Article

Impact of Agility, Adaptability Global Business Review

16(5) 812–831
and Alignment on Humanitarian © 2015 IMI
SAGE Publications
Logistics Performance: Mediating sagepub.in/home.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0972150915591463
Effect of Leadership http://gbr.sagepub.com

Rameshwar Dubey1
Tripti Singh2
Omprakash K. Gupta3

Abstract
Even though researchers have immensely contributed in the field of supply chain agility, supply chain
adaptability and supply chain alignment, their impact on humanitarian supply chain performance and
their relationship is not well known. Leadership is the most discussed and one of the most debated
dimensions and little is known about leadership integration with a humanitarian supply chain network
design. We carried out a systematic literature review (SLR) to identify variables and their items to
design a structured questionnaire, which was pretested with experts in the humanitarian supply chain.
We conducted an empirical study on a sample of 306 responses that were collected by us during
Allahabad Kumbh from senior officials of the police department, Indian Railways, nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs), Uttar Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation and third-party logistics (3PL)
companies. We have used the exploratory factor analysis followed by the confirmatory factor analy-
sis to check the construct validity of scales and goodness of fit. We further tested our hypotheses
using regression analysis and mediation effect using Baron and Kenny’s (1986) proposed steps. We
further checked the mediation significance using the Sobel test. We found that supply chain alignment
is a strong determinant of logistics performance and human performance. The supply chain agility is
found to completely mediate between supply chain adaptability and human performance and partially
mediate between supply chain adaptability and logistics performance. Leadership has a partial mediation
effect between supply chain alignment and human performance.

Keywords
Supply chain agility, supply chain adaptability, supply chain alignment, leadership, mediation regression

1
Associate Professor, Operations Management, Symbiosis International University, India.
2
School of Management Studies, Motilal NIT, Allahabad, India.
3
College of Business, University of Houston-Downtown, Houston, USA.

Corresponding author:
Rameshwar Dubey, Operations Management, FIIPE, Symbiosis Institute of Operations Management, Symbiosis International
University, A-23, Shravan Sector, New CIDCO, Nashik 422 008, Maharashtra.
E-mail: rameshwardubey@gmail.com; rameshwar.dubey@siom.in

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Dubey et al. 813

Introduction
The humanitarian supply chain (HSC) network is very similar to business supply chain network but the
objective and parameters to measure HSC network performance are different (Kovacs & Spens, 2007,
2011). A business supply chain network aims to maximize supply chain surplus, whereas a HSC network
aims to provide maximum relief to the victims of an undesirable and unpredictable event (Petti &
Beresford, 2006; Trunick, 2005). The real challenge of any HSC network is heavily purposed and human
life driven. Many of them are designed to move materials to the disaster-hit areas to serve for those in
need in the shortest possible time. However, the complexity of the network depends upon the nature of
materials that is needed to be supplied to disaster-hit areas, which is almost uncertain from both the
demand and supply end. Disasters can be natural as well as man-made. These events can be characterized
as disasters when they occur in populated areas, causing the destruction of local infrastructure and
population leading to a state of deprivation and suffering. In the last three decades, the occurrence of
disasters has increased significantly. Humanitarian operations are initiated with the intent to provide
rapid assistance to victims in different ways, such as, rescuing those who are wounded or left stranded,
collecting and disposing dead bodies, resource allocation, provision of aid like food, shelter and medical
assistance and reconstructing the access to remote locations that are damaged due to disasters. In
humanitarian aid activities, delays in delivery or relief can cost lives. Therefore, efficiency in logistics
is a key factor as it ensures the smooth flow of goods and services in a complex supply chain system.
Disaster relief organizations are trying to move relief goods more quickly and effectively so that
victims can be saved. This requires the support of an agile, adaptable and properly aligned supply chain
network. In the last decade, this area attracted the attention of both academics and practitioners. However,
most of the works have dealt with agility or resilience supply chain network though there are overlaps
among concepts, such as, agility, adaptability, alignment and flexibility (e.g., Giachetti, Martinez, Saenz
& Chen, 2003; Gligor, Holcomb & Stank, 2013; Li, Chung, Goldsby & Holsapple, 2008), with notable
exceptions, such as, the work of Ketchen and Hult (2007) and Lee (2004). As a result, there is a lack of
notable works that can provide a clear distinction among these supply chain properties. In the works of
Charles, Lauras and Wassenhove (2010), it is noted that supply chain flexibility is a structural property
of supply chain agility. We further build on prior research and explicitly try to distinguish among supply
chain agility, supply chain adaptability and supply chain alignment. Supply chain agility is the property
of the supply chain network design that enables to sense short-term changes in the market environment
(e.g., demand fluctuations, supply disruptions and change in suppliers delivery), and rapid and flexible
response to those changes.
Supply chain adaptability is the property of a supply chain network that enables it to respond to
macro-changes in the environment (e.g., change in government policies, regulatory norms, cultural
ethics, political and social changes, technological changes and change in legal structure) by setting up
new facilities (e.g., setting up new warehouses, suppliers selection, third-party logistics service providers
and implementation of customized enterprise resource planning (ERP)) adjusting the supply chain
network configuration in a flexible way.
Supply chain alignment is the property of a supply chain network design that enables the supply chain
network to flexibly adjust supply chain network configuration to align the objective of the members of
the supply chain network (e.g., transparency among supply chain members, collaboration, profit sharing
and risk sharing). To the best of our knowledge, the concept of supply chain agility, supply chain
adaptability and supply chain alignment was covered in most of the recent works. We have not found
convincing studies that could delve on these aspects from the HSC design.

