs such as BP and Shell are the biggest investors in oil mining in
the Niger Delta.
4. Markets
 Crude oil is transported to Europe, USA and Japan.
 Important harbours in the oil trade are Port Harcourt and Warri.
5. Transportation
 Oil is transported to the ports by pipeline.
 Crude oil is transported by ship to foreign markets.

Problems associated with oil extraction in Nigeria

1. Hot humid climate of the delta region causes diseases as well as make it
difficult to work.
2. A delta is difficult to build on because ground is swampy and unstable.
3. Numerous distributaries make it expensive to build bridges for roads and
railway network.
4. Limited refining capacity causes frequent petroleum product shortages.
5. Heavy dependence on foreign investment causes political problems with
local like the Ogoni people.
6. Environmental pollution results from spillage of oil in water and on land.
Benefits of oil mining to Nigeria

1. Employs many people.

2. Is Nigeria’s biggest foreign currency earner.
3. Has led to development of downstream petrochemical industries.
4. Benefits the economy through taxes and royalties.

Disadvantages

1. Environmental pollution through oil spillages.

2. Frequent fluctuation of prices on the world markets causes upheavals in
the economy.
3. Has led to decline in agricultural production as attention is always focused
on oil production.
4. Frequent accidents caused by gas explosions kill many people.
5. Over-exportation of crude oil often starves local demand thus resulting in
frequent shortages.
6. Oil production has attracted increased political activism and internal strife
e.g. the Ken Sarowiwa case.

Uses of oil

1. Provides transportation fuel for vehicles.

2. Industrial fuel.
3. Lubrication.
4. Various petrochemical products such as wax, candles, fertilizer, plastics
and tar

Fishing
 Fish are an important renewable natural resource.
 They are also an important source of food.
 The by-products of fish are oils, fertilizers and glues.

World fish types

The most common groups of fish are saltwater and freshwater.

 Saltwater fish are found in seas and oceans, whilst freshwater fish dwell
in rivers and inland lakes.
 A third group of fish is the anadromous fish. These are born in rivers but
relocate into seas where they live; they only come back to rivers to die.
 Examples of saltwater fish include the herring, mackerel, sardines,
pilchards, anchovies, cod, haddock, hake, and tuna.
 Freshwater fish include trout, perch, pike, salmon and carp.
 Anadromous type includes the salmon, e.g. sockeye, chum, silver and
Chinook.

Fishing in Zimbabwe

The main commercial fishing area in Zimbabwe is Lake Kariba with other
smaller fishing grounds like rivers, dams and lakes (Chivero and Manyame)
across the country. Lake Kariba is 300 km long and covers an area of 5000
km2. This vast stretch of water is home to various species of fish.

 Commercial fishing is undertaken on both large-scale and small-scale in

the lake Kariba area.
 There are 130 species of fish found in Zimbabwe, of which the most
common types are kapenta, bream, barbell, tiger fish and mudsucker.
 There are over 50 varieties of fish breading in Lake Kariba some of which
include bream, chessa, nkupe, bottlenose and kapenta.

Problems of fishing in Zimbabwe

 Poor management of fisheries that result in over-fishing.

 Lack of adequate markets due to poverty.
 Poaching of fish.
 Pollution of rivers and lakes by industries and individuals.
 Inappropriate fishing technology, for example, fish poisoning thus
polluting the water.
 Shortage of capital to acquire modern fishing equipment.
 Growth of hyacinth weed and problem of eutrophication such as is
happening in Lake Chivero and Lake Manyame.

Possible solutions

 Tightening legislation against poaching.

 Enforcement fishing laws by National Parks wardens.
 Controlling issuance of fishing permits in order to regulate number of
fishing companies. This is being done by The Department of National
Parks and Wildlife
 Introduction of fish conservation methods such as fish farming.
 Educating people about the importance of conserving fish.
 Limiting the fishing season in order to allow the breeding of the fish.
 Use of the quota system to limit over-fishing.

Types of ocean fish

Ocean fish can divided into demersal and pelagic types.

Demersal fish

 These live on or near the ocean bottom.

 Cape hake, redfish, haddock and tuna are examples of the demersal fish
group in Southern Africa.

Pelagic fish

 These fish live quite close to the surface of the ocean.

 Pilchards, mackerel, mullet, herring and rock lobster are some examples
of the pelagic fish group in Southern Africa.

Ocean fishing methods in Southern Africa

These include trawling, purse-seining and line fishing.

Trawling

 Used in the catching of demersal fish.

 Uses large boats which are called trawlers. The boats (trawlers) drag the
nets.
 The net is pulled along the ocean bottom with mouth of the net open.
 The fish are then caught inside the net.
 When enough fish have been caught or when the net is full it is raised
onto the boat using rope to remove the caught fish.
 Cape hake fish are commonly caught using this method.
An illustration of the trawling method of fishing

Purse-seining

 This method is used to catch pelagic fish by surrounding the fish.

