THE EFFECTS OF ARMED CONFLICTS ON FOOD SECURITY IN GUMA

LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA

BY

BUTER TERWASE ALFRED

BSU/SS/SOC/16/41848

BEING A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

SOCIOLOGY, FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, BENUE STATE
UNIVERSITY, MAKURDI IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
(B.Sc.) IN SOCIOLOGY.

SEPTEMBER, 2021

i
 APPROVAL PAGE

This research study titled: “The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Food Security In

Guma Local Government Area” was written by: BUTER TERWASE ALFRED

with matriculation number BSU/SS/SOC/16/41848 and approved as having satisfied

the project requirement for the award of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) Degree in the

Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Benue State University, Makurdi.

_______________________ ________________________
Dr. Joyce Rumun Akpenpuun Date
Supervisor

_______________________ _______________________
Dr. Comfort Ugbem-Onah Date
Head of Department

______________________ ______________________
External Examiner Date

ii
 DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to the Almighty God for seeing us through our
academic pursuit up to this level. We return all adorations to Him.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to sincerely express my fervent gratitude to the Almighty God and my

supervisor Dr. Joyce Rumuun Akpenpuun for her enthusiasm, patience,insightful

comments and mentorship during my research process. Her diligent supervision is the

outcome of this beautiful piece of work, I remain grateful to her.

My appreciation also goes to the Head of Sociology Department, Dr. Comfort

Ugbem-Onah, and the lecturers under whose tutelage I was equipped to carry out this

work. Up for mention are; (Rev. Fr.) Prof. Shagbaor Wegh, Prof. Agnes Ikwuba, Prof.

I.W. Ajir, Dr. Benjamin Gowon Ahule, Dr. Godwin Akpehe, Dr. Elizabeth Tagher,

Dr. Erdoo Uya, Dr. Terungwa Mpem, Dr. Peter Azende, Dr. Rhoda Dewua,, Celetina

Akpoughul, Dr. Godwin Timiun, Mr Chris Abari, Mr, Anchovur Timothy, Mr E.E.

Odiba, Mr. Nda Fredrich. Mr. Donald Aende, Mr. Lawrence Kwaghga and Mr.

Stephen Anyor.

I will also like to appreciate my parents and family members for their love and

support especially to Mr. Buter Lubem Francis, and Mrs Christian Sewuese, Mr.

Buter Ngutor Barnabas and Buter Terfa Ernest. And to all who have in one way or the

other contributed for the success of my research work I say thank you and God bless

you all.

I also appreciate my, friends, relatives and course mates who have contributed

in one way or the other to ensure my academic success especially, and lastly to all

authors, whose works I consulted in the course of this research; and to others who

have contributed in various ways to the success of this work but whose names have

not been mentioned. I say a big thanks to all of you.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 6

1.3 Research Questions 7

1.4 Objectives of the Study 8

1.5 Significance of the Study 8

1.6 Scope of the Study 9

1.7 Definition of Terms 10

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Conceptual Review 11

2.1.1 Armed Conflict 11

2.1.2 Food Security 13

2.2 Causes of Armed Conflict 15

2.3 The Situation of Armed Conflict in Benue State 22

2.4 Why Guma Local Government Area is at the Centre of the Armed Conflict 25

2.5 Effects of Armed Conflicts on Food Security 27

2.6 Measures to Sustain Food Security Inspite of Armed Conflicts 30

2.7 Theoretical Framework 36

2.7.1 Conflict Theory 36

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design 40

3.2 The Study Setting 40

3.3 Population and Sample of the Study 42

3.4 Sample Size Determination 42

3.5 Sampling Procedure 43

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3.6 Methods of Data Collection

44

3.5 Techniques of Data Analysis

44

CHAPTER FOUR:DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF

FINDINGS

4.1 Data Presentation 45

4.1.1 Section A: Socio-demographic Attributes of Respondents

45

4.2 Factors Justifying Why Guma Local Government Area is at the Centre of the Armed
Conflict 47

4.3 The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Food Security in Guma Local Government Area

4.4 Measures of Sustaining Food Security In Spite of Armed Conflicts in Guma L.G.
55

4.5 Summary of Findings Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.6 Discussion of Findings 57

CHAPTER FIVE:SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary 68

5.2 Conclusion 70

4.3 Recommendations 70

References 72

Appendix I 45

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Appendix ii 79

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Socio Demographic Attributes of respondents

Table 2: Why Guma L.G. is the Center of Armed Conflict in Benue State.