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814 Global Business Review 16(5)

Thus, it is clearly justified that these are the emerging areas in the HSC performance. In this article,
we try to explore the possible linkage among agility, adaptability and alignment on HSC performance
under the mediating effect of leadership.

Literature Review
In this section, we critically examine the works of various scholars in the related fields. Here, we have
adopted the Tranfield, Denyer and Smart (2003) and systematic literature review (SLR) approach to
conduct a review. In this section, we have divided our review into three stages.

Stage 1: Planning the Review

We have further divided review planning into various phases as:
Phase 1: Identification for the Need for Review
In our present study, we want to investigate the impact of the triple supply chain proposed by Lee (2004)
on HSC performance, under the mediating effect of leadership. Based on our observation(s), we wished
to undertake a study in the context of HSC and behavioural dimension impact on HSC performance.
Phase 2: Proposal for Review
The literature review is an integral component of any scientific work. To begin with this section, we first
identified reputable journals in the field of supply chain management and HSC management, such
as, International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Management, Supply Chain Manage-
ment: An International Journal, Journal of Humanitarian Logistics and Supply Chain Management,
International Journal of Logistics, International Journal of Production Economics, International
Journal of Operations and Production Management, Journal of Operations Management, Transporta-
tion Research, Benchmarking: An International Journal, International Journal of Production Research,
Journal of Supply Chain Management, Transportation Journal, International Journal of Logistics and
System Management, POM Journal, Journal of Business Logistics and other related journals.
We used keywords, such as, humanitarian logistics, humanitarian supply chain, triple-A supply
chain, supply chain performance, agility, supply chain agility, supply chain adaptability. In this way, we
identified over 100 articles published in the mentioned journals.
Phase 3: Development of a Review Protocol
We decided initially to review the published literatures. In order to eliminate our biasness towards any
work, we reviewed all possible articles published in past five years in all the mentioned journals related
to humanitarian logistics and supply chain, disaster management and its related concepts so that we do
not end up with sketchy literature or irrelevant literature.

Stage 2: Conducting a Review

Phase 4: Identification of Research
We initially reviewed some of the articles that deal with HSC and its related issues to identify our
research and define the scope of the present study (e.g., Akhtar, Marr & Garnevska, 2012; Altay &

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Dubey et al. 815

Green, 2006; Altay, Prasad & Sounderpandian, 2009; Balcik & Beamon, 2008; Cassidy, 2003; Long &
Wood, 1995; Charles et al., 2010; Christopher & Tatham, 2011; Cozzolino, Rossi & Conforti, 2012;
Holguin-Verras, Jaller, Wassenhove, Perez & Watchtendorf, 2012; Kovacs & Spen, 2007, 2009, 2011;
Murray, 2005; Pettit & Beresford, 2006; Scholten, Scott & Fynes, 2010; Thomas & Kopczak, 2005;
Trunick, 2005; Wassenhove, 2006).
We derived following issues, which are very relevant in present scenario:

1. HSC versus commercial supply chain (see, e.g., Holguin-Veras et al., 2012)
Scholars have clearly pointed out, that in spite of similarities, there are dissimilarities between
commercial supply chain and HSC network. The business supply chain network is driven with an
objective to maximize supply chain surplus; on the other hand, the HSC network is driven to
reduce the potential loss of human and infrastructure (pre-disaster) and provide maximum relief
and ensure quick recovery during the post-disaster phase.
2. HSC design (see, e.g., Charles et al., 2010; Tang & Tomlin, 2008)
An inefficient supply chain design, in the HSC network (HSC), can cause potential loss of lives
in comparison to increase the cost of distribution in the business supply chain network (Tatham
& Kovacs, 2007). Humanitarian logistics consists of various different operations at different
times and as a response to the various catastrophes (Kovacs & Spens, 2007). Further, they support
that humanitarian supply networks could also include the delivery of material to areas of chronic
need over time. It should be recognized as a special field of research. Ertem, Buyurgan and
Rossetti (2010) outline the differences between the commercial supply chain and humanitarian
supply network.
3. The impact of behavioural dimensions on HSC design (see, e.g., Kwon & Suh, 2005; Pettit &
Beresford, 2009; Sharif & Irani, 2012)
Leadership is one of the critical success factors of humanitarian operations and supply chain
network (e.g., Pettit & Bersford, 2009). Sharif and Irani (2012) have highlighted the importance
of supply chain leadership, which was the missing link in most of the operations and supply chain
articles. In our research, wel further explore the impact of leadership on HSC performance.
4. Pre-disaster and post-disaster HSC design and its performance measures (see, e.g., Charles et al.,
2010; Holguin-Veras et al., 2012). The nature of HSC design will differ, depending upon situa-
tions. If we consider the pre-disaster phase, then the overall objective behind supply chain design
will be different; however, if we consider the post-disaster phase, the objective will differ in
terms of scope and characteristics. We found that this aspect is clearly missing in most of the
available literature. However, some scholars have attempted to decode the DNA of HSC design
(e.g., Charles et al., 2010; Holguin-Veras et al., 2012).

Phase 5: Selection of Studies

We decided that the third issue, which is interesting due to the impact of behavioural dimension on
HSC design, can provide more insight into an emerging field like HSC design.
Phase 6: Study Quality Assessment
We reviewed the articles related to research design adopted, data collection procedures and data analysis.
We observed many variations in approaches adopted by researchers in terms of research objectives,
research design and scope of the study.
The variables we identified through the literature review are supply chain agility, supply chain
adaptability, supply chain alignment, leadership and HSC performance.

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In the next section, we will discuss our theoretical framework, hypotheses development and research
design to test our theoretical framework.

Theoretical Framework, Research Hypotheses and Research Design

Theoretical Framework
In our study, we try to develop a link among supply chain agility, supply chain adaptability and supply
chain alignment with HSC performance and try to understand the mediating effect of leadership between
supply chain alignment and HSC performance. We reviewed earlier models (e.g., Gligor & Holcomb,
2012; Ponomarov & Holcomb, 2009; Whitten, Green & Zelbst, 2012) and the moderating linkage model
(Meade & Sarkis, 2002). We found that every model is unique in terms of their scope. Sharif and Irani
(2012), in one of their articles, argued that ‘supply chain leadership’ is a critical dimension of supply
chain performance. The supply agility is the property, which is regarded as the source of competitive
advantage (e.g., Blome, Schoenherr & Rexhausen, 2013; Gligor & Holcomb, 2012; Li et al., 2008,
2009). Supply chain agility enables the supply chain network to cope with the demand or supply uncer-
tainties and in turn reduce the operational risks. The supply chain agility can positively impact opera-
tional performance (Gligor & Holcomb, 2012). The supply agility can also prepare the supply chain
network to recover promptly from external forces contributing to delivery and service level (Lee, 2004).
Supply chain adaptability can result in significant cost savings. Structural flexibility (e.g., outsourc-
ing) encourages the firm to improve responsiveness (Christopher & Holweg, 2011; Lee, 2004). Supply
chain adaptability can also improve supply chain performance (e.g., Lee, 2004; Whitten et al., 2012).
There are sufficient arguments to support that supply chain adaptability directly impacts supply chain
performance. However, one cannot ignore the possibility of the indirect effect of supply chain adaptabil-
ity under the mediating effect of supply chain agility. The agile capabilities of supply chain network
are also due to adaptable capabilities, such as, collaboration with third-party logistics (3PL) and other
supply chain partners to reduce lead time and improve delivery of products/services. Supply chain align-
ment can directly impact supply chain performance but particularly in the HSC network design, the
mediating role of leadership cannot be ignored. The success of a supply chain network particularly from
a humanitarian perspective leadership can help to improve the reliability of supply chain network design
by improving collaboration through information sharing and creating transparency. Figure 1 represents
our research framework.

Figure 1. Triple-A Leadership Framework

Source: Dubey and Gunasekaran (2015).