 When the fish are rounded up by the nets, the top and bottom of the nets
are closed like purse in order to secure the fish.
 The net is then pulled close to the boat where the fish are sucked into the
boat using a big horse pipe.
 Anchovy and pilchards are mostly caught using this method.
The purse seine method of fishing

Line fishing

 This involves lowering lines with baited hooks into the waters directly
from the boat.
 Fish are attracted by the bait but are caught by the hook and pulled into
the boat.
Picture showing use of the line fishing method

Forestry
Forestry refers to the art of managing forests, tree plantations and related
ecosystems.

Factors affecting exploitation of forests

Accessibility

 Transport networks lead to easy access to forests, therefore for any forest
to be used by humans there must be transport networks connecting the
forests to population centers.
 It should be easy to transport raw materials to industries for processing
and markets.
 Tourists should also be able to travel easily to forest attractions.

Demand

 For exploitation of any resource, there must be reasonable demand for it.
 In the case of forests, there should be demand for products made from
wood.
 The higher the demand, the greater the levels of exploitation of forests.
Composition of forests

 The type of timber in the forests will determine the level of exploitation of
the forests.
 If the timber is of high value, there will be greater level of exploitation of
the forests.

Availability of capital

 Expensive equipment such as chain saws, heavy trucks and tractors are
required in order to begin the cutting of trees
 Also, a large workforce is required.
 Forestry, therefore, requires large amounts of capital.

Quality of the timber

 Trees that are large enough and healthy enough for use as timber, and
have strong fibre for making paper and other by-products are more likely
to be exploited.

Importance of forests

Forests are important in a various ways; they have economic, environmental

and social value.
 provide:
lumber,
fuel for plywood,
cooking railroad
and ties
heating
job creation
in paper and
furniture
making

economic value

prevent erosion
by reducing
surface runoff

produces
provides shelter
oxygen and
for many plants
controlls
and animals
pollution

enviromnental
value
Social value

 Natural beauty of forests offers a recreational and enjoyment value to

people.
 Many people use forests for activities such as camping, hiking and
hunting.
 The quiet and relaxed scenery of the forests also attracts people.

Camping in the forests

Forestry in Zimbabwe

The statistics has it that 66% of Zimbabwe's land area falls under different
forests while 27% is under cultivation.

 Zimbabwe has a variety of tree species ranging from softwoods to

hardwoods.
 Indigenous trees are mostly hardwoods whilst exotics are both hardwoods
and softwoods.
 Hardwoods are mostly heavier than softwoods.
 In Zimbabwe management of forests is under the Ministry of Environment
and Natural Resources. The Forestry Commission is responsible for forest
management and developmental programs.

Indigenous forests in Zimbabwe

 Made up of trees which naturally grow in Zimbabwe, most of these are

the African hardwoods.
 Those used for furniture making include Mukwa, Mchibi and Zimbabwean
teak.

Use of indigenous forest resources

The most common type of indigenous forest in Zimbabwe is the savannah

woodland which occurs mainly on the central watershed. The common trees
include the Msasa, Mupfuti and Munhondo.

Example of indigenous msasa forest

Uses of these indigenous trees include:

 Protecting land from soil erosion by slowing and controlling surface
runoff.
 Increasing soil fertility through litter and humus.
 Are sources of firewood, timber, medicines, edible caterpillars and small
game.
 Flooring, furniture and plywood.

Exotic trees

 These are trees grown in Zimbabwe but originate from other countries.
 The main exotic trees commercially in Zimbabwe are softwoods such as
pine, wattle and eucalyptus or gum trees.

Example of exotic pine softwoods

 These trees are mostly grown in the Eastern Highlands as they need a lot
of moisture and cooler temperatures.
 Pine trees for example grow to full size after 25 years and this is much
faster than indigenous trees.
 Seeds for these trees are bought from all over the world, especially from
Mexico and South Africa.

Uses of exotic trees include;

 Used to make furniture.

 Cardboard boxes.
 Plywood.
 Parquet floors.
 Roofing material

Effects of population on exploitation of forests

A number of problems are associated with the commercial exploitation of

forests.

 Deforestation resulting in shortage of wood fuel.

