Complete Production-II ESE Mains 2021 Study Material With Video Lectures PDF

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General Category)
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Next IAS
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Teaching Experience 18 years
You will get
‘‘maa’’
for Preparation
This PDF Contains all study
material and Video links of
ØNC CNC Machines & Automation
ØWelding and Casting
ØMaterial Science
ØMachine Tools
Before studying this PDF
ahead you have to attend
YouTube Lecture
Manufacturing – II Part -1
https://youtu.be/sOrlRobINcs
IAS-2015 Main
Discuss the advantages and limitations of NC
manufacturing process. Also enlist the
advantages of CNC manufacturing over NC
manufacturing process.
[10-Marks]
NC/CNC Machines-Advantages
NC/CNC Machines-Disadvantages
NC Machines CNC Machines
Input method punch tape, punched card is Program is fed directly into the computer
used by small keyboard similar to our traditional
keyboard
Program should be changed in punched card We can modify the program in the
and then fed to the machine computer
Operation parameters cannot be changed Can be changed
It has no memory storage Stores memory in the memory storage of
the computer
Remove the tape after each time of No removal of tape is required
machine cycle
NC machine cost is less Cost is high
Maintenance is less Maintenance is high
Accuracy is less Accuracy is high
High skill operator is required Skilled operator is not required
It has less flexibility Highly flexible
Conventional Machines CNC Machining
Single Operation can be done Simultaneous multiple operations can be
performed
Post operation secondary or tertiary Post operation secondary machining

machining operations is required operations is required
CAD model is not required CAD data required
Very high risk factor High risk factor
Intricate featires within the pattern cant Forming intricate features are limited
be built
Nature of the product is generally solid Nature of product is solid and hollow
pattern pattern
DNC Machines CNC Machines
Part program is fed to the machine through Program is fed directly into the computer by
main computer small keyboard similar to our traditional
keyboard
In order to modify the program single We can modify the program in the computer
computer is used
Large amount of part program is stored Can be changed
Same part program van be run on different Stores memory in the memory storage of the
machine at the same time computer
Feedback system No removal of tape is required
Controls more than 100 CNC machines at a Cost is high

time
Two way communication by Accuracy is high
telecommunication line
IAS 2018 Main
Explain the difference between NC and CNC

machines mentioning the benefits of CNC
machines over NC machines.
[10 – Marks]
What is the difference between
NC and CNC ?
What is the difference between
NC and CNC ?
IAS-2011 main
Explain, at least two, characteristics

each of NC, CNC and DNC.
[10-Marks]
Enlist the difficulties encountered in
conventional NC Machines. Also, discuss the
advantages of Computer Numerical Control
(CNC) over conventional Numerical Control
(NC)
[8 Marks]
18
IAS-2009 main
What is the function of stepper motor?
[2 – marks]
Stepper Motor
IFS 2011
What is indirect feedback ? [2-marks]

Feedback
IAS-2010 Main
Illustrate with the help of neat sketches the

differences between open-loop and closed-loop
control in NC system. Why is feedback not possible
in open-loop control system ?
[22- Marks]
Control Systems
Open Loop Systems
Closed Loop Systems
IES-Conventional
Schematically illustrate closed loop control system
for a numerical control machine, mentioning the
purpose of a feedback control. Write the advantages
of CNC over conventional NC systems.
[10 marks]
Enlist the advantages of DNC over CNC.

Advantages of DNC
IAS-2014 main
Differentiate between open loop, closed

loop and adaptive control systems used
in NC machine tools.
[10 –Marks]
An adaptive or self-optimizing system is one in which the
current performance of the system is measured in terms
of a criterion or objective function and the system
parameters are modified in a manner as to optimize the
system performance.
For example, in drilling, the torque on the drill is
measured and speed and feed or both are adjusted within
programmed limits.
33
IES 2019 main
Explain the distinction between the following using
block diagrams and examples :
(i) Measurement systems and Control systems
(ii) Open-loop systems and Closed-loop systems
[6+6 Marks]
Measurement System
• It consists of three basic elements
• Sensor is used for measuring the input quality and to generate output
signal related to input quantity.
• Signal conditioner is used for converting and modifying it in suitable
form, so that it can be easily read or presented on display.
• Display is used for showing the measured value of given quantity.
i/p
IFS-2015
A DC servomotor is coupled directly to a lead screw which
drives the table of an NC machine tool. A digital encoder
which emits 500 pulses per revolution is mounted on the other
end of the lead screw. If the lead screw pitch is 5 mm and the
motor rotates at 650 rpm, calculate
(i) The linear velocity of the table
(ii) The BLU of the NC system
(iii) The frequency of the pulses transmitted by the encoder
[8 - Marks]
IES 2011 Conventional
The table of a CNC machine is driven by a Lead screw which is
rotated by a DC servomotor. A digital encoder which emits 1000
pulses per second is mounted on the lead screw as a feedback
device. If the lead screw pitch is 6 mm and motor rotates at 500
rpm, find
1. Basic length Units of the system
2. Linear velocity of the table.
3. Frequency of pulses generated by the feedback device.
[5 Marks]
Before studying this PDF ahead
you have to attend Unacademy
App Lecture - Manufacturing – II
Part -1
https://unacademy.com/class/manu
facturing-ii-for-ese-mains-part-
1/I3Y9E55R
IAS-2010 Main
In open-loop NC system the shaft of a stepping motor is
connected directly to the lead screw x-axis of the machine table.
The pitch of the lead screw is 3.0 mm. The number of step angles
on the stepping motor is 200.
Determine how closely the position of the table can be
controlled, assuming that there are no mechanical errors in the
positioning system.
Also, what is the required frequency of the pulse train and the
corresponding rotational speed of the stepping motor in order
to drive the table at a travel rate of 100 mm/min?
[8- Marks]
IAS-2013 Main
An open loop type NC machine has a stepper motor with a step

of 0.9 degree. The lead screw of the machine is of 4 mm pitch.
(i) If the tool has to be moved by 2.87 mm, how many pulses
will have to be fed?
(ii) If the motor is rotating at 15 rpm, what is the pulse

frequency and the feed rate of the machining operation?
[10 –Marks]
IES Conventional
Discuss point – to – point control, and its
applications.
IAS-2017 Main
Describe different types of control systems possible

for CNC operations along with respective
applications using suitable schematic.
[20 Marks]
Control Systems possible in CNC
Machine
g
Point-to-point straight line mode
IFS-2015
What is the function of MCU in NC machine?

Machine Control Unit
Machine Control Unit
IFS 2011
What is the function of Data Processing Unit (DPU) and Control
Loop Unit (CLU) of MCU. [5-marks]
Answer:
Data Processing Unit
• Input device [RS-232 port/ Tape Reader/ Punched Tape Reader]
• Data Reading Circuits and Parity Checking Circuits
• Decoders to distribute data to the axes controllers.
Control Loops Unit
• Interpolator to supply machine-motion commands between
data points
• Position control loop hardware for each axis of motion
IES Conventional
What is meant by Part Programming ? Discuss point – to –
point control, and its applications.
Answer : Part programs for simple components can be carried
out manually. However, if the component has complex features
which require too many repetitive and/or tedious calculations
for preparing its program for cutter path description, then it is
recommended that computer-aided part programming be
resorted to. To be a good CNC programmer, one should have a
fair knowledge about the machine tools, cutting tools and
fixtures to be used and the manufacturing process. He also
should have a good understanding of geometry, algebra and
trigonometry. In fact, machine shop experience is the pre-
requisite for a good programmer as only careful process
planning can lead to efficient and practical programs.
Programming Formats
• Word Address Format or variable block format

This type of format uses alphabets called address,
identifying the function of numerical data
followed. This format is used by most of the NC
machines.
N20 G00 X1.200 Y0.100 F325 S1000 T03 M09 <EOB>
The MCU uses this alphabet for addressing a

memory location in it.
Programming Formats
• TAB Sequential Format or interchangeable format

Here the alphabets are replaced by a Tab code, which is
inserted between two words. The MCU reads the first Tab
and stores the data in the first location then the second
word is recognized by reading the record Tab. If the word
remains same in the succeeding block, the word need not
be repeated but TAB is required to maintain the sequence of
words.
>20 >00 >1.200 >0.100 >325 >1000 >03 >09
Programming Formats
• Fixed Block Format
In fixed block format no letter address of Tab code are used

and none of words can be omitted. The main advantage of this
format is that the whole instruction block can be read at the
same instant, instead of reading character by character. All
instructions must be given in every block, including those
instructions which remain unchanged from the preceding
blocks. This format can only be used for positioning work only.
20 00 1.200 0.100 325 1000 03 09 <EOB>

Example-1
Part program for Drilling three holes without using
Canned Cycle.
%
01001 <EOB> (Program number)
N010 G92 X0 Y0 Z50 <EOB>(Absolute presetting at A)
N020 G90 <EOB> (Absolute programming)
N030 G71 <EOB> (Dimension in metric unit)
N040 T01 M06 <EOB> (Tool change, M06-Tool Change)
N050 S500 M03 M07 M10 <EOB> (Speed 500 rpm,
M03 – Spindle on, CW
M04 – Spindle on, CCW
M05 – Spindle stop)
M07 – Coolant 1 on M10- Clamp on
N060 G49 <EOB> (Cancel tool-height compensation)
N070 G43 H25.00<EOB> (Positive compensation (G43)
real position = specified position + value saved in H´´
N075 G00 X25.00 Y35.0 Z2.0 <EOB>(Rapid travel X25.0,
Y35.0, Z27.0 real position = 2 + 25)
N080 G01 Z-18.0 F125 <EOB> (X and Y not changing no
need so specify, Z = -15 (thickness of plate) - 3
(Breakthrough distance or cone height) G01-
linear interpolation cutting from X25.00 Y35.0
Z2.0 to X25.00 Y35.0 Z-18.0)
N090 G00 Z2.0<EOB>(Rapid return to X25.00 Y35.0 Z2.0)
N100 X55.0 Y50.0<EOB>(Rapid travel to X55.00 Y50.0Z2.0)
N110 G01 Z-18.0 F125 <EOB> (X and Y not changing no
(Breakthrough distance or cone height) G01-
linear interpolation cutting from X55.00 Y50.0
Z2.0 to X55.00 Y50.0 Z-18.0)
N130 X75.0 Y70.0<EOB>(Rapid travel to X75.00Y70.0Z2.0)
N140 G01 Z-18.0 F125 <EOB>(X and Y not changing no
(Breakthrough distance or cone height) G01- linear
interpolation cutting from X75.00 Y70.0 Z2.0 to X75.00
Y70.0 Z-18.0)
N160 M05 M09 <EOB>(M05 – spindle off, M09 – Coolant off)
N170 X0 Y0 Z50<EOB> (Rapid travel to X75.00 Y00.0 Z2.0)
N180 M11 <EOB> (Unclamp)
N190 M30 <EOB> (Program Stop)
Example-2
Part program for Drilling three holes using Canned Cycle.
Format of Canned cycle
N___G81 X___Y___Z___R___F___
R is Position of the clearance plane (same as the

z- axis position of the clearance plane)
F is the feed rate.
G80 is cancel Canned cycle

%
01001<EOB> (Program number)
N010 G92 X0 Y0 Z50<EOB> (Absolute presetting at A)
N020 G90 <EOB> (Absolute programming)
N030 G71 <EOB> (Dimension in metric unit)
N040 T01M06 <EOB> (Tool change, M06-Tool Change)
N050 S500 M03 M07 M10 <EOB> (Speed 500 rpm,
M03 – Spindle on, CW
M04 – Spindle on, CCW
M05 – Spindle stop)
M07 – Coolant 1 on M10- Clamp on
N060 G49 <EOB> (Cancel tool-height compensation)
N070 G43 H25.00 <EOB> (Positive compensation (G43)
real position = specified position + value saved in H´´
N075 G00 X25.00 Y35.0 Z2.0 <EOB> (Rapid travel X25.0,
Y35.0, Z27.0 real position = 2 + 25)
N080 G81 Z-18.0 R2.0 F125<EOB>(X and Y not changing
no need so specify, Z = -15 (thickness of plate) - 3
(Breakthrough distance or cone height) G81- drill hole
on X25.00 Y35.0 Z2.0 to X25.00 Y35.0 Z-18.0 and come
back)
N090 X55.0 Y50.0<EOB>(Rapid travel to X55.00 Y50.0
Z2.0 and drill second hole and come back)
N100 X75.0 Y70.0 <EOB> (Rapid travel to X75.00 Y70.0
Z2.0) and drill third hole and come back)
N010 G80 <EOB> Canned Cycle cancel
N120 M05 M09 <EOB>(M05 – spindle off, M09 – Coolant off)
N130 G00 X0 Y0 Z50 <EOB> (Rapid travel to X75.00 Y00.0

Z2.0)
N140 M11 <EOB> (Unclamp)
N150 M30 <EOB> (Program Stop)

IFS-2013 - Conventional
Two holes are to be drilled with a 10 mm diameter drill on a job as

shown below.
The drill rotates at 500 rpm and feed rate is 200 mm/min. How do
you code the information in----
(i) Fixed block format
(ii) TAB sequential format
(iii) Word address format