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Dubey et al. 817

Research Hypotheses
We draw our research hypotheses as:

Hypothesis 1: Supply chain agility is positively related to human performance.

Hypothesis 1a: Supply chain agility is positively related to logistics performance.
Hypothesis 2: Supply chain adaptability is positively related to human performance.
Hypothesis 2a: Supply chain adaptability is positively related to logistics performance.
Hypothesis 3: Supply chain agility mediates the effect of supply chain adaptability and human
performance.
Hypothesis 3a: Supply chain agility mediates the effect of supply chain adaptability and logistics
performance.
Hypothesis 4: Supply chain alignment is positively related to human performance.
Hypothesis 4a: Supply chain alignment is positively related to logistics performance.
Hypothesis 5: Leadership mediates the effect of supply chain alignment and human performance.
Hypothesis 5a: Leadership mediates the effect of supply chain alignment and logistics performance.

Questionnaire Development
To develop a measuring instrument for the final survey, researchers have adopted three approaches:

1. Exhaustive literature survey particularly on agility, adaptability, alignment, leadership and HSC
performance.
2. Experts opinion followed by pretesting.
For the purpose of pretesting, 25 experts including the Nashik police commissioner, Indian Red
Cross Society senior team members, Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT) India
members and reputed academicians whose papers have been cited and proven authority. Supply
chain agility, supply chain adaptability and supply chain alignment originally had 17 items that
were reduced to 14 items based on pretest results. Leadership originally consisted eight items,
which were reduced to six items and HSC performance measure originally consisted four items
were retained as it is.
  The questionnaire was divided into two sections. The first section consisted of supply chain
specific factors; the second section consisted of factors related to humanitarian supply chain
network related analyses.
3. Pilot survey to check the reliability and validity of constructs.
It is important to ensure sufficient pilot work is carried out during development of measures.
This will identify items that lack clarity or may not be appropriate for, or discriminate between,
respondents (Rattray & Jones, 2007). We have initially checked three dimensions during the
piloting of the questionnaire:
•  Items analysis
•  Internal consistency
•  Face or content validity

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Data Collection
The complete survey was sent to targeted police officers, Indian Railway officers including chief
personnel traffic manager (CPTM), deputy chief personnel traffic managers (DCPTM), senior and junior
managers of Uttar Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation, pilgrimage and government officials of the
Uttar Pradesh state who were involved in Kumbhmela project in Allahabad. A bilingual questionnaire
was developed so that the respondents can comfortably respond to the questionnaire.
The questionnaire was designed consisting of both positively and negatively worded questions to
avoid response biasness and personal administering method was used and respondents were assured that
respondent anonymity will be maintained.
Data were collected following a modified version of Dillman’s (2007) total design method. We sent
the survey to potential respondents in an e-mail attachment, and followed up with calls. Depending upon
the preference of the potential respondent, surveys were answered via e-mail, fax or mail. Overall, we
have received 123 usable responses. We then followed up constantly through e-mail and phone call.
After several follow-ups, we received another 183 usable responses. The late respondent’s response was
comparably higher. To check that our responses obtained in two phases were free from non-response
bias, we performed a non-response bias test, which we discuss in our next section.

Measures
Measures were modified after adopting from extant research. The scales were not directly adopted as
they were developed earlier in context to commercial supply chain network design. We used multi-item
measures of constructs for our theoretical framework in order to improve reliability, reduce measurement
error, ensure greater variability among survey individuals and improve validity (Churchill, 1979). Each
construct was operationalized using at least three items for effective measurement and analysis, applying
factor analysis (Gerbing & Anderson, 1988).
We further discuss this in Table 1.

Table 1. Constructs of Theoretical Framework

Variables Author(s), Year Context Definition

Supply Chain Aitken, Martin & Towill, 2002; Chatterjee, Manufacturing It is the ability of supply
Agility 2009; Christopher, 2000; Conboy & Fitzgerald, & service chain network to respond
2004; Gligor & Holcomb, 2012; Ismail & Shariffi, to the needs of the
2006; Jain, Benyoucef & Deshmukh, 2008; customers when demand
Khan, Christopher & Creazza, 2012; Kumar and supply uncertainty
& Deshmukh, 2006; Lee, 2004; Li et al., 2008; is very low.
Mehrotra, 2010; Sarkis, 2001; Swafford, Ghosh
& Murthy, 2006; Zhang & Shariffi, 2000; Zhao,
Droge & Stank, 2001
Baldini, Oliveri, Braun, Seuschek & Hess, 2012; Humanitarian Supply chain agility is key to
Christopher & Tatham, 2011; Cozzolino et al., humanitarian supply chain
2012; Holguin-Verras et al., 2012; Kovacs performance.
& Spen, 2007; Kovacs & Tatham, 2009;
Trunick, 2005; Wassenhove, 2006