 Desertification which is the spread of desert conditions into other areas
which were initially not deserts.
 Soil erosion as little or no vegetation cover remains to bind the soil.
 Landslides incidence increases.
 Provision of natural foods such as wild fruits may be lost.
 Ecological imbalance since the food chain is broken due to deforestation.
 Medicinal resources lost.
 Loss of soil fertility.
 Biodiversity loss as some species may extinct and migrate to other more
conducive habitats.
 Low ground water recharge as infiltration is reduced on the expense of
erosion.
 Loss of tourist attraction and aesthetic value of nature.
 Loss of natural regulation of temperature and precipitation.
 Reduced capacity of carbon sequestration which is absorption of excess
carbon dioxide in the air.
 Increase in the rates of siltation in rivers.

Conservation of forests

This is the upkeep and maintenance of forests. Forests can be conserved in

the following ways;

 Educating people to use forests wisely.

 Legislation against unauthorized cutting of trees.
 Fire prevention measures should be put in place.
 Spraying of pesticides and fungicides to prevent infection of trees.
 Establishment of forest nurseries, where tree seedlings are grown.
 Afforestation.
 Reforestation.

The Water resource

Water is one of the most vital natural resource to mankind. It is essential for
the survival of humans. Water is a renewable resource.

 Water exists naturally in different locations and in different forms; in the

air, on the surface, below the earth's surface and in the oceans and seas.

The water cycle

 Water moves in the atmosphere in a cycle called the water cycle.

 It is called a cycle because the process is endless as water is a renewable
resource.
 The water cycle involves movement of water through various states such
as precipitation, surface runoff, evaporation, condensation.

An illustration of the water cycle

Evaporation

 This is when the physical state of water is changed from its liquid state to
its gaseous state.

Condensation
 This is the process whereby water vapour, which is water in gaseous
form, changes to liquid form.
 Water condenses onto small particles in the air to form fog, dew or
clouds.
 Condensation is also known as cloud forming process.
 Condensation is brought about by the cooling of water vapour in the air.
 It can also occur when the amount of water in the air reaches its
saturation point where the air cannot take in more water vapour.
 Plants also discharge water vapour into the atmosphere contributing to
the process of condensation through a process called transpiration.

Precipitation

 Occurs when any form of water particles fall from the atmosphere to the
ground.
 Precipitation is a product of the condensation process.
 Drizzle, rain, sleet, hail and snow are some examples of precipitation.

Surface Run-off

 Water which does not infiltrate into the earth's surface flows on the
ground as run-off.
 Surface runoff causes erosion and also transports its load into rivers
which might pollute the water.
 Some of the water infiltrates into the soil there by creating underground
water.
 Only about 35% of the water from precipitation reaches the seas and
oceans whilst the 65% is absorbed into the soil; some of the water
evaporates.

Importance of water

It is impossible for humans, plants and animals to survive without water;

therefore it is in an important natural resource. Without water there would
be no life on earth. Water can be used for domestic, agricultural and
industrial purposes.

Domestic importance
 Cooking.
 Washing their bodies.
 Washing clothes.
 Washing pots, saucepans, crockery and cutlery.
 Washing cars.
 Recreation; like in swimming pools and jacuzzis.
 Watering plants.
Agricultural importance
 Watering plants.
 For drinking by animals.
 Irrigation.
Industrial importance
 Washing machinery.
 Cooling machinery.
 Use in industrial processes that require water.
 Generating electricity.
Water conservation methods

As one of the most important resources water must be used wisely and
conservatively. Some water conservation methods include;

 Water harvesting.
 Legislation and heavy fines against illegal deposition of industrial waste
into water bodies.
 Taking shorter showers and sharing a bath.
 Promote re-use and recycling of water.
 Plant drought resistant plants and lawns.
 Water plants only in the early or late hours of the day.
 Use a bucket instead of running the horse when washing the car.
 Building dams.
 Desalinization of water.

Summary of effects of population on water resources

1. Water pollution
 Densely populated areas are associated with high economic and social
activities.
 This causes water pollution through: industrial emissions; unethical
domestic and industrial waste disposal; fertilizers; and pesticides
application leading to water stress.
2. Reduced ground water recharge due to urbanisation
  Soil compaction caused by surface modification in urban areas leads to
serious lack of ground water recharge.
3. Wetland depletion: settlement on wetlands e.g. Harare cited on wetland,
some high density suburbs in main cities are illegally cited on wetland.
4. Biodiversity loss: aquatic life habitat is destroyed by human activities
leading to migration and extinction of species.
5. Rivers and dam siltation: Agricultural activities on stream banks and flood
plains as well as alluvial mining have led to river siltation.
6. Overfishing

Water pollution

This refers to the contamination of water bodies like lakes and rivers. There
are various causes of water pollution which include;

 Industrial waste deposited by industries to water bodies.

 Sewage and waste water, water from everyday cooking, laundry,
showering and washing of cars all end up in water bodies.
 Dumping of waste into water bodies; the rubbish we make every day like
paper waste, food waste and metallic waste is all disposed of in water
bodies.
 Oil spills.
 Acid rain.
A polluted water source

Effects of water pollution

 Death of aquatic life.