Answer:
(i) Fixed Block Format
10 00 0.0 0.0 2.0 200 500 01 06 <EOB>
20 00 15.0 20.0 2.0 200 500 01 03 <EOB>
30 01 15.0 20.0 -13.0 200 500 01 07 <EOB>
40 00 15.0 20.0 2.0 200 500 01 07 <EOB>
50 00 75.0 20.0 2.0 200 500 01 07 <EOB>
60 01 75.0 20.0 -13.0 200 500 01 07 <EOB>
70 00 75.0 20.0 2.0 200 500 01 05 <EOB>
80 00 0.0 0.0 2.0 200 0 01 09 <EOB>
Answer:
(ii) TAB sequential format
10 > 00 > 0.0 > 0.0 > 2.0 > 200 > 500 > 01 > 06
20 > > 15.0 > 20.0 > > > > > 03
30 > 01 > > >-13.0 > > > > 07
40 > 00 > > > 2.0 > > > >
50 > > 75.0 > > > > > >
60 > 01 > > >-13.0 > > > >
70 > 00 > > 0.0 > 2.0 > > > > 05
80 > > 0.0 > > > >0.0 > > 09
Answer:
(iii) Word address format
N010 G00 X0.0 Y0.0 Z2.0 F200 S500 T01 M06 <EOB>
N020 X15.0 Y20.0 M03 <EOB>
N030 G01 X15.0 Y20.0 Z-13.0 M07 <EOB>
N040 G00 Z2.0 <EOB>
N050 G00 X75.0 Y20.0 <EOB>
N060 G01 Z-13.0 <EOB>
N070 G00 Z2.0 M05 <EOB>
N080 X0.0 Y0.0 M09 <EOB>
IAS-2011 Main
In an NC drilling operation, the tool tip is at location (-100, 0, 100).
The datum (0, 0, 0) is left hand lower corner on top surface of the
workpiece, which is rectangular (300 mm x 300 mm x 1.5 mm thick). A
thru' hole of 10 mm diameter is to be drilled in the centre of the
workpiece. Using only rapid positioning and linear interpolation
functions, write the program blocks, in absolute mode.
Assume permitted cutting speed = 32 m/min and feed rate = 150

mm/min.
[10-Marks]
V = p DN
32 = p ´ 0.010 ´ N
N = 1019 rpm
%
O1001
N010 G92 X-100.0 Y0.0 Z100.0 <EOB>
N020 G90 G71 <EOB>
N040 T01 M06 <EOB>
N050 S1019 M03 M07 M10 <EOB>
N060 G49 <EOB>
N070 G43 H25.0 <EOB>
N080 G00 X150.0 Y150.0 Z2.0 <EOB>
N090 G01 Z-2.5 F150 <EOB>
N100 Goo Z2.0 <EOB>
N110 Mo5 Mo9 <EOB>
N120 X-100.0 Y0.0 Z100.0 <EOB>
N130 G49M11 <EOB>
N140 M30 <EOB>
IFS 2011
How is Feed Rate Number (FRN) expressed?
Answer: [2-marks]
Feed rate (mm/min)
Feed rate number =
Distance of travel
Ex.For a feed rate of 50 mm/min and a distance travel 6.0 mm
50 mm/min
Feed rate number = = 8.3min -1
6 mm
If the controlsystem accepts inverse time feed rate coding and a
four-digit feed rate field, then 50 mm/min will be expressed by F1 0083
IAS-2012 Main
In the above figure define the lines L1, L2, L3 and L4 in the APT
language.
[10 Marks]
IES-2008
Name the four types of statements in a complete

APT part program. Prepare part program for
geometry description of the contour shown in the
figure below:
[15-Marks]
The complete APT part program
consists of the following four
types of statements
Y
30 40
20
L2 C1
L3 20
R
135°
L4
80 L1
C2
L5
20
R P1
P2 20
X
IES-2007
Prepare part using APT language for milling the

contour shown in Fig. in a single pass.
[20-Marks]
110 D
C
R30
B
Q
110
120
E
+
+
R40
40
A F
100 + 40 P
+
Material : M S.
8 mm
IES-2006
Prepare part program to machine the contour shown in
the figure using APT on CNC milling machine.
R30
•
[15-Marks]
R20
•
100 mm
80
60 50
200 mm
Material: MS Thickness: 8.0 mm

Home Work
Write a complete part program in APT for
machining the product which is given in the
diagram. Thickness of the workpiece is 6 mm. All
dimensions are in mm.
[15 Marks]
PARTNO CONTOUR
MACHIN/MILL, 1
CLPRNT
UNITS/MM
P0 = POINT/-25.0,-25.0, 25.0
P1 = POINT/0.0, 0.0, 6.0
P2 = POINT/117.0, 32.0, 6.0
P3 = POINT/117.0, -32.0, 6.0
C1=CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 10.0
L1 = LINE/RIGHT, TANTO, C1, RIGHT, TANTO, C3
L2 = LINE/LEFT, TANTO, C1, LEFT, TANTO, C2
C4=CIRCLE/XLARGE, OUT, C2, OUT, C3, RADIUS, 62
PL1=PLANE/P1, P2, P3
REMARK POSTPROCESSOR STATEMENT FOLLOW
CUTTER/50.0
TOLER/0.01
INTOL/0.05
OUTTOL/0.05
FEDRAT/200
SPINDL/1000, CLW
COOLNT/ON
REMARK MOTION STATEMENT FOLLOW
FROM/P0
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TANTO, C1
GORGT/L1, TANTO, C3
GOFWD/C3, PAST, C4
GOFWD/C4, TANTO, C2
GOFWD/C2, PAST, L2
GOFWD/L2, TANTO, C1
GOFWD/C1, PAST, L1
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI
IES 2011 Conventional
State the method of defining line segment of
cutter motion using APT program format.
[5 Marks]
IFS 2019 main
Define the term automation. Differentiate between

the types of automation with examples.
[ 10 Marks]
Automation
Automation
Fixed Automation or Hard
automation
Fixed Automation or Hard
automation
Flexible Automation
Programmable Automation
IES -2018 Main
What are the important ingredients (elements) of
an FMS ? In what kind of manufacturing scenario,
is it best to be employed ? For the same case, or in
general, enlist its four major advantages.
[12 Marks]
What is an FMS?
What is an FMS?
FMS Components
FMS Goals
Advantages of FMS
Advantages of FMS
Disadvantages of FMS
Disadvantages of FMS
IFS 2018
What do you understand by Flexible Manufacturing
System (FMS) ?
[ 3 Marks]
Which conditions are suitable for its application?
[7 Marks]
IES 2019 main
Describe four tests of flexibility that an automated

manufacturing system should satisfy to qualify as
being flexible. Also list the application areas where
FMS technology is successfully employed.
[ 12 Marks]
IES-2017 Conventional
Illustrate and describe through a linking flow
diagram, the elements of a CIM system for
integrating CAD/CAM including latest
communication technology to all the operational
functions and information processing in
manufacturing.
[10 marks]
IAS-2016 Main
State the basic principles of lean production.
Compare lean production with mass production.
[10 marks]
Lean Production
Lean Production
Ten steps to lean production
IAS-2017 Main
Describe the philosophy of lean management including
waste and value stream with regard to manufacturing.
[10 Marks]
IES-2010 Conv.
Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)

• These are battery-powered, driverless vehicles for automatic
transport of parts and tooling on the shop floor.
• These moves on fixed paths laid underneath the factory floor,
and transport materials from the workstation to storage
locations, load stations, etc.
• Though the path of travel is laid underneath the factory floor, it
is made of segments which allow the AGV to have a flexible path.
These are one of the first choices for automating the material
movement.
• A class of AGVs called rail-guided vehicles (RGVs) have fixed
rails on which they move. This is far more restricted in terms of
the path the RGV can take and service only a few workstations.
IAS-2011
• What is the difference between FMS and FMC?
FMC-Flexible machining cell
• An arrangement with more than one machining centre with
integrated material handling arrangement is called as FMC.
118
By S K Mondal
1
2
You will get
‘‘maa’’
for Preparation
you have to attend YouTube
Lecture Production – II
Part -2
https://youtu.be/FW6OltGeJ7U
During a steady gas metal arc welding with direct current electrode
positive polarity, the welding current, voltage and weld speed are
150 A, 30 V and 6 m/min, respectively. A metallic wire electrode of
diameter 1.2 mm is being fed at a constant rate of 12 m/min. The
density, specific heat and melting temperature of the wire
electrode are 7000 kg/m3, 500 J/kgoC and 1530oC, respectively.
Assume the ambient temperature to be 30oC and neglect the latent
heat of melting. Further, consider that two-third of the total
electrical power is available for melting of the wire electrode. What
is the melting efficiency of the wire electrode? 6
The voltage - length characteristics of a direct current arc is
given by V = (22 + 40l) Volts,
where l is the length of the arc in cm. The power source

characteristic is approximated by a straight line with an open
circuit voltage = 80 V and short circuit current = 1000 Amp.
Determine the optimum arc length and corresponding
power.
[20 Marks]
7
Two pipes of inner diameter 100 mm and outer diameter
110 mm each joined by flash butt welding using 30 V power
supply. At the interface, 1 mm of material melts from each
pipe which has a resistance of 42.4 Ω. If the unit melt
energy is 64.4 MJm-3, then calculate the time required for
welding?
8
The volume of a weld nugget produced by spot welding process is 80
mm3. Welding is performed using 10000 A current. Energy required
for melting of unit volume of metal is 10 J/mm3. Assume that heat
lost to the surrounding base metal is 500 J and contact resistance is
0.0002 ohms.
Calculate :
(i) Time (in second) for which the welding current is supplied, and
(ii) Thermal efficiency of the spot welding process if other heat

losses are negligible.
9
Two plates with symmetrical V joint penetration of V angle
𝟔𝟎° are to be arc welded in a single pass. The power P (kW) arc
length L (mm) characteristic is given by P = 4 + 0.8 L – o.1 L2 .
Assuming that the top surface of the weld is flat and flush with
the plate top surface, & the energy losses are 20%, the density of
filler material is 8 gm/cc and the energy required to melt 1 gm is
1400 Joules. The plate dimensions are 1000 mm length and 5 mm
thickness. What is the maximum welding speed?
10
Unacademy App Lecture -
Production – II Part -2
https://unacademy.com/class/manufactu
ring-ii-for-ese-mains-part-2/BE02IDOG
The cross-sectional area of weld bead is shown in figure.
The profile of the bead and the fusion zone are taken
circular for convenience. Bead width is 10 mm and radii of
curvature of circular profiles is given in the figure below.
Calculate :
i. Bead Height
ii. Dilution (%)
12
Determine the maximum shear stress the lap joint shown in
the figure can withstand. The joint is made between two
aluminium sheets of 1.2 mm thickness with an adhesive
thickness of 0.25 mm. The overlapped length is 12 mm.
Following data is given :
Young’s Modulus of aluminium = 68 GPa
Shear Modulus of adhesive = 1.9 GPa

Contd…
Ultimate Shear stress of the adhesive = 0.6 MPa
13
14
Two steel sheets of 1.1 mm thickness are to be spot welded.
Following data is given for the welding :
Current = 10000 Ampere
Maximum Allowable Indentation = 10 % of sheet thickness
Specific Melting Energy = 1800 J/gram
Effective resistance = 200 𝜇Ω
Density of weld nugget = 8 g/cc
Calculate the melting efficiency of the weld.
(NOTE: Radius of Nugget = 3√𝑡 mm , where t is the sheet thickness. )

15
V-I Characteristics of a power source is given by the relationship,
𝐼!" = 600 50 − 𝑉
i. If the arc characteristics is given by equation, Ia = 25 ( V – 20) ,
then determine the power of stable arc.
ii. If arc length l (in mm) and arc voltage Va (in Volt) are related
by , Va = 5 ( l + 6 ) Volt, then determine the optimum arc
length corresponding to maximum power. Also, calculate the
maximum power.
16
(i) The voltage-length characteristics of a dc arc is given by :
V = (20 + 4l) volts,
Where l = length of the arc in mm. During a welding operation, it is