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Dubey et al. 819

Variables Author(s), Year Context Definition

Adaptability Lee, 2004 General Adjust supply chain design
to accommodate market
changes. It is achieved
through regular tracking,
use intermediaries to
identify reliable vendors,
create flexibility, create
different supply chain for
different product lines.
Whitten et al., 2012 Adaptability is a critical
aspect of the supply chain
design. It helps the supply
chain to adjust according to
market conditions and need
of the hour.
Baramichai, Zimmers & Marangos, 2007; Supply chain design
Richey, Tokman & Wheeler, 2006 considers supply chain
partners to adapt
themselves according to
prevailing situation.
Balcik et al., 2010 Humanitarian Supply chain adaptability to
humanitarian environment
is a critical aspect of
humanitarian relief supply
chains.
Alignment Lee, 2004 To establish incentives
of supply chain partners
to improve supply chain
performance.
Bryson, 2004; Matthyssens & Vandenbempt, 2008 It is vital for supply chain
performance. It involves
information sharing among
supply chain partners.
Tang & Tomlin, 2008 Humanitarian It helps relief humanitarian
supply chains to perform
better.
Leadership Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman & Fetter, 1990; They developed scales
Podsakoff, Todor, Gover & Huber, 1984 to measure the extent to
which transformational and
transactional leadership
exhibit leadership
behaviours.
Awamleh & Gardner, 1999; Den Hartog & Leadership about
Verburg, 1997; Frese, Beimel & Schoenborn, 2003; communication
Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996; Riggio, Riggio, Salinas
& Cole, 2003; Shamir, Arthur & House, 1994;
Spangler & House, 1991; Towler, 2003; Vries,
Bakker-Piepper & Oostenveld, 2010
Sharif & Irani, 2012 Supply chain leadership
(Table 1 continued)

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(Table 1 continued)

Variables Author(s), Year Context Definition

Pettit & Beresford, 2009 Humanitarian Leadership is one of the
CSFs of the successful
humanitarian supply
chain operations and
performance.
Humanitarian Chen & Paulraj, 2004; Gunasekaran, Patel & Supply chain performance
Supply Chain McCaughey, 2004; Hoyt & Faizul, 2000 which is measured in terms
Performance of quality and cost of
delivery to ultimate victims
Abe & Ye, 2013; Kovacs & Spens, 2007 humanitarian supply
chain, performance will
be measured in terms of
time of delivery, quality
of delivered materials,
reduction in loss of lives,
reducing stock-out of
necessary medicines,
equipment and other
necessary items, best use of
donated items.
Source: Authors’ own compilation based on research, survey and data analyses.

We can draw characteristics of constructs that have been identified for building a theoretical frame-
work as:

1. Supply chain agility

•  Dynamic sensing
•  Dynamic flexibility
•  Speed
•  Responsiveness
2. Supply chain adaptability
•  Adapting to culture
•  Limitations of supply chain partners
•  Structural sensing
•  Structural flexibility
•  Collaboration
•  Innovativeness
3. Supply chain alignment
•  Transparency
•  Information sharing
•  Training and development
•  Communication design according to local needs
•  Performance reward
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Dubey et al. 821

4. HSC performance
•  Reduction in casualty
•  Response time
•  Quality of delivered materials
•  Reduction in stock-out
5. Leadership
•  Vision statement
•  Provide appropriate model
•  High performance expectation
•  Creating intellectual simulation

Indicators representing independent variables in our framework were captured using a 5-point Likert
scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. HSC performance variables were captured using
a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from not at all improved to significantly improved over the last arrangement
of the Kumbhmela.

Non-response Bias
Statisticians and other experts in the survey method (e.g., Armstrong & Overton, 1977; Barriball & While,
1999) recommend that the researcher should conduct a non-response bias analysis, regardless of how
high or how low the response rate is achieved. There are various non-response bias methods or techniques
available, as each approach has its own strengths and limitations. However, we use the wave analysis
technique because it is (i) a widely used method; (ii) inexpensive; (iii) less time consuming; (iv) low
in data requirements and (v) reasonable and coherent within our article context. The wave analysis
technique is also known as the linear extrapolation method (Armstrong & Overton, 1977). The differences
in the waves (wave 1 = initial respondents and wave 2 = late respondents) were analyzed. The
statistical difference was estimated using the chi-square test, and a p value less than or equal to 0.05 was
considered statistically significant. In our case, we found that they were not statistically significantly
different from each other. Therefore, we can conclude that non-response bias was not a major issue in our
present study.