 Diseases affecting humans and animals.
 Destruction of ecosystems.
 Eutrophication.

Solutions to water pollution

 Dispose rubbish in bins.

 Encourage people to buy more environmentally friendly products.
 Governments should implement strict laws that help minimize water
pollution like banning issuance plastic carrier bags by supermarkets and
banning disposal of waste into water bodies.
 Educate people on the dangers of water pollution.

Soil as a resource
 The thin layer of materials on the earth's surface, comprising of a mixture
of inorganic and organic substances is what is called soil.
 The main elements of soil are: the solid mineral particles such as sand,
silt, clay, humus, air, water and living organisms such as worms and
bacteria.

The soil profile

A diagram of the soil profile

 The soil profile is a vertical cross-section of the layers of the soil in a

given area.
 The O horizon (organic matter horizon) is largely composed of organic
material, dark in colour and soft in texture. It is rich in organic matter of
plant and animal origin. It is also composed of leaves, twigs, moss and
lichens that are not decomposing.
 The A-Horizon (top-soil horizon) is the top most layer of mineral soil;
some humus is present and dark in color. This is the most biologically
active layer of the soil. Earthworms, bacteria, and fungi live in this layer.
This layer has the finest soil particles.
 The E-Horizon (leaching layer) this layer is light in colour with mainly
sand and silt, it is a small layer between the A and B horizons, has poor
mineral content due to leaching (the loss of water retaining plant
nutrients to the water table).
 The B-Horizon (sub-soil horizon) this layer is rich in clay and minerals,
reddish brown in colour. Plant roots can extend to this layer.
 The C-Horizon (regolith horizon) this layer is devoid of organic material
due to it being so far down in the profile. It is made up of large rocks and
is least affected by weathering.
 The R-Horizon (bedrock horizon) this is the deepest soil horizon in the soil
profile. There are no rocks or boulders only a continuous mass of
bedrock. The colour is that of the original rock area.

Soil formation

Soil is a product of many processes and it takes time to fully develop. Soil
formation process is influenced by factors such as the parent material,
climate, vegetation, topography and people.

Parent material

 The initial stage of soil formation involves the weathering of the parent
material to form regolith.
 Rocks vary in their resistance to weathering therefore resulting in
different rates of weathering and depths of soil formation.
 Different rocks may produce regolith of different chemical composition.

Climate and vegetation

 Climate determines the type of soil formed on a global scale.

 Climate also determines the type of vegetation growing in an area which
then supplies humus to the soil.
 The most rapid rate of rock decomposition is in the hot and wet equatorial
climate.
 Desert areas have dry, saline soils with very little humus because of the
lack of water and vegetation to produce humus.

Topography

 Soils vary according to the height and gradient of the slope.

 Steep slopes will have thin soils due to the high rates of transportation of
the weathered material; this is because steep slopes encourage high
rates of weathering.
 Gently sloping areas have deeper soils.

Summary of effects of population on soil as a resource

 Urbanisation: tarmacs and compacted surfaces modify the nature of soil

as a resource.
 Soil erosion: overgrazing, stream bank cultivation, deforestation, veld
fire and monoculture all accelerate soil erosion.
 Land pollution: acid rain and poor waste management from industrial
waste, agriculture, domestic waste, mine dumps, grease and oil spillage.
 Loss of land’s aesthetic value: squatter camps, open mine pits and
spoil dumps which affect the scenic land view.
 Soil salinisation: caused by irrigation, fertilizer and pesticides
application.
 Overgrazing: livestock determines wealth of individuals who strive to
maximise stock and the Zimbabwean tenure system (state property) on
communal lands may stimulate overgrazing. This degrades the land by
triggering soil erosion.
 Over cultivation: population increase may result in double cropping to
secure food supply. Soil is thus left impoverished.

Soil erosion

 Soil erosion refers to the removal of the top layer of soil by running water
or by wind at a rate faster than it is formed.
 The signs of soil erosion include; exposed tree roots, muddy water
flowing over the land, formation of rills and gullies over the land, bare dry
ground, siltation of dams and rivers and even stony and sandy land
surfaces.
Exposed tree roots are evidence of soil erosion

Processes of water erosion

Splash erosion

 This happens when rainfall of high intensity dislodges loose soil particles.

Sheet erosion

 This type of erosion happens when flowing water washes away thin and
uniform layers of soil. This process of soil erosion is indicated by exposed
tree roots as shown in the picture above.

Rill erosion

 Narrow channels cut by running water over both steep and gentle slopes
are called rills.
 When sheet wash becomes confined in little channels rills are formed.
This is then said to be rill erosion.