expected that the arc length will vary between 4 mm and 6 mm. It is
desired that the welding current be limited to the range 450-550
amp. Assuming a linear power source characteristic, determine the
open circuit voltage and the short circuit current of the power
source.
Contd…
17
(ii) Consider the voltage – length arc characteristics described
in the part (i). Let the power source characteristic be given by
! !
𝑉 𝐼
+2 =1
Vo Is
Where Vo is the open circuit voltage and Is is the short circuit
current. If Vo and Is remain the same as obtained in part (i),
determine the range of welding current for the arc length
variation mentioned in part (i).
18
A round casting is 20 mm in diameter and 50 mm in
length. Another casting of the same metal is elliptical in
cross section, with a major to minor axis ratio of 2, and
has the same length and cross-sectional area as the
round casting. Both pieces are cast under the same
conditions. What is the difference in the solidification
times of the two castings?
[10 – Marks]
19
Compare the solidification time of two optimum
side – risers of the same volume when one has a
cylindrical shape and other is square
parallelopiped.
[30 Marks]
20
Calculate the time
required to fill up the
mould shown in the
figure. Assume that the
liquid metal level at X-X is
maintained constant and
time to fill the runner is
negligible.
21
Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and
diameter equal) necessary to feed a steel slab casting of
dimensions 30 x 30 x 6 cm3 with a side riser, casting poured
horizontally into the mould. [Use Modulus Method]
[10 - Marks]
22
Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser (height and
diameter equal) necessary to feed a steel slab casting of
dimensions 25 x 25 x 5 cm3 with a side riser, casting
poured horizontally into the mould. [Use Caine’s Method]
[ For steel a = 0.10, b = 0.03 and c = 1.00]
23
The dimensions of a cylindrical side riser (height = diameter) for
a 25 cm x 15 cm x 5 cm steel casting are to be determined. For the
tabulated shape factor values given below, calculate the
diameter of the riser.
Shape factor 2 4 6 8 10 12
𝑹𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒓 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 1.0 0.70 0.55 0.50 0.40 0.35
𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
24
Determine the dimensions of an optimum cylindrical
riser attached to the side of a steel plate casting having
dimensions 25 cm × 12.5 cm × 5 cm. The volume
shrinkage of steel during solidification is 3% and the
volume of riser is 3 times the that of dictated by the
shrinkage consideration alone.
[10 marks]
25
26
By S K Mondal
1
2
You will get
‘‘maa’’
for Preparation
YouTube Lecture
Manufacturing – II Part – 3
https://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=4m_IktmNUqs
Draw a neat and clean iron – carbon
equilibrium diagram and label its various
features.
[10 Marks]
Draw a neat and clean iron – carbon phase
diagram indicating the existence of
different phases.
Draw a neatly labelled iron – carbon phase
diagram indicating salient regions, phases
and reactions.
Using Iron-Carbon phase diagram, illustrate
the eutectoid portion and dividing point
between steels and cast iron.
[10 Marks]
Fig Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram
Fig Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram
Part -3
3/IUBR4S3L
Ref. Callister
13
Orthorhombic Fe3C. Iron atoms are blue.
The structural form of pure iron at room temperature is
called ferrite or ! -iron.
Ferrite is soft and ductile.
Since ferrite has a body-centred cubic structure, the
inter-atomic spaces are small and pronouncedly oblate,
and cannot readily accommodate even a small carbon
atom. Therefore, solubility of carbon in ferrite is very
low, of the order of 0.006% at room temperature.
The maximum carbon content in ferrite is 0.05% at 723 °C.
Contd…
In addition to carbon, a certain amount of silicon,
manganese and phosphorous may be found in ferrite.
The face-centred modification of iron is called austenite
or γ -iron. It is the stable form of pure iron at
temperatures between 910°C and 1400°C. At its stable
temperature austenite is soft and ductile and
consequently, is well suited for manufacturing
processes.
The face-centred cubic structure of iron has larger inter-
atomic spacing than in ferrite. Even so, in FCC structure
the interstices are barely large enough to accommodate
carbon atoms, and lattice strains are produced. As a
result, not all the interstitial sites can be filled at any
one time.
Contd…
The maximum solubility is only 2.11% of carbon at 1147°C.
Above 1400°C, austenite is no longer the most stable form
of iron, and the crystal structure changes back to a body-
centred cubic phase called delta iron. This is the same
phase as the ! -iron except for its temperature range.
The solubility of carbon in " -ferrite is small, but it is
appreciably larger than In ! -ferrite, because of higher
temperature. The maximum solubility of carbon in iron
is 0.1% at 1490°C.
Contd…
In iron-carbon alloys, carbon in excess of the solubility limit
must form a second phase, which is called iron carbide or
cementite.
Iron carbide has the chemical composition of Fe3C. This does
not mean that iron carbide forms molecules of Fe3C but
simply that the crystal lattice contains iron and carbon
atoms in a three -to- one ratio.
The compound Fe3C has an orthorhombic unit cell with
twelve iron atoms and four carbon atoms per cell, and thus
has a carbon content of 6.67%.
As compared to austenite and ferrite, cementite being an
inter-metallic compound, is very hard and brittle.
The presence of iron carbide with ferrite in steel greatly
increases the strength of steel.
Contd…
In the reaction, the simultaneous formation of ferrite and
cementite from austenite results at the temperature of
723°C and composition of 0.80% carbon.
There are nearly 12% of iron carbide and slightly more than
88% of ferrite in the resulting mixture.
Since the ferrite and cementite are formed simultaneously,
they are intimately mixed. Characteristically, the mixture
is lamellar, i.e., it is composed of alternate layers of ferrite
and cementite.
This micro-structure is called pearlite which is very
important in iron and steel technology, because it can be
formed in almost all steels by means of suitable heat
treatments.
Contd…
Pearlite microstructure
consisting of alternating
layers of !-ferrite (the light
phase) and Fe3C (thin layers most
of which appear dark).
20
The alloy containing 0.80% of carbon is called the
eutectoid steel.
Upon cooling the eutectoid steel below 723°C, all of the

austenite is transformed into pearlite.
Alloys with less than 0.80% C are called hypo-eutectoid

steels and those with higher composition are called
hyper-eutectoid steels.
Contd…
Fe-Fe3C phase diagram is characterized by five individual phases,:
α–ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solid solution, γ-austenite (FCC) Fe-C solid
solution, δ-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solid solution, Fe3C (iron carbide) or
cementite - an inter-metallic compound and liquid Fe-C solution
and four invariant reactions:
peritectic reaction at 1495 oC and 0.16%C, δ-ferrite + L↔ γ-iron
(austenite)
monotectic reaction 1495 oC and 0.51%C, L ↔ L + γ-iron (austenite)
eutectic reaction at 1147 oC and 4.3 %C, L ↔ γ-iron + Fe3C
(cementite) [ledeburite]
eutectoid reaction at 723 oC and 0.8%C, γ-iron ↔ α– ferrite + Fe3C
(cementite) [pearlite]
Contd…
For a 99.65 wt% Fe – 0.35 wt% C alloy at a temperature just below
the eutectoid, determine the following:
i. The fractions of total ferrite and cementite phases
ii. The fractions of the proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite
iii. The fraction of eutectoid ferrite
[ 10 Marks]
23
Lead and tin have complete liquid solubility and limited
solid solubility. Describe the binary phase diagram
involving lead and tin. Explain how this phase diagram
helps in identifying composition for electrical solder
and plumbing solder.
[ 10 marks ]
24
The lead–tin
phase diagram.
25
For a 40 wt% Sn–60 wt% Pb alloy at 150°C, the composition of the
!-phase is 11 wt % Sn and 89 wt % Pb. The composition of β –
phase at 150 °C is 98 wt % Sn and 2 wt % Pb. At 150°C take the
densities of Pb and Sn to be 11.23 g/cm3 and 7.24 g/cm3,
respectively. Calculate the relative amount of each phase
present in terms of
i. mass fraction and
ii. volume fraction.

26
Determine the composition, in atom percent, of an alloy
that consists of 97 wt% aluminum and 3 wt% copper.
Take atomic weight of aluminium as 27 g/mole and
atomic weight of copper as 63.55 g/mole.
[ 10 marks ]
27
YouTube Lecture
?v=tVxPBDVKtBs
Resolved Shear Stress
Geometrical relationships
between the tensile axis, slip
plane, and slip direction used
in calculating the resolved
shear stress for a single
crystal.
Generally, Ф+λ≠90°
Let Ф represent the angle between the normal to the slip plane and
the applied stress direction, and λ the angle between the slip and
stress directions, as shown in figure; the resolved shear stress τR
where σ is the applied stress.

A single crystal of BCC iron oriented such that a tensile
stress is applied along a [0 1 0] direction.
(a) Calculate the resolved shear stress along a (110) plane
and in a [ 𝟏
! 1 1 ] direction when a tensile stress of 50 MPa is
applied.
(b) If slip occurs on a (110) plane and in a [ 𝟏
! 1 1 ] direction,
and the critical resolved shear stress is 30 MPa, calculate
the magnitude of the applied tensile stress necessary to
initiate yielding. 31
32
Part -4
4/E8YIAR0G
Silver is face-centered cubic with lattice constant 4.086 Å.
Calculate the planar density of the atoms
i. On the (1 0 0) plane,
ii. On the (1 1 1) plane and
iii. The linear density of atoms along the [1 1 0] direction.
[ 10 Marks ]
34
35
(1 1 1) plane for FCC crystal structure 36
37
Following data is given for Rhodium which is having
cubic structure:
Atomic radius = 0.1345 nm
Density = 12.41 g/cm3
Atomic weight = 102.9 g/mol
Determine the following:
i. What is the crystal structure of Rhodium?
ii. What is the lattice parameter for Rhodium?
38
Calculate the packing efficiency and density of silicon which
has diamond cubic structure. Use the following properties for
silicon:
Atomic number = 14
Atomic mass unit = 1.66 × 10-27 kg
Lattice parameter = 5.431 × 10-10 m
𝟑
Assume radius of Si atom in diamond cubic structure to be
𝟖
times the lattice parameter.

39
Relationship between lattice
parameter and atomic radius
40
41
An alkali halide of molecular weight 75 having
sodium chloride (NaCl) structure has an
interatomic distance of 0.35 nm. Determine its
density if it contains
i. 0.1% Schottky defect
ii. 0.1 % Frenkel defect

42
A unit cell for the rock salt, or
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) crystal structure 43
YouTube Lecture
?v=TGuvL4phAOQ
For a brass alloy the following engineering stresses produce the
corresponding plastic engineering strains, prior to necking :
Engineering Stress Engineering

( in MPa) Strain
200 0.18
260 0.29
Calculate the engineering stress necessary to produce an
engineering strain of 0.25, on the basis of above information.
45
Differentiate between annealing and tempering.
Mark the processes on a TTT diagram and bring out
the transformation that takes place during the
process.
[ 10 Marks ]
What is TTT diagram for steel? How is it used in
designing heat treatment cycles for steels?
[ 15 Marks ]
What is heat treatment? Differentiate between
annealing and normalizing.
[ 20 Marks ]
Draw the TTT curves and show the important heat
treatment operations on it.
[ 10 Marks ]
Describe the heat treatment processes for steels
and for each the intended final microstructure:
i. Full Annealing
ii. Normalising
iii. Tempering
iv. Quenching
[ 10 Marks ]
CCT diagram for Fe-C system
CCT diagram for Fe-C system
• Critical Rate of Cooling:
• Spheroidite:
Annealing processes
Contd….
Full annealing
Process annealing
Isothermal annealing
Stress relief annealing
Stress relief annealing
Normalizing
Normalizing
Spheroidizing
Hardenability
Hardenability
Jominy Test
Or end quench hardenability test
Jominy Test
Or end quench hardenability test
Tempering
Distinguish between Austempering and
Martempering of steel.
Martempering
Describe austempering of steel with the
help of TTT diagram.
[ 10 Marks ]
Austempering
What are superalloys? Name three
superalloys. Give composition of Nimonic
alloys.
[ 5 Marks ]
What are superalloys? Discuss in brief the
compositions, properties and applications
of these alloys.
[ 10 Marks ]
The superalloys have superlative combinations of properties.
Superalloys are important in high-temperature applications;

hence, they are also known as heat-resistant or high-
temperature alloys.
Superalloys generally have good resistance to corrosion,

mechanical and thermal fatigue, mechanical and thermal
shock, creep, and erosion, at elevated temperatures.
Major applications of superalloys are in jet engines and gas

turbines. 81
Other applications are in reciprocating engines, rocket engines, tools
and dies for hot working of metals, and the nuclear, chemical, and
petrochemical industries.
Generally, superalloys are identified by trade names or by special

numbering systems, and they are available in a variety of shapes.
Most superalloys have a maximum service temperature of about

1000°C in structural applications. The temperatures can be as high as
1200°C for non-loadbearing components.
82
Superalloys are classified according to the predominant
metal(s) in the alloy. Superalloys are referred to as nickel-
based, iron-based or cobalt-based:
83
Nickel-based superalloys are the most common of the
superalloys and are available in a wide variety of
compositions. The proportion of nickel is from 38 to 76%.
These superalloys also contain up to 27% Cr and 20% Co.
Common alloys in this group are the Hastelloy Inconel,
Nimonic, René, Udimet, Astroloy and Waspaloy series.
Nimonic alloy is an alloy of nickel and chromium. Its

composition is Ni 69 % approx. , Cr 18-21 %, Fe less than 3%
and apart from this cobalt, Ti, Al are also pesent. 84
Iron-based superalloys generally contain from 32 to 67%
Fe, from 15 to 22% Cr, and from 9 to 38% Ni. Common
alloys in this group are the Incoloy series.
Cobalt-based superalloys generally contain from 35 to

65% Co, from 19 to 30% Cr, and up to 35% Ni. These
superalloys are not as strong as nickel-based superalloys,
but they retain their strength at higher temperatures.
85
86
Nanomaterials
87
Nanomaterials are engineered particles made to have
extremely small dimensions to take advantage of unique
physical and chemical properties that exist at the nanoscale.
As a result of their unique size, the physical and chemical

properties of nanomaterials differ from their larger-scale
particles and may act unpredictably and in ways that are
currently not understood.
88
Nanomaterials are one of the main products of
nanotechnologies – as nano-scale particles, tubes, rods,
or fibers. Nanomaterials are normally defined as being
smaller than 100 nanometer in at least one dimension.
As nanotechnology develops, nanomaterials are finding

uses in healthcare, electronics, cosmetics, textiles,
information technology and environmental protection.
89
90
Physical properties:
• Size, shape, specific surface area, and ratio of width

and height
• Whether they stick together
• How smooth or bumpy their surface is
• Structure, including crystal structure and any crystal

defects
• How well they dissolve 91

Chemical properties:
• Molecular structure
• Composition, including purity, and known

impurities or additives
• Whether it is held in a solid, liquid or gas
• Surface chemistry
• Attraction to water molecules or oils and fats