Data Analysis
Construct Validity and Reliability Test
After collecting data, which have been discussed in our preceding section, an exploratory factor analysis
is to be performed to explore the interrelationship of variables. It provides the basis for the removal of
redundant or unnecessary items in developing measures and can identify the associated underlying
concepts or subscales of a questionnaire (Ferguson & Cox, 1993). We have carried out dimensions
reduction using the principle component analysis (PCA) that is commonly used, using statistical package
for social sciences (SPSS) 20.
Two main methods were used for factor extraction:

1. Kaiser’s criterion for those factors with an eigenvalue of  >1

2. Screen test
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Table 2. Final Rotated Factors Matrix for Independent Variables (IV)

Factors
1 2 3 4
Dynamic sensing     0.543  
Speed        
Responsiveness     0.722  
Flexibility     0.614  
Collaboration        
Organizational structure        
Culture of the state and nation must be recognized       0.742
Limitations of third-party logistics service provider must       0.591
be understood
Respect the state and country political and legal structure 0.703      
Adapt according to environmental needs       0.555
Communication design must be as per local need 0.849      
Information sharing 0.639      
Transparency 0.733      
Training and development 0.803      
Performance reward 0.688      
Vision statement   0.722    
Provide appropriate model        
High performance expectation   0.697    
Creating intellectual simulation   0.756    
Contingent reward   0.742    
Contingent punishment        
Eigenvalue 3.278773 2.129193 1.193129 1.20787
Source: Authors’ own compilation based on research, survey and data analyses.

We carried out PCA on gathered responses. In order to obtain a parsimonious structure, we have
performed an oblique rotation to derive an inter-correlation matrix among factors. Ideally, orthogonal
rotation is performed to obtain orthogonal factors. However, by performing varimax (orthogonal)
rotation, we will be forcing factors to be orthogonal. We have presented final rotated matrix in Table 2.
The matrix explains nearly 50 per cent of the total variance. After obtaining the parsimonious
factor matrix, an attempt has been made to give some meaning to the factor loadings as discussed
in Table 4.
Similarly, we have also obtained parsimonious structure for HSC performance variables as shown in
Table 3.
From Table 4, we can say that the constructs of our theoretical framework possesses convergent
validity as we can see standardized factor loadings of the items that are mostly greater than 0.7 and not
less than 0.5. Second, the scale composite reliability (SCR) is found to be greater than 0.6 and average
variance extracted (AVE) is found to be greater than 0.5 except in the case of supply chain agility and
supply chain alignment, where the AVE is found to be lower than 0.5, which suggests that more error is
remaining than the variance explained by the latent factor structure.
According to Fornell and Larcker (1981), if the diagonal elements are greater than lower half, squared
correlation coefficients as shown in Table 5, constructs possess discriminant validity. In summary,
constructs of our theoretical model possess adequate reliability, convergent validity and discriminant
validity.

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Dubey et al. 823

Table 3. Final Rotated Factors Matrix for Dependent Variables (DV)

Factors
1 2
Reduction in casualty 0.853
Response time after disaster was quick 0.857
Reduced in stock-out 0.889
Quality of delivered material 0.884
Eigenvalues 1.572 1.46
Source: Authors’ own compilation based on research, survey and data analyses.

Table 4. Scales and Their Standardized Loadings, Cronbach’s Alpha, Scale Composite Reliability (SCR) and
Average Variance Extracted (AVE)

Factor Cronbach’s
Variables Items Loadings Alpha SCR AVE
Supply chain agility (SCAg) Dynamic sensing 0.543 0.729 0.66 0.38*
Responsiveness 0.722 0.728
Flexibility 0.614 0.731
Supply chain adaptability Respect culture 0.742 0.738 0.67 0.40*
(SCAd) Limitations of supply chain 0.591 0.732
partners are understood
Adapt according to 0.555 0.729
environmental needs*
Supply chain Respect the state and 0.703 0.716 0.88 0.55
alignment (SCAAl) country political and legal
structure
Communication design must 0.849 0.722
be as per local need
Information sharing 0.639 0.718
Transparency 0.733 0.718
Training and development 0.803 0.720
Performance reward 0.688 0.721
Leadership (Ld) Vision statement 0.722 0.734 0.82 0.53
High performance 0.697 0.740
expectation
Creating intellectual 0.756 0.727
simulation
Contingent reward 0.742 0.735
Human performance (HP) Reduction in casualty 0.853 0.718 0.84 0.73
Response time after disaster 0.857 0.715
was quick
Logistics performance (LP) Reduction in stock-out 0.889 0.745 0.88 0.79
Quality of delivered material 0.884 0.739
Source: Authors’ own compilation based on research, survey and data analyses.
Note: *AVE < 0.5.