Gully erosion

 When the volume of overland flow increases downhill there is rapid down-
cutting by flowing water resulting in the formation of deep gullies.
 Gullies are formed as well as grow bigger through vertical and head-ward
erosion.
Picture showing advanced gully erosion

Wind erosion

 This type of erosion is quite common in dry areas with relatively low or no
vegetation.
 Strong winds carry away fine particles of soil.

Causes of soil erosion

A number of physical and human factors play a part in the occurance of soil
erosion.

Physical factors

 Nature of rainfall-rainfall of high intensity tends to compact the ground

therefore reducing its infiltration capacity. The force of raindrops then
dislodges soil particles which are then removed by sheet wash.
 Slopes - steep slopes promote high rate of runoff therefore resulting in
high rate of erosion.
 Soil erodibility - refers to the ease with which soils can be eroded; dry,
sandy soils and soils with little humus are easily eroded.
 Droughts - droughts result in reduced vegetation cover therefore
exposing the soil to both wind and water erosion.

Human factors
 Mismanagement of arable land - this includes stream bank cultivation,
monoculture and over cultivation.
 Mismanagement of grazing areas - overstocking results in overgrazing.
Running water also deepens cattle tracks to form rills and gullies.
 Cutting down of trees for the purposes of acquiring wood for fuel, building
materials and the clearing of land for cultivation reduces vegetation
cover, leading to soil erosion.
 Cultivation of wetlands might result in gully erosion.
 Gold panning is also another human activity leading to soil erosion.

Effects of soil erosion

The results of soil erosion might include;

 Siltation of rivers and dams.

 Formation of gullies.
 Pollution of dams and rivers by substances carried by the flowing water.
 Reduced infiltration which may result in a drop in the water table levels.
 Mass movement- erosion on unstable earth may lead to mudflows,
landslides and other forms of mass movement.

Soil conservation

This refers to the management of the soil resource. Soil conservation

methods include:

 Terracing of steep slopes to reduce runoff.

 Contour ploughing.
 Destocking and rotational grazing in order to give pastures enough time
to recover.
 Crop rotation.
 Gully reclamation and control.
 Planting of trees on steep slopes.
 Use of alternative fuel and building materials rather than wood.
Energy

 Energy is power. It exists in many forms which may be potential, kinetic

energy, fossil fuels or hydro-carbons. It may also be found in the form of
light or even heat.
 Sources of energy cover all the three states of matter which are solid,
liquid and gases.

Importance of energy

Energy plays a pivotal role in the modern world to the extent that wars have
even been fought over energy sources. Energy is important because it is a
requirement in our daily lives in the following ways:

 In the households - for cooking, heating, lighting and the basic

functioning of all the household electrical appliances.
 Energy is required in the functioning and operating of machinery in the
industries.
 Energy is a requirement in offices, shops, transport sector and all other
commercial ventures.
 All facets of our daily lives need energy.

Classification of energy sources

Energy sources can be classified into traditional and modern sources and
also renewable and non-renewable energy sources.

 Examples of traditional and modern sources are shown in the table below.

Traditional Modern
Wood fuel Hydro Electric Power (HEP)
Charcoal Nuclear power
Cow dung Geo-thermal power
Sun Tidal power
Wind Solar
Water Biogas
Natural gas

 Energy sources can also be classified into renewable and non-renewable

sources.
 Examples of this classification are shown on the table below.

Renewable Non-renewable
Solar energy Coal
Wind Oil
Water (HEP) Natural gas
Wood Nuclear power
Geo-thermal power

 Renewable sources are those that replenish and can be reused.

 Non-renewable sources are finite or exhaustible.

Hydro- electric power

 This is electrical energy harnessed from water.
 It is a renewable source of energy.
 At hydro-electric plants water leaves the reservoir at high pressure going
through the penstocks to the turbines in an underground powerhouse.
 The force of the water is determined by depth of water from the surface
of the lake to the entry point into the penstocks. The larger the depth,
the more the pressure thus more electricity is generated.
 High-speed water hits the cups of the turbines, the turbines will then start
spinning.
 As the turbines turn, they turn the generators to which they are
connected with pistons.
 As the generators turn, they produce electricity in the process.
 The water is then discharged back to the river.
 Electricity from the generator is then transmitted to a large step-down
transformer at the switch yard.
 This is a regulatory mechanism to reduce power entering the cables.
 From the switch yard, pylons carrying the high tension cables are used to
transmit electricity to the consumers.
Views of the Kariba hydro-electric plant in Zimbabwe

Considerations for setting up an H.E.P plant

 Gorges are required because they supply a good head of water.