92
93
94
95
96
97
Part -5
5/8ONCYRHQ
99
Top-down approach involves the breaking down of the bulk
material into nanosized structures or particles.
› Top-down synthesis techniques are extension of those

that have been used for producing micron sized particles.
› Top-down approaches are inherently simpler and depend

either on removal or division of bulk material or on
miniaturization of bulk fabrication processes to produce
the desired structure with appropriate properties. Cont..100
› The biggest problem with the top-down approach is
the imperfection of surface structure.
› For example, nanowires made by lithography are not

smooth and may contain a lot of impurities and
structural defects on its surface.
101
Bottom- up approach produces less waste and hence it is
more economical.
Ø Bottom-up approach refers to the build-up of a
material from the bottom: atom-by-atom, molecule-
by-molecule, or cluster-by cluster.
Ø Many of these techniques are still under development
or are just beginning to be used for commercial
production of nano powders.
102
Advantages:
• Small in all dimensions
• Surfaces on all sites are accessible to electrolytes
• No bulk solid-state diffusion
• Can be integrated into multiple systems
• Can be used in stable inks for printing
Limitations:
• Agglomerations
• Do not densify and form only low density non –
uniform structures
• Numerous points of contact lead to high
resistance
• Poor chemical stability 103
Advantages:
Mechanical reliability
Possibility to integrate with
wearable devices
Porous flexible free standing films.
Limitations:
Low packaging density; cannot
exhibit high volumetric
performance
Low yield and high cost of synthesis
Diffusion pathways can be
relatively long 104
Advantages:
Open 2D channels for ion
transport; all surface is accessible
enabling fast charge storage
Compatible with flexible devices
Small nanoflakes can be used in
inks for printing
Limitations:
Re-stacking
Low out-of-plane electronic and
ionic conductivity
High cost of synthesis 105
Advantages:
Can be used to create thick
electrodes with large areal and
volumetric storage properties
Limitations:
Design
Stability
Manufacturing
106
Composite
10
7
A composite, in the present context, is a multiphase
material that is artificially made, as opposed to one that
occurs or forms naturally.
In addition, the constituent phases must be chemically

dissimilar and separated by a distinct interface.
Most composites have been created to improve

combinations of mechanical characteristics such as
stiffness, toughness, and ambient and high temperature
strength. 108
Many composite materials are composed of just two
phases; one is termed the matrix, which is
continuous and surrounds the other phase, often
called the dispersed phase.
The properties of composites are a function of the

properties of the constituent phases, their relative
amounts, and the geometry of the dispersed phase.
109
110
Dispersed phase geometry in this context means the
shape of the particles and the particle size, distribution,
and orientation.
Structural composites are combinations of composites

and homogeneous materials.
111
Classification of Composites
112
113
114
Large-particle and dispersion-strengthened composites
are the two sub classifications of particle-reinforced
composites. The distinction between these is based
upon reinforcement or strengthening mechanism.
The term “large” is used to indicate that particle–matrix
interactions cannot be treated on the atomic or
molecular level; rather, continuum mechanics is used.
For most of these composites, the particulate phase is
harder and stiffer than the matrix. 115
Reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix
phase in the vicinity of each particle. The matrix transfers some of
the applied stress to the particles, which bears a fraction of the
load.
The mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for
precipitation hardening. Whereas the matrix bears the major
portion of an applied load, the small dispersed particles hinder or
impede the motion of dislocations. Thus, plastic deformation is
restricted such that yield and tensile strengths, as well as
hardness, improve. 116
Particles can have quite a variety of geometries, but they
should be of approximately the same dimension in all
directions (equi-axed).
For effective reinforcement, the particles should be small and

evenly distributed throughout the matrix.
The volume fraction of the two phases influences the

behaviour; mechanical properties are enhanced with
increasing particulate content. 117
Metals and metal alloys may be strengthened and hardened
by the uniform dispersion of several volume percent of fine
particles of a very hard and inert material. The dispersed
phase may be metallic or non-metallic; oxide materials are
often used.
The strengthening mechanism involves interactions between

the particles and dislocations within the matrix, as with
precipitation hardening. 118
Design goals of fibre-reinforced composites often include
high strength and/or stiffness on a weight basis.
Fibre-reinforced composites with exceptionally high specific

strengths and module have been produced that utilize low-
density fibre and matrix materials.
119
120
On the basis of diameter and character, fibres are
grouped into three different classifications:
› Whiskers,
› Fibres and
› Wires
121
Whisker: Whiskers are very thin single crystals that have
extremely large length-to-diameter ratios.
As a consequence of their small size, they have a high degree
of crystalline perfection and are virtually flaw free, which
accounts for their exceptionally high strengths; they are
among the strongest known materials.
In spite of these high strengths, whiskers are not utilized
extensively as a reinforcement medium because they are
extremely expensive.
It is difficult and often impractical to incorporate whiskers
into a matrix.
Whisker materials include graphite, silicon carbide, silicon
nitride, and aluminium oxide. 122
Fibre: Materials that are classified as fibres are either
polycrystalline or amorphous and have small diameters; fibrous
materials are generally either polymers or ceramics (e.g., the
polymer aramids, glass, carbon, boron, aluminium oxide, and
silicon carbide).
Wire: Fine wires have relatively large diameters; typical materials

include steel, molybdenum, and tungsten. Wires are utilized as a
radial steel reinforcement in automobile tires, in filament-wound
rocket casings, and in wire-wound high-pressure hoses. 123
The matrix phase of fibrous composites may be a metal,
polymer, or ceramic.
Commonly, metals and polymers are used as matrix

materials because some ductility is desirable; for
ceramic-matrix composites, the reinforcing component is
added to improve fracture toughness.
The matrix material should be ductile.
124
The elastic modulus of the fibre should be much higher
than that of the matrix.
Matrix separates the fibres and, by virtue of its relative

softness and plasticity, prevents the propagation of
brittle cracks from fibre to fibre, which could result in
catastrophic failure; in other words, the matrix phase
serves as a barrier to crack propagation.
125
They consist of a polymer resin as the matrix, with fibers as the
reinforcement medium. These materials are used in the greatest
diversity of composite applications, as well as in the largest
quantities, because of their room-temperature properties, ease of
fabrication, and cost.
Classifications of PMCs can be done according to reinforcement

type (i.e., glass, carbon, and aramid), along with their
applications and the various polymer resins that are employed.
126
Fiberglass is simply a composite consisting of glass fibers,
either continuous or discontinuous, contained within a
polymer matrix; this type of composite is produced in the
largest quantities. Glass is popular as a fiber
reinforcement material for several reasons:
127
Ø It is easily drawn into high-strength fibers from the molten state.
Ø It is readily available and may be fabricated into a glass-reinforced

plastic economically using a wide variety of composite-manufacturing
techniques.
Ø As a fiber it is relatively strong, and when embedded in a plastic

matrix, it produces a composite having a very high specific strength.
Ø When coupled with the various plastics, it possesses a chemical

inertness that renders the composite useful in a variety of corrosive
environments.
128
Carbon is a high-performance fiber material that is the most
commonly used reinforcement in advanced (i.e., non-fiber
glass) polymer-matrix composites. The reasons for this are
as follows:
Ø Carbon fibers have the highest specific modulus and

specific strength of all reinforcing fiber materials.
129
Ø They retain their high tensile modulus and high strength at elevated
temperatures; high-temperature oxidation, however, may be a
problem.
Ø At room temperature, carbon fibers are not affected by moisture or a
wide variety of solvents, acids, and bases.
Ø These fibers exhibit a diversity of physical and mechanical
characteristics.
Ø Fiber and composite manufacturing processes have been developed
that are relatively inexpensive and cost effective.
130
Aramid fibers are high-strength, high-modulus materials.
Especially desirable for their outstanding strength-to-weight
ratios, which are superior to those of metals. There are a number
of aramid materials; trade names for two of the most common are
Kevlar and Nomex.
It is known for its toughness, impact resistance, and resistance to
creep and fatigue failure.
Even though the aramids are thermoplastics, they are,
nevertheless, resistant to combustion and stable to relatively high
temperatures; the temperature range over which they retain their
high mechanical properties is between -200 and 200°C.
131
Chemically, they are susceptible to degradation by strong
acids and bases, but they are relatively inert in other solvents
and chemicals.
The aramid fibers are most often used in composites having
polymer matrices; common matrix materials are the epoxies
and polyesters.
Typical applications of these aramid composites are in
ballistic products (bulletproof vests and armor), sporting
goods, tires, ropes, missile cases, and pressure vessels and as a
replacement for asbestos in automotive brake and clutch
linings and gaskets.
132
Boron fiber–reinforced polymer composites have been
used in military aircraft components, helicopter rotor
blades, and some sporting goods.
Silicon carbide and aluminium oxide fibers are used in

tennis rackets, circuit boards, military armor etc.
133
In metal-matrix composites (MMCs) the matrix is a ductile
metal.
These materials may be utilized at higher service temperatures
than their base metal counterparts; the reinforcement may
improve specific stiffness, specific strength, abrasion resistance,
creep resistance, thermal conductivity, and dimensional
stability.
Advantages of these materials over the polymer-matrix
composites include higher operating temperatures, non-
flammability, and greater resistance to degradation by organic
fluids.
134
Ceramic materials are inherently resilient to oxidation
and deterioration at elevated temperatures.
The fracture toughness of ceramics can be improved

significantly by the development of a new generation of
ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs)— particulates, fibres,
or whiskers of one ceramic material that have been
embedded into a matrix of another ceramic.
135
This improvement in the fracture properties results from
interactions between advancing cracks and dispersed
phase particles.
SiC whisker-reinforced aluminas are being utilised as

cutting tool inserts for machining hard metal alloys; tool
lives for these materials are greater than for cemented
carbides.
136
Both reinforcement and matrix are carbon.
Their desirable properties include high-tensile moduli and tensile
strengths that are retained to temperatures in excess of 2000°C,
resistance to creep, and relatively large fracture toughness values.
Carbon–carbon composites have low coefficients of thermal
expansion and relatively high thermal conductivities; these
characteristics, coupled with high strengths give rise to a relatively
low susceptibility to thermal shock.
Their major drawback is problem of high temperature oxidation.
The carbon–carbon composites are employed in rocket motors, as
friction materials in aircraft and high-performance automobiles,
for hot-pressing moulds in components for advanced turbine
engines, and as ablative shields for re-entry vehicles. 137
A continuous and aligned glass fiber–reinforced composite consists
of 40 vol% of glass fibers having a modulus of elasticity of 69 GPa
and 60 vol% of a polyester resin that, when hardened, displays a
modulus of 3.4 GPa.
i. Calculate the modulus of elasticity of this composite in the
longitudinal direction.
ii. If the cross-sectional area is 250 mm2 and a stress of 50 MPa is
applied in this longitudinal direction, calculate the magnitude
of the load carried by each of the fiber and matrix phases.
iii. Calculate the strain that is sustained by each phase when the
stress of 50MPa as in part (ii) is applied.
138
139
YouTube Lecture
?v=P9jHe1gmp-Y
Polymer
141
Definition: A group of engineered materials
characterized by large molecules that are built up by the
joining of smaller molecules.
They are natural or synthetics resins.

› Light weight
› Good resistance to corrosion
› Easy of fabrication into complex shapes
› Low electrical and thermal conductivity
› Good surface finish
› Good optical properties
› Good resistance to shock and vibration.

(i) How are the thermosetting plastic products processed?
(ii) Name two polymerisation processes.
[ 10 Marks ]
145
What are polymeric materials? Distinguish between two
polymer types.
[ 10 Marks ]
146
Classification based on their industrial usage:
(a) plastics and
(b) elastomers.
Classification based on their temperature dependence:
(a) thermoplasts and
(b) thermosets
Plastics which softens up on heating and hardens up on
cooling where the softening and hardening are totally
reversible processes.
Hence thermoplasts can be recycled.
They consist of linear molecular chains bonded together by
weak secondary bonds or by inter-winding.
Cross-linking between molecular chains is absent in
theromplasts.
E.g.: Acrylics, PVC, Nylons, Perspex glass, etc.
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS):
Characteristics: Outstanding strength and toughness, resistance
to heat distortion; good electrical properties; flammable and
soluble in some organic solvents.
Application: Refrigerator lining, lawn and garden equipment,
toys, highway safety devices.
Contd…
Acrylics (poly-methyl-methacrylate) PMMA
Characteristics: Outstanding light transmission and resistance
to weathering; only fair mechanical properties.
Application: Lenses, transparent aircraft enclosures, drafting
equipment, outdoor signs.
Contd…
Fluorocarbons (PTFE or TFE, Teflon)
Characteristics: Chemically inert in almost all
environments, excellent electrical properties; low
coefficient of friction; may be used to 2600⁰C;
relatively weak and poor cold-flow properties.
Application: Anticorrosive seals, chemical pipes and
valves, bearings, anti adhesive coatings, high
temperature electronic parts.
Contd…
Polyamides (nylons)
Characteristics: Good mechanical strength, abrasion resistance,
and toughness; low coefficient of friction; absorbs water and
some other liquids.
Application: Bearings, gears, cams, bushings, handles, and
jacketing for wires and cables.
Contd…
Polycarbonates
Characteristics: Dimensionally stable: low water
absorption; transparent; very good impact resistance
and ductility.
Application: Safety helmets, lenses light globes, base for
photographic film
Contd…
Polyethylene
Characteristics: Chemically resistant and electrically
insulating; tough and relatively low coefficient of
friction; low strength and poor resistance to
weathering.
Application: Flexible bottles, toys, tumblers, battery
parts, ice trays, film wrapping materials.
Contd…
Polypropylene
Characteristics: Resistant to heat distortion; excellent electrical
properties and fatigue strength; chemically inert; relatively
inexpensive; poor resistance to UV light.
Application: Sterilizable bottles, packaging film, TV cabinets,
luggage
Contd…
Polystyrene
Characteristics: Excellent electrical properties and optical
clarity; good thermal and dimensional stability; relatively
inexpensive
Application: Wall tile, battery cases, toys, indoor lighting
panels, appliance housings.
Contd…
Plastics which are ‘set’ under the application of heat
and/or pressure.
This process is not reversible, hence thermosets

cannot be recycled.
Contd…
They consist of 3-D network structures based on strong
covalent bonds to form rigid solids. linear molecular chains
bonded together by weak secondary bonds or by interwinding.
Characterized by high modulus / rigidity /dimensional

stability when compared with thermoplasts.
Contd…
E.g.: Epoxies, Amino resins, some polyester resins, etc.
Thermosets are strengthened by reinforcements .
Different reinforcements are in use according to the necessity.