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Table 5. Discriminant Validity Test for Constructs of Theoretical Framework

  SCAg SCAd SCAl Ld HP LP

SCAg 0.616441          
SCAd 0.03168 0.63245553        
SCAl 0.0784 0.00058 0.74161985      
Ld 0.00053 0.01716 0.01823 0.72801099    
HP 0.06656 0.05429 0.09486 0.00865 0.85440037  
LP 0.00449 0.05664 0.0222 0.0049 0.00672 0.88882
Source: Authors’ own compilation based on research, survey and data analyses.
Notes: •  Diagonal (bold) represents the square root of AVE.
•  Lower half indicates the squared correlation coefficients between the constructs.

Hypotheses Tests
We tested our hypotheses using linear regression and mediation effects of supply chain agility and
leadership that were analyzed using a regression analysis procedure suggested by Baron and Kenny
(1986). We checked our regression analysis assumptions as:

I. Constant variance
II. Normality test
III. Homoscedasticity

We used plots of residuals and statistics of skewness and kurtosis. To detect multivariate outliers, we
used the Mahalanobis distances of predicted variables (Cohen, Cohen, West & Aiken, 2003; Stevens,
1984). The maximum absolute values of skewness and kurtosis were found to be 0.910 and 0.976, which
are well within the limits recommended by past research (skewness < 2, kurtosis < 7) (Curran, West &
Finch, 1996). To test multivariate normality, we applied Mardia’s (1970) coefficients of multivariate
normality skewness and kurtosis, which were found to be non-significant (p < 0.05), indicating
multivariate normality. Neither the plots nor the statistics indicated any deviances beyond limits suggest
that the assumptions for regression analysis are met.
We have presented a regression analysis output for six hypotheses, that is, 1, 1a, 2, 2a, 4 and 4a, in
Table 6 and the remaining hypotheses 3, 3a, 5 and 5a, were analyzed using the mediating regression
analysis as presented in Table 7.

Table 6. Regression Analysis

Beta Durbin–
Hypothesis R R^2 F Coefficient p Watson VIF
Hypothesis 1 0.104 0.011 3.86 0.085 0.049 1.576 1
Hypothesis 1a 0.204 0.042 14.141 0.204 0.000 1.781 1
Hypothesis 2 0.033 0.001 0.351 –0.033 0.554* 1.566 1
Hypothesis 2a 0.159 0.025 8.449 0.159 0.004 1.701 1
Hypothesis 4 0.151 0.023 7.557 0.151 0.006 1.517 1
Hypothesis 4a 0.483 0.234 99.138 0.483 0.000 1.572 1
Source: Authors’ own compilation based on research, survey and data analyses.
Note: *Not significant.

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Dubey et al. 825

Table 7. Mediating Regression Analysis Output Using Baron and Kenny (1986)

Path C Path D (controlling Sobel

Hypothesis Path A Path B (total effect) for the mediator) Mediation p value
Hypothesis 3 0.148 0.104 Not significant 0.112 Complete mediation 0.042
Hypothesis 3a 0.148 0.204 0.159 0.132 Partial mediation 0.003
Hypothesis 5 0.135 0.215 0.151 0.124 Partial mediation 0.021
Hypothesis 5a 0.135 0.015 0.483 0.490 Partial mediation 0.38*
Source: Authors’ own compilation based on research, survey and data analyses.
Note: *Not significant.