 Head of water refers to the vertical descent of water.
 It is required so that the falling water has great pressure, powerful
enough to turn the turbines.
Large volumes of water

 Use of large rivers with large volumes of water has greater economic
benefits as more energy can be generated.
 Therefore the use of large rivers such as the Nile, the Congo and Zambezi
is highly recommended.

Water supply

 A perennial supply of water is required if an HEP project is to be set up.

 Areas usually affected by dry spells should not be considered for HEP
projects.

Demand

 Before money is spent in constructing an HEP plant, demand for the

power needs to exist beforehand.
 Southern Africa needs a lot of power and thus the demand is high, there
is a ready market in industry, transport and even homes.

Capital

 The construction of dams and power plants is very expensive.

 The initial costs are very high and as a result such stations are usually
built by governments and large companies who have the capacity to meet
the construction, operational and maintenance costs.
Thermal electric power

The Bulawayo thermal power station

 This is a non-renewable form of power obtained by burning fossil fuel

such as coal or petroleum in thermal generators to heat water. The
heated water produces steam which is used to turn turbines. These
turbines are connected to generators that transmit electricity.

Factors affecting the location of thermal power stations

 Proximity to fuel supplies; this saves transportation costs.

 Proximity to markets to reduce the transportation costs of energy.
 Availability of land for expansion.
 Distance from public area so as not to disrupt activities of the public
through noise and air pollution.
Generation of thermal power

Diagram illustrating the generation of thermal power

 In a thermal power station energy is generated by burning coal or any

other fossil fuel.
 The fuel heats water in boilers to produce steam which is then channeled
through pipes to turn the giant turbines.
 As the turbines turn, they rotate the generator which produces power.
 Transformers are used to step-up the power.
 Using power lines the power produced is then transmitted to the
consumers.
 It is then important to note that the difference between the production of
hydro-electric power and thermal power is what is used to turn the
turbines; all the other processes are similar.
 In Zimbabwe thermal power stations were established in Harare,
Bulawayo, Munyati and Mutare to supply the major cities and towns with
power. The major supplier of thermal power in Zimbabwe is the Hwange
thermal power station.
Advantages and disadvantages of different sources of energy
Energy source Advantages
Hydro-Electric  Renewable
power  Cheap to maintain.
 Clean energy source.
 Can be used for other
purposes such as recreation,
tourism, irrigation and
fishing.
Solar power  Renewable
 Clean source of energy.
 Relatively cheap.
 High energy output.
Coal  Employment creation in the
mining and processing of
coal.
 Has many other by
products.
 Is a relatively cheap energy
source.
 Is fairly plentiful.
Oil  An efficient energy source.
 Relatively cheap.
 Easy to mine.
 Easy to transport through
pipelines.
Nuclear power  Very long lifespan.
 Efficient energy source.
 Relatively clean.
Wood  Renewable energy source.
 Cheap or free especially in
rural areas.
 Easily accessible.
 Ashes used as fertilizer.
Disadvantages
 Expensive to build.
 Can cause crustal instability
for example Lake Kariba.
 People must be resettled to
accommodate HEP plants.
 Storage of the power is
expensive and difficult.
 Affected by cloud cover.
 Might be expensive to set up
for poor communities.
 Non-renewable
 Environmentally unfriendly
as it leads to pollution.
 Bulky and dirty thus difficult
to handle.
 Has a generally low energy
content and therefore
inefficient.
 Leads to land, air and water
pollution.
 Has a short life span due to
its multi-functionality.
 Leaks in pipeline can go
unnoticed.
 Environmentally unfriendly
due to nuclear radiation.
 Waste disposal is a big
problem.
 Destructive weapons can be
made.
 Over-exploitation of forests
may lead land degradation.
 Air pollution from burning.
Population and resources

 Zimbabwean Demographic Profile (2014) claims that Zimbabwe’s

population growth rate is averaged at 4.36% and natural increase of
2.2%.
 The census period 2002-2012 recorded the highest increase from 11.6 to
13 million people.
 Although the population is increasing, the resources we have are
remaining the same.
 There is a close interdependence relationship between population and
resources.
 The development of human population is dependent on the utilisation of
the available resources.
 This therefore demands sustainable utilisation of the available resources
so that the future generations can also benefit from them.

Definition of terms
 Under population refers to the situation where resources are more than
the actual population which it should support.
 Optimum population is the situation whereby available resources are
adequate but cannot support any additional population.
 Overpopulation refers to the situation where an area’s carrying capacity is
exceeded by the total population.
 A land’s carrying capacity is the total population which the available basic
resources can support. For example: Zimbabwe’s National Parks can only
support 45 000 elephants but the available 80 000 elephants has resulted
in overpopulation hence environmental degradation.