Glass fibers are most commonly used to form structural and
molding plastic compounds.
Contd…
Two most important types of glass fibers are
E (electrical)- and S (high strength)- glasses.
E-glass (lime-aluminium-borosilicate glass with zero or low sodium

and potassium levels) is often used for continuous fibers.
S-glass (65%SiO2, 25%Al2O3 and 10% MgO) has higher strength-to-

weight ratio and is more expansive thus primary applications
include military and aerospace applications.
Carbon fiber reinforced plastics are also often used in aerospace
applications. However they are very expansive.
The other classes of reinforcements include aramid (aromatic

polyamide) fibers.
They are popularly known as Kevlar.

Epoxies
Characteristics: Excellent combination of mechanical

properties and corrosion resistance; dimensionally stable; good
adhesion; relatively inexpensive; good electrical properties.
Application: Electrical moldings, sinks, adhesives, protective

coatings, used with fiberglass laminates.
Contd…
Phenolics
Characteristics: Excellent thermal stability to over 150o°C; may

be compounded with a large number of resins, fillers, etc.;
inexpensive.
Application: Motor housing, telephones, auto distributors,

electrical fixtures.
Contd…
Polyester (PET or PETE)
Characteristics: One of the toughest of plastic films; excellent

fatigue and tear strength, and resistance to humidity acids,
greases, oils and solvents
Application: Magnetic recording tapes, clothing, automotive

tire cords, beverage containers.
These polymers are known for their high elongations, which
are reversible upon release of applied loads.
They consist of coil-like molecular chains, which straightens

up on application of load.
Characterized by low modulus / rigidity / strength, but high

toughness.
E.g.: natural and synthetic rubber.

These polymers are known for their high elongations, which
are reversible upon release of applied loads.
They consist of coil-like molecular chains, which straightens

up on application of load.
Characterized by low modulus / rigidity / strength, but high
toughness.
E.g.: natural and synthetic rubber.

Processing of polymers primarily limits to synthesis followed
by forming.
Polymers are synthesized by process known as polymerization.
Polymerization is process in which multi-functional monomers

are attached to form linear/3-D macro molecular chains.
This polymerization process involves single kind of
monomers. Resultant macro-molecule’s composition is an
exact multiplication of composition of individual monomer.
Process involves three stages namely initiation, propagation
and termination.
Contd…
Initiation process will be started by an initiator (e.g.
benzoyl peroxide) which forms an reactive site where
carbon atom of another monomer is attracted, upon
which reaction site transfers to different place leading
to molecular chain growth.

As molecular chain grows longer, reaction rate
decreases. However the growth process is terminated
either by the combination or disproportionation
process.
E.g.,
polyethylene
Combination:
Disproportionation:
It involves more then one monomer species. This process is also
known as step growth polymerization.
In condensation polymerization, smaller macromolecule by-

product such as water is eliminated.
No resultant product has the chemical formula of mere one

monomer.
Contd…
Repeat unit in condensation process itself is product of
polymerization involving basic constituents.
Reaction times for condensation polymerization is usually

longer than those for additional polymerization.
Formation of a polyester from Ethylene glycol and Adipic acid
Polyesters, phenol-formaldehyde, nylons,
polycarbonates etc are produced by condensation
polymerization.
Condensation polymerization reactions also
occur in sol-gel processing of ceramic materials.
Contd…
Polymers, unlike organic/inorganic compounds, do
not have a fixed molecular weight. It is specified in
terms of degree of polymerization – number of repeat
units in the chain or ratio of average molecular weight
of polymer to molecular weight of repeat unit.
Contd…
Average molecular weight is however defined in two ways.
Weight average molecular weight is obtained by dividing
the chains into size ranges and determining the fraction of
chains having molecular weights within that range.
Number average molecular weight is based on the number
fraction, rather than the weight fraction, of the chains
within each size range. It is always smaller than the weight
average molecular weight.
Cross linking: The cross-linking can occur due
to the presence of some elements called
vulcanizing agents, e.g. S, Se, Te, and O2.
In case of poly isoprene (natural rubber), the
sulphur bridges are formed between two
macromolecules during vulcanization.

In this vulcanization process sulphur bridge are formed
at the point of opening of double bonds. If the number
of cross-links is small; the find product is soft and
flexible. The stiffness of the polymeric material
increases with the density of cross-lines. When the
sulphur content in rubber is as high as 32 weight percent,
the hard product is called ebonite.
Name the five types of additive agents in plastics and state their
purpose.
[ 10 Marks ]
183
Why Plasticizers and lubricants are added to plastics ? Name
some important properties and application of
(i) Nylon
(ii) Vinyls
184
The properties of polymers can be further modified by the
addition of agents which are basically of two types.
Those that enter the molecular structure are usually called

"additives", whereas those that form a clearly defined second
phase are called "fillers".
Contd…
Plasticizers are liquids of high boiling point and low
molecular weight, which are added to improve the plastic
behaviour of the polymer.
They are essentially oily in nature. Organic solvents, resins

and even water are used as plasticizers.
A filler is used to economize on the quantity of polymer required
and/or to vary the properties to some extent, for example,
mechanical strength, electrical resistance etc.
A filler, whose function is to increase mechanical strength, is

termed a "reinforcing filler".
Contd…
A filler is commonly fibrous in nature and is chemically inert
with respect to the polymer with which it is to be used.
Common fillers are wood flour, cellulose, cotton flock, and paper
(for improving mechanical strength); mica and asbestos (for heat
resistance); talc (for acid resistance).Other filler materials are :
fabric, chipped-wood moulding compound, wood veneer, textile
or glass fibres.
Contd…
The commonly used "reinforcing filler agents" with plastics are
: fibres/filaments of glass, graphite or boron.
These are usually added to promote faster and more complete
polymerization and as such they are also called 'accelerators'
and 'hardeners' e.g., ester is used as a catalyst for Urea
Formaldehyde.
As the name indicates, the initiators are used to initiate the
reaction, that is, to allow polymerization to begin. They
stabilize the ends of the reaction sites of the molecular
chains. H2O2 is a common initiator.
These are added, in many cases, to impart a desired colour to
the material.
Lubricants are added to the polymers for the following
purposes : to reduce friction during processing, to prevent
parts from sticking to mould walls, to prevent polymer films
from sticking to each other and to impart an elegant finish to
the final product. Commonly used lubricants include : oils,
soaps and waxes.
Most plastics will ignite at sufficiently high temperatures.
The non-inflammability of the plastics can be enhanced

either by producing them from less inflammable raw
materials or by adding "flame retardants". The common
flame retardants are : compounds of chlorine, bromine
and phosphorous.
Solvents are useful for dissolving certain fillers or plasticizers
and help in manufacturing by allowing processing in the fluid
state, For example, alcohol is added in cellulose nitrate
plastics to dissolve Camphor. However, subsequently, the
solvents must be removed by evaporation.
Stabilisers and anti-oxidants are added to retard the
degradation of polymers due to heat, light and
oxidation.
Elastomers are added to plastics to enhance their

elastic properties.
Above, excepting fillers, all other materials

used, fall under the category of "Additives“.
How do the following additives change the properties of
polymers:
(i) Fillers
(ii) Plasticizers
(iii) Colourant
(iv) Lubricant [10 Marks]

Part -6
6/ER8SPJJJ
Describe the stress- strain behaviour and glass transition
temperature for polymer.
[ 10 Marks ]
199
The glass transition occurs in amorphous (or glassy) and
semicrystalline polymers.
It is due to a reduction in motion of large segments of molecular

chains with decreasing temperature. Upon cooling, the glass
transition corresponds to the gradual transformation from a liquid
to a rubbery material and finally to a rigid solid.
200
The temperature at which the polymer experiences the
transition from rubbery to rigid states is termed the glass
transition temperature, Tg.
This sequence of events occurs in the reverse order when a

rigid glass at a temperature below Tg is heated.
201
Abrupt changes in other physical properties accompany this glass
transition: for example, stiffness, heat capacity, and coefficient of
thermal expansion.
Melting and glass transition temperatures are important

parameters because they define, the upper and lower temperature
limits for numerous applications, especially for semicrystalline
polymers.
202
Specific volume versus temperature curve
For the crystalline material, there is a discontinuous
change in specific volume at the melting temperature Tm.
The curve for the totally amorphous material is

continuous but experiences a slight decrease in slope at
the glass transition temperature, Tg.
203
Specific volume versus temperature curve
The behavior is intermediate between these extremes for a
semicrystalline polymer (curve B) in that both melting and glass
transition phenomena are observed;
Tm and Tg are properties of the respective crystalline and

amorphous phases in this semicrystalline material.
204
Fig: Specific volume versus
temperature, upon cooling
from the liquid melt, for
totally amorphous (curve A),
semicrystalline (curve B), and
crystalline (curve C)
polymers.
20
5
The mechanical properties of polymers are specified with many of
the same parameters that are used for metals—that is, modulus of
elasticity and yield and tensile strengths. For many polymeric
materials, the simple stress–strain test is used to characterize
some of these mechanical parameters. The mechanical
characteristics of polymers, for the most part, are highly sensitive
to the rate of deformation, the temperature, and the chemical
nature of the environment.
206
Stress–strain behavior
for brittle (curve A),
plastic (curve B), and
highly elastic
(elastomeric) (curve C)
polymers.
207
Curve A illustrates the stress–strain character for a brittle polymer,
in as much as it fractures while deforming elastically.
The behavior for a plastic material, curve B, is similar to that for
many metallic materials; the initial deformation is elastic, which is
followed by yielding and a region of plastic deformation.
Finally, the deformation displayed by curve C is totally elastic; this
rubber like elasticity (large recoverable strains produced at low
stress levels) is displayed by a class of polymers termed the
elastomers.
208
Stainless Steel
209
Stainless steels are characterized primarily by their
corrosion resistance, high strength and ductility, and
high chromium content.
210
They are called stainless because, in the
presence of oxygen (air), they develop a thin,
hard, adherent film of chromium oxide that
protects the metal from
corrosion(passivation). This protective film
builds up again in the event that the surface is
scratched. For passivation to occur, the
minimum chromium content should be 10 to
12% by weight. 211
In addition to chromium, other
alloying elements in stainless steels
typically are nickel, molybdenum,
copper, titanium, silicon, manganese,
columbium, aluminium, nitrogen, and
sulphur.
Stainless steels generally are divided

into five types:
212
These steels generally are composed of
chromium, nickel, and manganese in iron.
They are nonmagnetic and have excellent

corrosion resistance, but they are
susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking.
Austenitic stainless steels are hardened by

cold working.
213
They are the most ductile of all stainless
steels and can be formed easily.
These steels are used in a wide variety of

applications, such as kitchenware,
fittings, welded construction,
lightweight transportation equipment,
furnace and heat-exchanger parts, and
components for severe chemical
environments. 214
These steels have a high chromium content-up
to 27%.
They are magnetic and have good corrosion
resistance, but they have lower ductility than
austenitic stainless steels.
Ferritic stainless steels are hardened by cold
working and are not heat treatable.
They generally are used for nonstructural
applications, such as kitchen equipment and
automotive trim.
215
Most martensitic stainless
steels do not contain nickel
and are hardenable by heat
treatment.
Their chromium content may

be as much as 18%.
216
These steels are magnetic, and they
have high strength, hardness, and
fatigue resistance, good ductility,
and moderate corrosion resistance.
Martensitic stainless steels typically

are used for cutlery, surgical tools,
instruments, valves, and springs.
217
These steels contain chromium and
nickel, along with copper, aluminum,
titanium, or molybdenum. They have
good corrosion resistance and ductility,
and they have high strength at elevated
temperatures.
Their main application is in aircraft and

aerospace structural components.
218
These steels have a mixture of austenite
and ferrite.
They have good strength and have higher

resistance to both corrosion (in most
environments) and stress-corrosion
cracking.
Typical applications are in Water-treatment