Table 3: Frequency of Armed Conflicts in Guma L. G. A. Between 2010-2019

Table 4: Number of Lost Family Members

Table 5: Number of Displaced Cases Observed

Table 6: Effects of Armed Conflict Farming Activities

Table 7: Effects of Armed Conflict Food Security

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 ABSTRACT

This study assessed the effects of armed conflicts on food security in Guma Local
Government with the following objectives; to examine the current conflict situation,
to identify the effects of armed conflicts on food security and to suggest measures on
how food security can be sustained in Guma Local Government Area. Conflict theory
was adopted for the study; data was gathered quantitatively using questionnaire as
well as qualitatively using in-depth interview methods, sample size was determined
using Yamane’s formula. A multi stage sampling technique consisting of probability,
balloting and random samplings were used for the study. Data were analyzed using
descriptive statistics and content analysis. Findings of the study revealed that the
current situation of armed conflict in Guma local government area was pervasive; the
study revealed that many villages were affected by these armed conflicts leading to
the displacement of the native farmers from their ancestral homes. The study revealed
that this conflict has led to the death of many with some physically incapacitated by
injuries from the conflict situation. The study revealed the nature of armed conflict
within the study area to be manifest in the conflict between farmers and herdsmen.
Efforts meant at brokering peace to restore sanity in the area have proved rather
abortive, the very reason the conflict continues to escalate and spread in a centrifugal
fashion to the neighbouring areas. Furthermore, the study revealed that armed
conflicts had devastating effects on food security in Guma local government area.
This was manifest in the low output of agricultural products. Additionally, the study
revealed that armed conflicts make it difficult for farmers, marketers and final
consumers to access agricultural produce due to transportation issues, and that armed
conflicts also led to the disruption of farming activities and the reduction of the farers
population due to the fact that, some farmers had to abandon farming for the urban
areas in search of other sources of livelihood. The study concluded that armed conflict
is a threat to food security in Guma and that urgent steps be taken to contain the
situation. The study recommended that in the wake of armed conflicts in Guma local
government area, food security could be guaranteed through the deployment of formal
security agencies to the areas of conflict concentration to enable farmers continue in
their farming activities, that farmers should migrate to neighboring areas that are
better secure to continue agricultural activities intermittently, the study also revealed
that if farmers are provided with aid and grants in form of improved seedling, it will
alleviate their pains, it was also revealed that, the enforcement of the prohibition of
open grazing and ranches establishment law would ensure that, farmers continue the
seasonal activities without disruption.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

During the forty-year period of the Cold War, there were 120 wars involving

many developing countries. Five of those involved more than one million casualties

each, and a further six claimed more than 200,000 lives (de Soysa et al, 1999).

Between 1950 and 1990, some fifteen million deaths were caused directly or

indirectly by wars of all types including international conflicts, civil war, and

government violence against citizens (Steward and Fitzgerald, 2001). The end of the

Cold War saw a transition towards peace in many areas in which conflict had been

fuelled by East-West antagonism. But as this antagonism declined new wars broke

out and in the period 1990-2018 there were 57 different major armed conflicts in 45

locations around the world (SIPRI, 2002). Most of these locations were in

developing countries and more than half of the least developed countries have

experienced major armed conflicts during the past twenty years (Fitzgerald, 2000).