We can see from Table 6 hypothesis 2, that is, supply chain adaptability positively related to human
performance, is not supported. It is found to be statistically insignificant. We can see from Table 6, the
value of Durbin–Watson is between 1.5 and 2.5 as suggested by Field (2005) and variance inflation
factor (VIF) statistic is 1, which is well below threshold value 4.0 as suggested by Hair, Anderson,
Tatham and Black (1998). If we analyze the path, connecting supply chain agility and human perfor-
mance, we can see that the beta coefficient is positive and statistically significant. The coefficient of vari-
ation of the path is 0.011, which is quite negligible. However, it is a due error as we can see the AVE
value for supply chain agility is lower than 0.5.
The path connects supply agility and logistics performance whose coefficient of variation is slightly
better which is 0.042 and beta coefficient is 0.204 and statistically significant. This suggests that the
supply chain agility is a significant driver of logistics performance. The path connecting supply chain
adaptability and human performance is found to be statistically insignificant. The coefficient of determi-
nation of the path is negligibly small and suggests that supply chain adaptability may not be the direct
driver of human performance. However, it can indirectly influence human performance, which is
discussed while exploring the mediation effect of supply chain agility, that is, hypothesis 3.
However, the beta coefficient of the path connecting supply chain adaptability and logistics
performance is found to be statistically significant and we found that the coefficient of determination of
the path is 0.025. It is very important to adapt to the situation as far as the selection of the mode of
transportation is concerned.
Supply chain alignment has a very strong impact on logistics performance. It explains nearly
23.4 per cent of the total logistics performance variance. The beta coefficient of the path connecting
supply chain alignment and logistics performance is 0.483 and found to be statistically significant at
p = 0.000. It is also seen that supply chain alignment has also a positive and statistically significant
impact on human performance, which explains nearly 2.3 per cent of the total human performance
variance.
We now discuss hypothesis 3, hypothesis 3a, hypothesis 4 and hypothesis 4a from Table 7.
We can see that except hypothesis 5a, all hypotheses are supported. Hypothesis 5a, that is, leadership
mediates the effect of supply chain alignment and logistics performance, is not supported, which we
have checked using Sobel statistic (Sobel, 1982).
The mediation regression output suggests that supply chain agility mediates between supply chain
adaptability and human performance. The result shows that supply chain adaptability also helps to
improve supply chain agility (Lee, 2004). We further present the conclusion, unique contribution of
present study, contributions to supply chain literature and further research directions.

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826 Global Business Review 16(5)

Conclusion
The EFA output suggests that in the case of HSC network dynamic sensing, responsiveness and flexibility
are important dimensions of supply chain agility. In order to improve supply chain adaptability of
the supply chain network, focus should be on culture, developing mutual respect and trust among
supply chain partners and responding to environmental needs. Supply chain alignment can be improved
by effective communication design, through proper training and development, collaboration and
maintaining transparency. It is consistent with previous findings (e.g., Holguin-Veras et al., 2012;
Lee, 2004; Sheffi, 2005).
HSC performance is loaded on two factors. One is human performance and another is logistics
performance, which suggests HSC network performance. Human performance measures the mitigation
and preparedness level and logistics performance indicates the response and on-time delivery of
necessary materials to victims. The result statistically validates the dimensions proposed by previous
researchers (e.g., Kovacs & Spens, 2007; Tatham & Spens, 2008). The findings of exploratory factor
analysis are further tested using the mediating regression analysis. The mediating regression analysis
output suggests that supply chain adaptability under the mediating effect of supply chain agility is an
important predictor of human performance and supply chain alignment under mediating effect of
leadership is a strong predictor of logistics performance.
Our conclusive framework is shown in Figure 2.

Unique Contributions
We have tried to answer 3W and IH, that is, what, why, when and how, outlined by Whetten (1989) in his
one of the seminal articles. We have defined our constructs, which we have derived using SLR. We have
further developed our framework based on identified research gaps and expert opinions. The question-
naire was designed scientifically and pretested with experts to empirically test our proposed framework
and developed scales and tested their construct validity and goodness of fit using confirmatory factor
analysis and tested research hypotheses using regression analysis.
The present study aims to contribute to the supply chain literature and test the Lee (2004) ‘triple-A
supply chain’ framework. In the past, there were studies that tested the Lee (2004) framework from a
commercial supply chain point of view. However, we have tried to contribute from HSC, which is vital

Figure 2. Conclusive Framework

Source: Dubey and Gunasekaran (2015).

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Dubey et al. 827

for society. The present study provides an insight to the managers to focus on communication design
and defining KPIs of each supply chain partners. This will help to enhance supply chain adaptability and
supply alignment.

Further Research Directions

The present study can further be extended using the split survey method, which will improve the
reliability of the response. There is need for further study using organizational culture dimension and
supply chain resilience on HSC performance. The AVE of supply chain agility and supply chain
adaptability are found to be lower than 0.5, which indicates that the impact of error is high, which can be
further resolved using a split survey. The present study can further be extended by covering more NGOs
and the military.

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the anonymous referees of the journal for their extremely useful suggestions to improve
the quality of the article. We are also grateful to Mr K.K. Sarangal, commissioner of police (Nashik), and his entire
team for their support in conducting studies on Kumbh. This work is part of our project on ‘Kumbh 2015’, which is
supported by the Symbiosis Institute of Operations Management and Maharashtra State Police.

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