plants and in heat-exchanger components.
219
220
Explain electrochemical considerations of corrosion for
metallic materials. Discuss the principle of cathodic
protection of corrosion prevention.
[ 20 Marks ]
221
Explain uniform corrosion and pitting corrosion.
[ 10 Marks ]
222
Explain why corrosion occurs in materials.
[ 10 Marks ]
223
Deteriorative mechanisms are different for the
three material types.
In metals, there is actual material loss either by
dissolution (corrosion) or by the formation of non-
metallic scale or film (oxidation).
Ceramic materials are relatively resistant to
deterioration, which usually occurs at elevated
temperatures or in rather extreme environments;
the process is frequently also called corrosion.
For polymers, mechanisms and consequences differ
from those for metals and ceramics, and the term
degradation is most frequently used.
224
Corrosion is defined as the destructive and unintentional attack
of a metal; it is electrochemical and ordinarily begins at the
surface. The problem of metallic corrosion is one of significant
proportions. The consequences of corrosion are all too common.
Familiar examples include the rusting of automotive body panels
and radiator and exhaust components.
225
Corrosion processes are occasionally used to advantage. For
example, etching procedures make use of the selective chemical
reactivity of grain boundaries or various microstructural
constituents.
226
For metallic materials, the corrosion process is
normally electrochemical, that is, a chemical reaction
in which there is transfer of electrons from one
chemical species to another. Metal atoms
characteristically lose or give up electrons in what is
called an oxidation reaction.
227
For example, a hypothetical metal M that has a valence
of n (n valence electrons) may experience oxidation
according to the reaction,
in which M becomes an n+ positively charged ion and in

the process loses its n valence electrons; e- is used to
symbolize an electron.
228
Examples in which metals oxidize are,
The site at which oxidation takes place is called the anode;

oxidation is sometimes called an anodic reaction.
229
The electrons generated from each metal atom that is
oxidized must be transferred to and become a part of
another chemical species in what is termed a reduction
reaction. For example, some metals undergo corrosion
in acid solutions, which have a high concentration of
hydrogen (H+) ions; the H+ ions are reduced and
hydrogen gas (H2) is evolved.:
230
Other reduction reactions are possible, depending on
the nature of the solution to which the metal is exposed.
For an acid solution having dissolved oxygen, reduction
according to will probably occur. Or, for a neutral or
basic aqueous solution in which oxygen is also dissolved
will probably occur.
231
Or, for a neutral or basic aqueous solution in which
oxygen is also dissolved,
The location at which reduction occurs is called the cathode.
232
The corrosion rate, or the rate of material removal as a
consequence of the chemical action, is an important
corrosion parameter. It can be expressed as the corrosion
penetration rate (CPR), or the thickness loss of material
per unit of time.
233
The formula for this calculation is,
𝑲𝑾
𝐂𝐏𝐑 = %𝑨𝒕
where W is the weight loss after exposure time t; ρ and A

represent the density and exposed specimen area, respectively,
and K is a constant.
234
The displacement of each electrode potential from its
equilibrium value is termed polarization, and the
magnitude of this displacement is the overvoltage,
normally represented by the symbol η. Overvoltage is
expressed in terms of plus or minus volts (or millivolts)
relative to the equilibrium potential.
235
For standard Zn/H2 electrochemical cell, which has been
short-circuited such that oxidation of zinc and reduction of
hydrogen will occur at their respective electrode surfaces.
The potentials of the two electrodes will not be at the
values determined from standard emf series because the
system is now a nonequilibrium one.
236
There are two types of polarization—
(i) activation and
(ii) concentration
237
(i) Activation Polarization: Activation polarization refers to
the condition wherein the reaction rate is controlled by the
one step in the series that occurs at the slowest rate. The term
activation is applied to this type of polarization because an
activation energy barrier is associated with this slowest, rate-
limiting step.
238
(ii) Concentration Polarization: Concentration
polarization exists when the reaction rate is
limited by diffusion in the solution.
Ex: For hydrogen evolution reduction reaction.
When the reaction rate is low and/or the
concentration of H+ is high, there is always an
adequate supply of H+ available in the solution at
the region near the electrode interface. On the
other hand, at high rates and/or low H+
concentrations, a depletion zone may be formed
in the vicinity of the interface, in as much as the
H+ ions are not replenished at a rate sufficient to
keep up with the reaction. Thus, diffusion of H+
to the interface is rate controlling, and the
system is said to be concentration polarized. 239
Some normally active metals and alloys, under particular
environmental conditions, lose their chemical reactivity and
become extremely inert. This phenomenon is known as
passivity, is displayed by chromium, iron, nickel, titanium, and
many of their alloys.
Passive behaviour results from the formation of a highly
adherent and very thin oxide film on the metal surface, which
serves as a protective barrier to further corrosion.
240
Stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion in a rather wide
variety of atmospheres as a result of passivation. They contain
at least 11% Cr that, as a solid-solution alloying element in iron,
minimizes the formation of rust and forms a protective surface
film in oxidizing atmospheres.
241
Aluminium is highly corrosion
resistant in many environments
because it also passivates. If
damaged, the protective film
normally re-forms very rapidly.
The active to passive behaviour
may be explained by the alloy’s S-
shaped electrochemical-potential-
versus-log-current-density curve.
242
Metallic corrosion is sometimes classified into
eight forms: uniform, galvanic, crevice, pitting,
intergranular, selective leaching, erosion
corrosion, and stress corrosion.
243
It is a form of electrochemical corrosion that occurs
with equivalent intensity over the entire exposed
surface and often leaves behind a scale or deposit.
In a microscopic sense, the oxidation and
reduction reactions occur randomly over the
surface.
Some familiar examples include general rusting of
steel and iron. This is probably the most common
form of corrosion. It is least objectionable because
it can be predicted and designed with relative ease.
244
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two metals
or alloys having different compositions are
electrically coupled while exposed to an
electrolyte. The less noble or more reactive
metal in the particular environment will
experience corrosion; the more inert metal,
the cathode, will be protected from
corrosion.
A number of measures may be taken to
significantly reduce the effects of galvanic
corrosion. These include the following:
245
1. If coupling of dissimilar metals is necessary, choose
two that are close together in the galvanic series.
2. Avoid an unfavorable anode-to-cathode surface area

ratio; use an anode area as large as possible.
3. Electrically insulate dissimilar metals from each other.
4. Electrically connect a third, anodic metal to the other

two; this is a form of cathodic protection.
246
Electrochemical corrosion may also occur as a
consequence of concentration differences of ions
or dissolved gases in the electrolyte solution, and
between two regions of the same metal piece.
247
For such a concentration cell, corrosion occurs in the locale
that has the lower concentration. A good example of this type
of corrosion is corrosion under deposits of dirt or corrosion
products where the solution becomes stagnant and there is
localized depletion of dissolved oxygen.
248
Crevice corrosion may be
prevented by using welded instead
of riveted or bolted joints, using
non-absorbing gaskets when
possible, removing accumulated
deposits frequently, and designing
containment vessels to avoid
stagnant areas and ensure
complete drainage. 249
Pitting is another form of very localized corrosion attack in
which small pits or holes form. They ordinarily penetrate
from the top of a horizontal surface downward in a nearly
vertical direction. It is an extremely insidious type of
corrosion, often going undetected and with very little
material loss until failure occurs.
250
It has been observed that specimens
having polished surfaces display a
greater resistance to pitting
corrosion. Stainless steels are
somewhat susceptible to this form of
corrosion; however, alloying with
about 2% molybdenum enhances
their resistance significantly.
251
Intergranular corrosion occurs
preferentially along grain
boundaries for some alloys and in
specific environments.
The net result is that a macroscopic
specimen disintegrates along its
grain boundaries.
This type of corrosion is especially
prevalent in some stainless steels.
When heated to temperatures
between 500 and 800°C for
sufficiently long time periods, these
alloys become sensitized to
intergranular attack.
252
Stainless steels may be protected from intergranular
corrosion by the following measures:
(1) subjecting the sensitized material to a high-temperature

heat treatment in which all the chromium carbide
particles are redissolved,
253
(2) lowering the carbon content below 0.03 wt% C so that
carbide formation is minimal, and
(3) alloying the stainless steel with another metal such as

niobium or titanium, which has a greater tendency to
form carbides than does chromium so that the Cr remains
in solid solution.
254
Selective leaching is found in solid solution alloys and
occurs when one element or constituent is preferentially
removed as a consequence of corrosion processes. The
most common example is the dezincification of brass, in
which zinc is selectively leached from a copper–zinc brass
alloy.
255
Erosion–corrosion arises from the combined action
of chemical attack and mechanical abrasion or wear
as a consequence of fluid motion. Virtually all metal
alloys, to one degree or another, are susceptible to
erosion–corrosion.
256
It is especially harmful to alloys that passivate by
forming a protective surface film; the abrasive action
may erode away the film, leaving exposed a bare metal
surface. If the coating is not capable of continuously
and rapidly reforming as a protective barrier, corrosion
may be severe.
257
Best way to reduce erosion–corrosion is to change the
design to eliminate fluid turbulence and impingement
effects. Other materials may also be used that inherently
resist erosion.
258
Stress corrosion, sometimes termed stress
corrosion cracking, results from the combined
action of an applied tensile stress and a
corrosive environment; both influences are
necessary.
259
The best measure to take in reducing or totally
eliminating stress corrosion is to lower the
magnitude of the stress. This may be accomplished
by reducing the external load or increasing the
cross-sectional area perpendicular to the applied
stress.
260
Pilling-Bedworth ratio is the same ratio of the volume of the
elementary cell of a metal oxide to the volume of the elementary
cell of the corresponding metal from which the oxide is created.
𝑉#$%&' 𝑀#$%&' . 𝜌(')*+
𝑅!" = =
𝑉(')*+ 𝑛 ( 𝑀(')*+ . 𝜌,$%&'
Where, 𝑅() = 𝑃𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝐵𝑒𝑑𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
M = Atomic or molecular mass
n = Number of atoms of metal per one molecule of the oxide
ρ = Density
V = Molar volume
261
1. If P-B ratio is less than 1, the oxide film is too thin and will
most likely breakdown such as in magnesium.
2. If P-B ratio is greater than 1, but less than 2 the oxide film
is passivating and offers protection from surface oxidation
such as in titanium, aluminium and chromium.
262
1. P-B ratio is used for determining whether it is possible
for the metal to undergo passivation in the presence of
the dry air by building a protective oxide film.
263
2F d
Maximum uncut chip thickness (t max ) =
NZ D
F d
Average uncut chip thickness (t a vg ) =
NZ D
2
F
Peak to valley surface roughness (h max ) = 2 2
4 DN Z
F = fZN in mm / min, f = feed per tooth,
Z = no of teeth, N rpm
264
In a slab milling operation with straight teeth cutter, the cutter has
15 teeth with 10° rake angle and rotates at 200 rpm. The diameter of
the cutter is 80 mm and table feed is 75 mm/min, the depth of cut is
5 mm, the width of slab is 50 mm and ultimate shear stress of work
material is 420 N/mm2. Assuming the coefficient of friction
between chip and cutter to be 0.7 and using Lee and Shaffer
relation, plot variation of resultant torque and cutter rotation, and
estimate average power consumption.
[ 8 Marks ]
265
1) The type of grit material
2) The grit size
3) The bond strength of the wheel, commonly known as

wheel hardness
4) The structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e. the

amount of inter grit spacing
5) The type of bond material
6) Other than these parameters, the wheel manufacturer may

add their own identification code prefixing or suffixing (or
both) the standard code.
Abrasive Material Comments and Uses
Aluminium oxide Softer and tougher than silicon carbide;
use on steel, iron, brass
Silicon carbide Used for brass, bronze, aluminum,
stainless steel and cast iron
CBN (cubic boron For grinding hard, tough tool steels,
nitride) stainless steel, cobalt and nickel based
superalloys, and hard coatings
Diamond Used to grind nonferrous materials,
tungsten carbide and ceramics
(i) A surface 80 mm x 160 mm is rough machined using a face
milling cutter of 150 mm diameter having 10 teeth. The cutter
centre is offset by 15 mm from the line of symmetry of the
surface. Estimate the time to rough machine the surface, if
the feed per teeth is 0.25 mm and a cutting speed of 20
m/min is employed.
(ii) With 5 mm, approach and 5 mm over run, what is the single
pass feed time ?
270
271
27
2
A
MUST DO
Practice set
BY
S K MONDAL
MATERIAL SCIENCE QUESTION AND ANSWER (CONVENTIONAL TYPE)
Q-1: What are coordination number of BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
A-1: CN, the coordination number, which is the number of closest neighbors to which an atom is bonded.
CN of BCC structure is 8
CN of FCC structure is 12
CN of HCP structure is 12
BCC FCC
HCP
Q-2: What are packing factors of BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
A-2: APF, the atomic packing factor, which is the fraction of the volume of the cell actually occupied by
the hard spheres. APF = Sum of atomic volumes/Volume of cell.
APF of BCC structure is 0.68
APF of FCC structure is 0.74
APF of HCP structure is 0.74
Q-3: How many slip planes are there in BCC, FCC and HCP crystal structure?
A-3:
Crystal Slip Planes
BCC {110}, {112}, {123}
FCC {111}
HCP Basal plane, Prismatic & Pyramidal planes
Q-4: Show crystalographic directions [1 2 0], [1 3 3], [1 1 0 0], [1 2 0]