Negative effects of population growth on water resource development

 Water resource development includes a number of projects such as dam

construction, inter-basin transfer, stream bank modification, recreational
development and hydro electrical power generation.
 Even though there are benefits in such projects, population growth may
lead to:
1. Siltation of dams and rivers from increased agricultural and mining
activities as population grows. An example is the Save River catchment
area.
2. Pollution of water resources from fertilizers, pesticides, industrial, and
domestic effluents as is happening in Lake Chivero and Lake Manyame.
3. Depletion of underground water resources due to unsustainable
exploitation, whereby the rate of pumping out/usage is more than the
rate of recharge as infiltration is restricted by compacted surfaces. Most
boreholes in Harare and Bulawayo dry up during summer because of
water table depletion.
4. High demand for water for both industrial and domestic use leading to
serious water shortage and rationing. This affects most towns and cities
in Zimbabwe.

Negative impacts of population on land resource development

Mining, dam constructions, urbanisation, agriculture and industrialisation are

some of the projects carried out on the land as population grows.

Effects

1. As a result of population growth and the desire to make a living, gold

panning has been on the rise in Zimbabwe. This has led to alteration of
land surfaces resulting in dereliction and loss of aesthetic value of land.
Huge pits, gullies and trenches are now common in rural Zimbabwe.
2. Overcrowding happens when there are too many people trying to access
limited land resource. Cairo and the Nile Delta are densely populated
because of limited habitable land in Egypt.
3. Population growth can exert pressure on tourist centres to the effect of
degrading them. All tourist centres therefore need control of visitors.

Conservation of Resources

 Natural resources (renewable and non-renewable) are crucial in all

aspects of animal, plants and human life but they are under a serious
threat of depletion due to overexploitation by humans.
 This situation results in current and future generations failing to meet
their basic needs (unsustainable development).
 It is therefore crucial that sustainable management of resources considers
a systematic and integrated decision making approach that recognises
 the interdependence of agriculture, industry, domestic and the
environment at local, national and regional levels.
 One example of a project that has adopted integrated resource
development is Communal Area Management Program For Indigenous
Resources (CAMPFIRE) in Zimbabwe.

Wildlife conservation efforts

1. Anti-poaching laws such as the Parks and Wildlife Act (1975) to protect
endangered species such as the African elephant, pangolins and rhinos.
2. Making effective use of traditional leaders and indigenous knowledge
systems such as totems and superstitions to enhance wildlife
conservation.
3. Regional and international coordination in management and project
development on Trans-Frontier Conservation Areas (TFPs) such as the
Kruger-Gonarezhou-Gaza Peace Parks where the shared boundary
resources such as wildlife are conserved in an integrated approach by
South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique to promote tourism and
infrastructural development.
4. Establishment of protected areas such as national parks.
5. Use of geo-science technology to map species habitat, monitor and track
wildlife using GPS trackers like in the case of Cecil- the lion.
6. International binding agreements such as the CITES (Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species) of 1973.

Water resource conservation

1. Proper industrial and domestic waste disposal, landfill engineering and

citing.
2. Good agricultural practices: enforce laws against stream bank cultivation,
zero tillage, and proper use of fertilizers and pesticides.
3. Adequate waste water treatment by responsible city authorities and
industries.
4. Bio-remediation of water resources: the growing or use of plants,
bacteria, fungi or animals to absorb pollutants in water.
5. Enforcement and monitoring the implementation of mandatory and
voluntary environmental management systems such as LEAPs (Local area
Environmental Action Plans).
6. Water harvesting, recycling and wise domestic use.
7. Effective law enforcement such as banning illegal alluvial gold mining.
8. River de-siltation improves reservoir’s carrying capacity hence increased
storage such as the Save de-siltation project.
9. Put in place systems which monitor developmental projects such as the
Zambezi Water Project.
10. Coordinated monitoring by different responsible commissions such as
Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA), Environmental
Management Agency (EMA) and Parks and Wildlife to avoid conflicts and
duplication of duties.
11. Integration on water resource management at international level like
ZRA (Zimbabwe River Authority).

Conservation of forest resources

1. Afforestation: planting of trees on new land.

2. Re-forestation: planting trees on land facing deforestation.
3. Establishment of woodlots for wood fuel and fire guard.
4. Find substitutes for wood in manufacturing industries such as the use of
bamboo, recycled plastics for building material and furniture making and
use of bio-fuels.
5. Establishment of gazetted forests or protected areas and monitor
settlement around these areas.
6. Use of technology to detect and monitor veld fires on time.
7. Educational campaigns: environmental education in the school curricular
and at tertiary level.
8. Enacting environmental laws and enforcement at local and global level.
9. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): all projects on natural resources
to go through a cost-benefit analysis where possible environmental
impacts and mitigation measures are assessed prior to approval.
10. Make use of traditional leaders and indigenous knowledge system.
For example fruit tree species such as fig trees were sacred and not
fetched for firewood and avoidance of debarking trees on both sides to
allow regeneration.