Most of these conflicts occurred in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

These post-Cold War conflicts were very different from those by proxy or the

anti-colonial and national liberation struggles which had characterized developing

countries’ wars during the Cold War era. Tensions which had been suppressed by the

superpowers’ confrontation over several decades resurfaced, often exacerbated by

ethnic and religious tensions, and by poverty (Alen, 2013). Civilian fatalities climbed

from 5 percent of war-related deaths at the beginning of the century to more than 90

percent in the wars of the 1990s. Indeed, recent conflicts have tended to be much

more violent, and have witnessed new weapons and patterns of conflict, including

the indiscriminate use of land-mines and antipersonnel cluster bombs, as well as the

1
proliferation of light weapons. As a result, many of the victims have been civilians,

mainly women and children, causing massive harm to the human development in

these countries (UNDP, 1998). Conflicts destroy years of progress in building social

structure, establishing functioning government institutions, fostering community-

level solidarity and social cohesion and promoting economic development. Very

often these conflicts are sustained through the pillage of natural resources, illicit

trade, labor exploitation, land-grabbing and mafia-style criminal activities. The

conflicts in Liberia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Sierra Leone and

now Nigeria fall into this category (IFPRI, 2001).

Armed conflicts and Food insecurity are two major problems that have

aroused the attention of scholars, political analysts, and governments in developing

countries. Conflict exists in all countries and in every society. Conflict parse is by no

means a negative force; rather it is a natural expression of social differences and of

humanity’s perpetual struggle for justice and self-determination. If managed after

nonviolence, it can be positive, a source of immense creativity and progress

(Anderlini and Stanski 2004). Armed conflicts can be described as, open armed

clashes between two or more centrally organized parties, with continuity between the

clashes, in disputes about power over government and territory (Dan 2004). It is a

struggle or contest between people with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values, or

goals. Conflicts denote the incompatibility of subject position. (Diez 2007).

Available statistics show that, in Nigeria between 2010-2017, in north east

73% of conflicts were caused by terrorism, 7% were caused by land resources, 15%

by land or resource access 5% were caused by political gimmicks, religion or

personal disputes. In North Central Nigeria, 25% of armed conflicts were caused by

terrorism, 55% of armed conflicts were caused by land resources or access scramble,

2
16% were cause by cultism or criminality while 8% conflicts were caused as a result

of ethnicity, politics, or religion. In the South-South, 19% conflicts were caused by

access to land resources, 36% were as a result of cultism or criminality, while 32%

were cause by personal disputes. (World Bank 2018).

Food security in Nigeria has been described as a problem of “access to food,”

a function of food production and its affordability for individuals. Food security, in

general, is a multi-faceted concept; a lag product of factors such as politics, climate,

livelihoods, among others, which can have profound implications for poverty, health,

nutrition, and civil security.

Conflicts can be grouped into two major types: the first type, the

conventional conception of war understood as armed conflict between two states.

The second armed conflict is civil war, which has a condition of armed conflict

between a state and an internally located insurgent movement that have taken up

arms. However many conflicts that occur in Nigeria come in form of terrorism,

cultism or criminality, ethnicity, politics, religion or political disputes, struggle for

land and its resource (Vars, 2009).

Conflict entails enormous and multifaceted costs, although the causal effects

may differ across conflict zones, commonly observed features are that conflicts

disrupt food production through physical destruction and plundering of crops and

livestock including direct human suffering and catastrophic socioeconomic

disruptions, which can significantly impede economic and social progress. Most

conflicts mainly affect rural areas and their populations, with heavy impacts on

agricultural production and rural livelihoods. This is particularly true for civil

conflicts, which in recent years have become the most common form of armed

conflict. Conflict can reduce the amount of food available, disrupt people’s access to

3
food, limit families’ access to food preparation facilities and health care, and increase

uncertainty about satisfying future needs for food and nutrition (Simmons, in FAO

2016)).