A-4:
The length of the vector Crystalographic Directions
projection on the axis x,
y and z respectably
[1 2 0] a/2, b, 0c
Page 1 of 14
[1 3 3] a/3, b, c
[1 1 0 0] 0.866a, -0.866a, 0a, 0c
[1 2 0] a/2, -b, 0c
Page 2 of 14
Q-5: Show crystalographic planes [1 0 2], [2 2 1], [6 3 2], [10 1 0]
A-5:
Crystalographic Planes
[1 0 2]
[ 2 2 1]
[632]
[10 1 0]
Plane
ABCD
Page 3 of 14
Q-6: Show Burger’s vector in edge and screw dislocations.
A-6: Burger’s vector in edge dislocations Burger’s vector in screw dislocations
Q-7: Why fine grained structure is harder than coarse grain structure?
A-7: The smaller the grain size, the more frequent is the pile up of dislocations. With decrease in grain
size, the mean distance of a dislocation can travel decreases, and soon starts pile up of dislocations at
grain boundaries. This leads to increase in yield strength of the material.
Q-8: What is the type of solid solution (a) copper and nickel (b) Iron and carbon
A-8: (a) copper and nickel
Cu-Ni forms a sunstitutional solid solution. If a melt of Cu and Ni with any composition is
cooled, a solid solution begins to freeze out. This solid solution is richer in Ni than the liquid
solution. As the two phase system of solid plus melt is cooled further, the mole fractin of Ni
decreases in both the solid solution and the liquid melt.
(b) Iron and carbon

Fe-C forms an interstitial solid solution; the C atoms occupy interstices in the crystal
structure of substance Fe. The Fe-Fe3C is characterized by five individual phases. Five
phases that exist in the Fe-C diagram are: α–ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solid solution, γ-austenite
(FCC) Fe-C solid solution, δ-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solid solution, Fe3C (iron carbide) or
cementite - an inter-metallic compound and liquid Fe-C solution.
Q-9: Differentiate between the following; a) age hardening b) strain hardening c) precipitation
hardening.
A-9: a) Age hardening or c) precipitation hardening.
Age hardening is produced by solution treating and quenching an alloy. Term ‘Age hardening’ is used
to describe the process because strength develops with time. Requisite for precipitation hardening to
take place is that second phase must be soluble at an elevated temperature but precipitates upon
quenching and aging at a lower temperature. This limits the alloy systems which can be
strengthened by precipitation hardening. For example: Al-alloys, Cu-Be alloys, Mg-Al alloys, Cu-Sn
alloys. If the precipitation occurs at normal ambient temperatures, it is called natural aging. Some
alloy systems needed to be aged at higher temperatures and the process is known as artificial aging.
Most precipitation hardened alloys are limited in their maximum service temperatures, which may
lose their strength at elevated temperatures due to over-aging.
b) Strain hardening
• Phenomenon where ductile metals become stronger and harder when they are deformed
plastically is called strain hardening or work hardening.
• During plastic deformation, dislocation density increases. And thus their interaction with
each other resulting in increase in yield stress.
• Dislocation density (ρ) and shear stress (τ) are related as, τ = τ o + A ρ
Page 4 of 14
Q-10: Explain the effect of mean stress on fatigue life.
A-10: Failure that occurs under fluctuating/cyclic loads – Fatigue. Fatigue occurs at stresses that
considerable smaller than yield/tensile strength of the material. S-N testing is done under
alternating (completely reversed) loading and stress. Here mean stress (σm) is zero. If mean stress is
present then fatigue life will change according to the following diagram.
Following empirical curves are used to estimate mean stress effects on fatigue life
a. Soderberg (USA, 1930)
b. Goodman (England, 1899)
c. Gerber (Germany, 1874)
d. Morrow (USA, 1960s)
Q-11: Explain the difference between Soderberg line and Goodman line.
A-11:
σ max − σ min
Alternating stress (σ a ) =
2
σ max + σ min
Mean stress (σ m ) =
2
Yield strength = σ y
Ultimate TensileStrength = σ u
σa σm
1. Goodman Line + =1
σ e σ ut
σa σm
2. Soderberg Line + =1
σe σ y
• Most actual test data tend to fall above the Goodman line.
• The Soderberg line is very conservative and seldom used.
Q-12: What are creep resistant alloy? Give composition of Nimonic 90 and Vitallium HS 21.
A-12: Creep resistant alloy
To make creep resistance alloy we have to strengthen the solid solution by mechanisms which cause
dislocation locking and those which contribute to lattice friction hardening.
The alloy can also be hardened by precipitation. Some solute alloying elements is added in reducing
the rate of climb and cross-slip processes.
Page 5 of 14
Example: The nickel alloy (Inconol, Nimonic), ferritic steel, austenitic steel 16-25-6, etc.
Composition of Nimonic 90
Cr-20%, Co-16%, Ti-2.3% Al-1.40 %, Fe-0.5%, C-0.08%, Mn-0.06%, Si-0.017% and Ni -58%
Composition of Vitallium HS 21
C – 0.25%, Cr – 27%, Ni –3 %, Mo – 5%, Fe – 1%, Mn – 1%, Si -1%, Co - bal
Q-13: Differentiate between temper embrittlement and hydrogen embrittlement.

A-13: Temper embrittlement
Tempering of some steels may result in a reduction of toughness what is known as temper
embrittlement. This may be avoided by (1) compositional control, and/or (2) tempering above 575oC
or below 375oC , followed by quenching to room temperature. The effect is greatest in Martensite
structures, less severe in bainitic structures and least severe in pearlite structures. It appears to be
associated with the segregation of solute atoms to the grain boundaries lowering the boundary
strength. Impurities responsible for temper brittleness are: P, Sn, Sb and As. Si reduces the risk of
embrittlement by carbide formation. Mo has a stabilizing effect on carbides and is also used to
minimize the risk of temper brittleness in low alloy steels.
Hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is more failure than a form of corrosion, but it is often results from the
hydrogen, produced from corrosion. Atomic hydrogen produced during corrosion diffuses
interstitially through crystal lattice, and interferes with dislocation motion, leading to failure. It is
similar to stress corrosion in the sense that ductile materials experience brittle failures as a result.
Counter measures to hydrogen embrittlement include: heat treatment to reduce strength of the
alloy; removal of source of hydrogen; baking the component to drive out any dissolved hydrogen.
Q-14: What is diffusion couple? Give two examples.

A-14: Diffusion couple is made by two metals A and
B. Two containers of two metals are joined
together by removing the barrier between
them. This couple is heated for an extended
period at a higher temperature, but certainly
lower than the melting points of A and B, and
then cooled to room temperature. It is
observed that atoms A have migrated into
atoms B and atoms B have migrated into
atoms A. There is a net flow of atoms from
higher concentration to lower concentration
regions. This type of diffusion is known as
inter-diffusion or impurity diffusion.
Example
(i) Copper and Nickel couple
(ii) Gold and Silver couple
Fig. Diffusion couple of two metals
Page 6 of 14
Q-15: Explain how annealing and normalizing are diffusion controlled processes?
A-15: Annealing can be defined as a heat treatment process in which the material is taken to a high
temperature, kept there for some time and then cooled. Carbon atoms diffuse in BCC and FCC by
interstitial diffusion process. High temperatures allow diffusion processes to occur fast. The time at
the high temperature (soaking time) must be long enough to allow the desired transformation to
occur.
Normalizing is used to refine the grains and produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution.
It involves heating the component to attain single phase (e.g.: austenite in steels), then cooling in
open air atmosphere. In normalizing also high temperature allows diffusion process to occur fast.
Q-16: What is a Eutectic system? Explain copper/silver and lead/tin eutectics.

A-16: Many binary systems have components which have limited solid solubility, e.g.: Cu-Ag, Pb-Sn. The
regions of limited solid solubility at each end of a phase diagram are called terminal solid solutions
as they appear at ends of the diagram.
Many of the binary systems with limited solubility are of eutectic type, which consists of specific
alloy composition known as eutectic composition that solidifies at a lower temperature than all other
compositions. This low temperature which corresponds to the lowest temperature at which the liquid
can exist when cooled under equilibrium conditions is known as eutectic temperature. The
corresponding point on the phase diagram is called eutectic point. When the liquid of eutectic
composition is cooled, at or below eutectic temperature this liquid transforms simultaneously into
two solid phases (two terminal solid solutions, represented by α and β). This transformation is
known as eutectic reaction and is written symbolically as:
Liquid (L) ↔ solid solution-1 (α) + solid solution-2 (β)
This eutectic reaction is called invariant reaction as it occurs under equilibrium conditions at a
specific temperature and specific composition which can not be varied.
Thus, this reaction is represented by a thermal horizontal arrest in the cooling curve of an alloy of
eutectic composition. A typical eutectic type phase diagram is shown in figure-4 along with a cooling
curve.
Eutectic system of Copper and Silver

In the Copper-silver binary eutectic system, the invariant point is located at 71.9 wt% Ag + 28.1 wt%
Cu at 779oC
Page 7 of 14
Eutectic reactions for copper-silver
cooling α(8.0 wt% Ag + 92 wt% Cu) +
L (71.9 wt% Ag + 28.1 wt% Cu) R
β(91.2 wt% Ag + 8.8 wt% Cu)
heating
Eutectic system of Lead and Tin

In the lead-tin binary eutectic system, the invariant point is located at 61.9 wt% Sn + 38.1 wt% Pb at
183oC
Page 8 of 14
Eutectic reactions for Lead and tin
cooling α(18.3 wt% Sn + 81.7 wt% Pb) +
L (61.9 wt% Sn + 38.1 wt% Pb) R
β(97.8 wt% Sn + 2.2 wt% Pb)
heating
Q-17: What are hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels, explain.

A-17: Hypoeutectoid Steel
Plain carbon steels in which carbon percentage is less than 0.8% are called hypoeutectoid steel.
Hypereutectoid Steel
Plain carbon steels in which carbon percentage is more than 0.8% are called hypoeutectoid steel.
Q-18: What is 0.8% C, steel, what are its special properties?

A-18: Steel which contains 0.8% C is known as eutectoid composition. In the solid state when
cooled below 723oC a eutectic reaction takes place one solid phase (γ-iron) having eutectoid (0.8% C)
composition transforms into two different solid phases α– ferrite and Fe3C (cementite). This
particular composition of ferrite and cementite is known as pearlite.
Q-19: What is tempered martensite?

A-19: Cooling the austenized steel to temperature
just above Ms temperature, holding it there
until temperature is uniform, followed by
cooling at a moderate rate to room
temperature before austenite-to-bainite
transformation begins. The final structure
is tempered Martensite
Page 9 of 14
Q-20: What is the driving force in the formation of Spheroidite?
A-20: The driving force for the formation of spheroidite is the net reduction in ferrite-cementite phase
boundary area.
Q-21: What is the difference between martempering and austempering?

A-21: Martempering is a modified quenching procedure used to minimize distortion and cracking that
may develop during uneven cooling of the heat-treated material. It involves cooling the austenized
steel to temperature just above Ms temperature, holding it there until temperature is uniform,
followed by cooling at a moderate rate to room temperature before austenite-to-bainite
transformation begins. The final structure of martempered steel is tempered Martensite.
Austempering is different from martempering in the sense that it involves austenite-to bainite
transformation. Thus, the structure of austempered steel is bainite. Advantages of austempering are
improved ductility; decreased distortion and disadvantages are need for special molten bath; process
can be applied to limited number of steels.
Q-22: What is the difference between nitriding and carbonitriding processes?

A-22: Nitriding
Nitriding is carried out in the ferritic region. No phase change occurs after nitriding. The part to be
nitrided should posses the required core properties prior to nitriding. During nitriding, pure
ammonia decomposes to yield nitrogen which enters the steel. The solubility of nitrogen in ferrite is
small. Most of the nitrogen, that enters the steel, forms hard nitrides (e.g., Fe3N). The temperature
of nitriding is 500-590oC. The time for a case depth of 0.02 mm is about 2 hr. In addition to providing
outstanding wear resistance, the nitride layer increases the resistance of carbon steel to corrosion in
moist atmospheres.
Page 10 of 14
Carbonitriding
Carbonitriding is a lower cost surface hardening process that provides a thin, high hardness case on
lower hardenability steels. Carbonitriding involves the diffusion of both carbon and nitrogen into the
base steel. The carbon provides the base metal with a high carbon surface, and the nitrogen provides
the case with an added boost of hardenability to insure full case hardness. The addition of nitrogen
makes the carbonitriding process especially suited to plain, low carbon steel that would not
otherwise respond to standard carburizing. Carbonitriding is usually carried out in a temperature
range of 820-900°C in a gaseous atmosphere adding between 0.5 to 0.8% carbon and 0.2-0.4% (< 5%)
nitrogen to the surface of plain carbon steel or low alloy steel.
Q-23: What are the high-strength low-alloy steel?