Case study: CAMPFIRE (BINGA)

 Initially, the colonial government dislocated the Tonga people along the
Zambezi valley (North-west of Zimbabwe) whose lives were based on
fishing, hunting game and farming on flood plains.
 The game, fish, grazing lands, agricultural land and forests were put
under protected areas such as the Matusadonha National Park.
 People were impoverished as they lost their source of livelihood and lost
their ties and bonding with nature.
 They were relocated to areas away from the river valley, and there, they
had to adapt to new life.

Binga area

 They had to learn to do modern farming on very dry and hostile Region 5
lands.
 Wild animals occasionally invade and destroy crop fields, injure and kill
people without compensation.
 Traditional leaders were demoted and incapacitated by the colonial
structures.
 Veld fires, poaching, fence cutting, deforestation and river siltation
became rampant as people lost their stewardship on natural resources.
 The Parks and Wildlife Act of 1975 was amended in 1982 to empower
Rural District Councils (communities) in resource management, giving
birth to CAMPFIRE.
 This approach has seen a great improvement in economic value, equity,
ecosystem balance, species diversity, species habitat protection and
 resource conservation as human needs were also incorporated into the
system.
 Communities are now directly involved in decision making and
conservation of wildlife, fish, forests, water and land resources.
 CAMPFIRE authority, Zimbabwe Tourism Authority, Zambezi River
Authority, ZINWA, National Parks and Wildlife and Agritex all work in
harmony through an integrated approach for effective conservation of
natural resources.

Benefits

1. Land, fish, wildlife, water, forest, flora and fauna resources are better
conserved through integrated approach in management as all proposed
projects have to be approved by the majority of stakeholders.
2. Employment was created to bring extra income for locals as tour guides,
game rangers and waiters in hotels.
3. Infrastructure development such as schools and clinics began to happen.
4. Poverty alleviation is happening through food supplements to individual
families in dry seasons as benefit from eco-tourism and trophy hunting.
5. Victims of wildlife attacks (such as crop field destruction, injury or death
of a person) are now compensated from the pool of generated income.
6. Stewardship on natural resources is installed in community and that has
reduced rate of deforestation, poaching and other forms of sabotage.
7. Communal lands act as game corridors between existing national parks
thus helping in protecting the biodiversity in the different national parks.
8. Promotes environmental education in communities.
9. Provides supplementary revenue to support natural resource conservation
projects which is usually underfunded in national budgets.

Limitations

 Donor funds are not consistent: fund withdrawal from the project may
result in project failure.
 Dependency syndrome usually affects externally funded projects like
CAMPFIRE leading to poor management of resources.
 Donor fund has strings attachment such as economic or political influence
such as the Economic Structural Adjustment Program (ESAP), IMF Staff
Monitored Program and others.
 Lack of democracy on delineation of CAMPFIRE community boundaries
and corruption among communal leaders may result in project
inefficiency.
 No legal support on CAMPFIRE projects or tenure rights leaving
communities vulnerable to any legal changes and inequitable income
distribution.
 Unscrupulous politicians tend to abuse benefits from such projects to gain
political millage through nepotism.
 Non CAMPFIRE communities like Hurungwe and Gokwe are not
compensated for crop destruction by wild animals though they are
vulnerable, thereby intensifying human-wildlife conflict.
 International Agreements such as the CITES limit community initiatives
like CAMPFIRE as they bar trade of listed species.
For example restrictions on the culling or selling of elephants
whose increased population has resulted in rampant forest and
crop destruction in national parks and surrounding communal
fields.
Culling of wildlife is also criticised by the international
community as it is regarded cruelty to animals.

NB. An elephant feeds on an average of 80 kg of vegetation per day leading

to severe environmental degradation when the carrying capacity of a habitat
is exceeded like is the case with Hwange National Park.

Problems faced by authorities in implementing resource

conservation in Zimbabwe.

1. Geo-politics and lack of political support from local authorities concerning

shared/ trans-boundary resources.
2. Corruption restricts effective law enforcement efforts where perpetrators
are found bribing law enforcement agents who are also striving for
survival in the face of economic hardships.
3. Ever increasing pressure on available resources from rapid population
growth for example gold panning activities.
4. Poor coordination by resource management authorities such as EMA,
Forestry Commission, Ministry of Mines, ZINWA, and Ministry of Lands.
5. International agreements bind/limit conservation initiatives like CITES
restricting the sale or culling of elephants leading to habitat (forest)
destruction and loss of potential income from ivory sales.
6. Climate change influence such as rainfall variability and unreliability in the
face of limited income generation alternatives.