A-23:
• High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical
properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel.
• HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they are not made to meet a specific chemical composition
but rather to specific mechanical properties.
• They have low carbon content between 0.05–0.25% to retain formability and weldability.
• Other alloying elements include up to 2.0% manganese and small quantities
of copper, nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium, chromium, molybdenum, titanium, calcium, rare
earth elements, or zirconium.
• Copper, titanium, vanadium, and niobium are added for strengthening purposes.
• These steels are not strengthened by heat treatment due to low carbon content.
Q-24: Give composition and use of (a) Hadfield steel (b) Maraging steel (c) Spring Steel (d) Rail
Steel (e) Invar Steel
A-24:
Composition Use
(a) Hadfield steel C 1.1 to 1.4%, Mn 11-14%, rest Fe Jaw crusher plate, Nuts and
bolts, Chains
(b) Maraging steel C <0.03%, Ni-25%, Co 7-10%, Mo 3 -5%, Ti – Aircraft under carriage parts,
1.75 %, Al- 0.2%, other trace, rest Fe portable bridges and booster
motor in missile
(c) Spring Steel C 0.55 – 0.65%, Si 0.1 – 0.35%, Mn 0.7 – 1.0 Spring
%, Cr 0.4 – 0.6%, Ni 0.4 – 0.7%, Mo 0.15 –
0.25%, rest Fe
(d) Rail Steel C 0.4 – 0.6 %, Mn -1.5%, rest Fe Rail

Precision measuring
(e) Invar Steel Ni 32%, Fe-68% instrument, survey measuring
tapes
Q-25: What is nodular cast Iron? How it is made?

A-25: Nodular (or ductile) cast iron: Alloying additions are of prime importance in producing these
materials. Small additions of Mg / Ce to the gray cast iron melt before casting can result in graphite
to form nodules or sphere-like particles. Matrix surrounding these particles can be either ferrite or
pearlite depending on the heat treatment. These are stronger and ductile than gray cast irons.
Q-26: What is Superalloy? Give composition and use of Waspalloy, and Inconel?
A-26: Superalloys as a class constitute the currently reigning aristocrats of the metallurgical world. They
are the alloys which have made jet flight possible, and they show what can be achieved by drawing
together and exploiting all the resources of modern physical and process metallurgy in the pursuit of
a very challenging objective.
Page 11 of 14
Applications of Superalloy?
• Gas Turbine Engines
− Blades, vanes, disks, combustors
• Space Vehicles
− Rocket motors
• Nuclear Reactors
• Submarines
• Petroleum Equipment
Composition Use
Waspalloy Cr-19%, Co-13%, Ti-3%, Al 1.4%, Zr 0.06 %, For high temperature
C 0.08%, rest Ni application upto 900oC
Inconel Cr 15%, Ti 2.4%, Al 1%, Nb 1%, Ta 1%, Fe For high temperature
7%, C 0.04%, rest Ni application upto 820oC
Q-27: What are PTFE, Nylon 6, Nylon 610, Perspex, where they are used?
A-27:
What is? Use
PTFE Fluorocarbons (PTFE or TFE) or Teflon. It Anticorrosive seals, chemical
is chemically inert in almost all pipes and valves, bearings, anti
environments, excellent electrical adhesive coatings, high
properties; low coefficient of friction; may be temperature electronic parts.
used to 260oC; relatively weak and poor
cold-flow properties.
Nylon 6 Nylon 6 or polycaprolactam or cast nylon is Synthetic fibers

polymer developed to reproduce the
properties of nylon 6,6. Unlike most
other nylons, nylon 6 is not a condensation
polymer, but instead is formed by ring-
opening polymerization.
Nylon 610 Polyhexamethylene sebacamide Flexible tubes
Perspex PMMA-polymethyle methacrylate Domestic article
Q-28: What are conducting polymers and conducting ceramics? Give 2 examples of each.
A-28: Conducting Polymers
Due to the kind of bonding, polymers are typically electrical and thermal insulators. However,
conducting polymers can be obtained by doping, and conducting polymer-matrix composites can be
obtained by the use of conducting fillers. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100 – 400oC),
and are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. . The most recent research in this has been the
development of highly conducting polymers with good stability and acceptable processing attributes.
Example: Polyacetylene, Polyphenylene, Polypyrroles
Conducting Ceramics
Conductive ceramics, advanced industrial materials that, owing to modifications in their structure,
serve as electrical conductors. Like metals, conducting ceramics have overlapping electron energy
bands and are therefore excellent electronic conductors. They constitute complex systems based on
oxide and non-oxide phases.
Examples: lead oxide (PbO), ruthenium dioxide (RuO2), bismuth ruthenate (Bi2Ru2O7)
Page 12 of 14
Q-29: What are silicon carbide and silicon nitride, what are their strength and hardness?
A-29: Silicon carbide (SiC)
It is known as one of best ceramic material for very high temperature applications. It is used as
coatings on other material for protection from extreme temperatures. It is also used as abrasive
material. It is used as reinforcement in many metallic and ceramic based composites. It is a
semiconductor and often used in high temperature electronics.
Ultimate tensile strength of SiC is 300 MPa
Hardness of SiC is 2500 VPN (Vickers Pyramid Number)
Silicon nitride (Si3N4)

It has properties similar to those of SiC but is somewhat lower, and found applications in such as
automotive and gas turbine engines.
Ultimate tensile strength of Si3N4 is 580 MPa
Hardness of Si3N4 is 2300 VPN (Vickers Pyramid Number)
Q-30: What are dispersion strengthened and particulate composites? Give two examples of
each.
A-30: Dispersion-strengthened composites
• In this composite, particles are of 0.01-0.1 μm in size.
• Strengthening occurs as a result of dislocation motion hindrance. It is similar to that of
precipitation hardening in metals.
• Matrix bears the major portion of the applied load, while dispersoids obstruct the motion of
dislocations.
Example: thoria (ThO2) dispersed Ni-alloys (TD Ni-alloys) with high-temperature strength; SAP
(sintered aluminium powder) – where aluminium matrix is dispersed with extremely small flakes of
alumina (Al2O3).
Particulate composites
• These composites contain large number of coarse particles.
• These composites are designed to produce combination of properties rather than increase the
strength.
• Mechanical properties are characterized by rule-of-mixtures.
• Particulate composites are usually made of all three conventional engineering materials, namely
– metals, polymers and ceramics.
Example: tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC) embedded cobalt or nickel based cutting
tools. Aluminium alloy castings containing dispersed SiC particles are widely used for automotive
applications including pistons and brake applications.
Q-31: Describe the following

(a) Ceramic matrix composite
(b) Metal matrix composite
(c) Carbon Carbon Composite
A-31: (a) Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
They are a subgroup of composite materials as well as a subgroup of technical ceramics. They consist
of ceramic fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic fiber reinforced ceramic
(CFRC) material. The matrix and fibers can consist of any ceramic material,
whereby carbon and carbon fibers can also be considered a ceramic material.
(b) Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminium, magnesium, iron, cobalt,
copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.
Page 13 of 14
(c) Carbon Carbon Composite
It is a composite material consisting of carbon fibre reinforcement in a matrix of graphite. It was
developed for the nose cones of intercontinental ballistic missiles. It has been used in the brake
systems of Formula One racing cars. Carbon–carbon is well-suited to structural applications at high
temperatures, or where thermal shock resistance and/or a low coefficient of thermal expansion is
needed.
Q-32: Explain the following in corrosion

(a) Redox
(b) Electrolyte
A-32: (a) Redox corrosion
Corrosion of metals is the most common type of corrosion and is a process involving an exchange
of electrons between two substances, one of them being the metal. In this process, the metal
usually loses electrons, becoming oxidized, while the other substance gains electrons, becoming
reduced. For this reason, corrosion is classified as an oxidation-reduction or redox reaction.
While many redox reactions are extremely important and beneficial to society (for example, those
that are used to make batteries), the redox reactions involved in corrosion are destructive.
(b) Electrolyte corrosion
Electrochemical corrosion takes place in the presence of an electrolyte, which is simply a fluid
conducting electricity, by migration of ions. Water generally contains mineral ions, hydrogen ions
and hydroxyl ions. In this case of atmospheric corrosion, humidity in the air does the job of an
electrolyte.
Q-33: Explain (a) Degradation of polymer (b) Corrosion of ceramics

A-33: (a) Degradation of polymer
• As other engineering materials, polymers also deteriorated during their service. However, in
contrast to electrochemical nature of metal corrosion, polymer degradation is of
physiochemical in nature.
• As polymer structures are complex, so are the mechanisms involved in their deterioration.
• Many factors involved in degradation of polymers, like – temperature, radiation,
environment, moisture, bacteria or external loads/stress.
• Polymers degrade mainly in three forms – swelling and dissolution, bond rupture, and
weathering.
(b) Corrosion of ceramics

• As ceramics are made of metals and non-metals, they can be considered as already corroded.
• Ceramics do get deteriorated during their service under extreme temperatures and external
loads.
• Factors effecting life of ceramic components include: temperature, external loads, vibrations,
environment, etc.
• Life span of ceramics can be increased by controlling the environment they are exposed to;
operational loads and temperatures; altering the component design.
Q-34: Give composition and uses of Permalloy and Cammalloy

A-34:
Composition Use
Permalloy 45 Permalloy (55%Fe-45%Ni), Application of soft magnets (Permalloy)
79 Permalloy (79% Ni-4% Mo-17 %Fe), include: cores for electro-magnets, electric
motors, transformers, generators, and
other electrical equipment.
Cammalloy 66.5% Ni, 30% Cu, 3.5% Fe Soft magnetic material, Curie point is
100oC
Page 14 of 14

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CODE: KHUSHRAHO10LIVE

Ex. IES Officer, (AIR 12, General

Ex. Faculty of MADE EASY and

Ex. Director of IES Academy

Ex. NTPC, BARC

ØWelding and Casting

Post operation secondary or tertiary Post operation secondary machining

Controls more than 100 CNC machines at a Cost is high

Explain the difference between NC and CNC

Explain, at least two, characteristics

What is indirect feedback ? [2-marks]

Illustrate with the help of neat sketches the

Enlist the advantages of DNC over CNC.

Differentiate between open loop, closed

(i) Measurement systems and Control systems

(ii) Open-loop systems and Closed-loop systems

1. Basic length Units of the system

2. Linear velocity of the table.

3. Frequency of pulses generated by the feedback device.

An open loop type NC machine has a stepper motor with a step

(ii) If the motor is rotating at 15 rpm, what is the pulse

Describe different types of control systems possible

applications using suitable schematic.

What is the function of MCU in NC machine?

• Word Address Format or variable block format

N20 G00 X1.200 Y0.100 F325 S1000 T03 M09 <EOB>

The MCU uses this alphabet for addressing a

• TAB Sequential Format or interchangeable format

In fixed block format no letter address of Tab code are used

20 00 1.200 0.100 325 1000 03 09 <EOB>

R is Position of the clearance plane (same as the

G80 is cancel Canned cycle

N120 M05 M09 <EOB>(M05 – spindle off, M09 – Coolant off)

N130 G00 X0 Y0 Z50 <EOB> (Rapid travel to X75.00 Y00.0

N140 M11 <EOB> (Unclamp)

N150 M30 <EOB> (Program Stop)

Two holes are to be drilled with a 10 mm diameter drill on a job as

(i) Fixed block format

(ii) TAB sequential format

(iii) Word address format

Assume permitted cutting speed = 32 m/min and feed rate = 150

Name the four types of statements in a complete

Prepare part using APT language for milling the

Material: MS Thickness: 8.0 mm

Define the term automation. Differentiate between

Which conditions are suitable for its application?

Describe four tests of flexibility that an automated

Compare lean production with mass production.

Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs)

where l is the length of the arc in cm. The power source

(ii) Thermal efficiency of the spot welding process if other heat

Young’s Modulus of aluminium = 68 GPa

Shear Modulus of adhesive = 1.9 GPa

Following data is given for the welding :

Current = 10000 Ampere

Maximum Allowable Indentation = 10 % of sheet thickness

Specific Melting Energy = 1800 J/gram

Effective resistance = 200 𝜇Ω

Density of weld nugget = 8 g/cc

Calculate the melting efficiency of the weld.

(NOTE: Radius of Nugget = 3√𝑡 mm , where t is the sheet thickness. )

Where l = length of the arc in mm. During a welding operation, it is

Upon cooling the eutectoid steel below 723°C, all of the

Alloys with less than 0.80% C are called hypo-eutectoid

Superalloys are important in high-temperature applications;

Superalloys generally have good resistance to corrosion,

Major applications of superalloys are in jet engines and gas

Generally, superalloys are identified by trade names or by special

Most superalloys have a maximum service temperature of about

Nimonic alloy is an alloy of nickel and chromium. Its

Cobalt-based superalloys generally contain from 35 to

As a result of their unique size, the physical and chemical

As nanotechnology develops, nanomaterials are finding

In addition, the constituent phases must be chemically

Most composites have been created to improve

The properties of composites are a function of the

Structural composites are combinations of composites

For effective reinforcement, the particles should be small and

The volume fraction of the two phases influences the

The strengthening mechanism involves interactions between

Fibre-reinforced composites with exceptionally high specific

Wire: Fine wires have relatively large diameters; typical materials

Commonly, metals and polymers are used as matrix

The matrix material should be ductile.

Matrix separates the fibres and, by virtue of its relative

Classifications of PMCs can be done according to reinforcement

Silicon carbide and aluminium oxide fibers are used in

The fracture toughness of ceramics can be improved

SiC whisker-reinforced aluminas are being utilised as

They are natural or synthetics resins.

Classification based on their temperature dependence:

This process is not reversible, hence thermosets

Characterized by high modulus / rigidity /dimensional