Many of the countries affected by conflicts are low-income countries where

agricultural statistics are of questionable accuracy even during peace time. Decades

of recurring armed conflicts have rendered Nigeria one of the food insecure countries

in the world. Poverty rates are 20 percentage points higher in countries affected by

repeated cycles of violence over the last three decades. Every year of violence in a

country is associated with lagging poverty reduction of nearly one percentage point

(World Bank, 2011). Countries with the highest levels of undernourishment tend to

be those engaged in violent conflict, or that have recently emerged from it. High risk

of conflicts is a key characteristic of fragile states and the probability of a high

burden of hunger rises exponentially with the degree of fragility. Conflicts affect the

various facets of food security both nationwide, regionally and locally. With the

grave consequences faced as a result of these armed conflicts, several important

policies, programs and initiatives have been put into place by the EU, G8, United

Nation, Africans Union (AU) and other international partners for peace-support

efforts are helping to maintain peace agreement and support post conflict-

reconstruction and peace building as well as promoting of co-operation in Africa. In

Nigeria, the establishment of Joint Task Force (JTF), Operation “Lafia Dole”,

Livestock Guard and setting up of various conflict resolution committees among

others are some efforts to curtail the trends (Jimmy, 2015).

Preventing armed conflicts or promoting peace is not easy, there is none-the-

less a growing consensus that armed conflict is not and should be considered

inevitable. The challenge is lack of political will on the part of leaders both at local,

4
national, and international communities, to proactively seek to diffuse and resolve a

situation before its escalation into violence. A study by Carnegia commission on the

prevention of deathly conflicts by Anderlini and Stanki (2004) identified conflict

prevention as action or policies to: operational prevention (or direct prevention-

measures as to address immediate crisis (sending high level diplomatic mission to

mediate between parties using economic tools such as sanctions, inducement, or

collecting weapons and demolishing fighting units), and employing forceful

measures such as deploying peace keepers to a region; and structural prevention (or

root cause prevention), addressing root causes such as poverty, political repression

and uneven distribution of resources which can if left unattended escalate into

violence. (Ugwu & Ennan (2015)

Armed conflicts tend to affect food security by creating food shortages,

which disrupt both upstream input markets and downstream output markets, thus

deterring food production, commercialization and stock management. Depending on

the location of the fights in a country, crops cannot be planted, weeded or harvested,

decreasing dramatically the levels of agricultural production. In conflict situations,

food producing regions experience seizing or destroying of food stocks, livestock

and other assets, interrupting marketed supplies of food not only in these regions but

also in neighbouring regions. These predatory activities diminish food availability

and food access directly, because both militias and regular armies in the field tend to

subsist by extorting the unarmed populations for food and any other productive

resources (Umoh, 2018).

Agriculture may be reduced to subsistence and survival production by

farmers who manage to stay, because there is no security to invest deeply in

production. Recruitment of young male men into militias and thousands of battle-

5
 related deaths not only will reduce family income but also take away labour from

agriculture. It may become more difficult for small farmers to rely on cash crops

such as rice and soyabeans as their income sources due to either desertion of

belongings in the face of threatening rebels or prevention from transporting the

commodities to local markets (Umoh, 2018). Against this backdrop, this study sets

out to assess the effects of armed conflicts on food security in Guma Local

Government Area of Benue state.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Benue state, like any other state in the Middle-belt region of the country has

experienced various forms and degree of armed conflicts in recent times. These

armed conflicts include but not limited to resource based conflict such as

farmes/herdsmen conflict, communal conflict and institutional conflict due to

political religious and ethnic reasons. These conflict no doubt can affect food

security and have adverse effects on region (Adese, 2015).

World over, due to environmental changes, there has been increased

completion for natural resources, due largely to population explosion, farmers and

herdsmen have had to compete for land, a resource where herdsmen have to grace

and farmers have to cultivate food items (Geet, 2014). In Africa, the crises have led

to the destruction of crops and animals as well as other properties worth billions of

dollars. In Nigeria, the middle belt region have been overwhelmed by herdsmen

conflict for the last 20 years leading to a decline of their GDP (Geri, 2016). In Benue

state, it has been a throe of woes leading to its Governor, Samuel Ortom declaring

himself a “defender of the Benue valley”.

Between 2013 and 2019, Guma Local Government Area came under constant

armed attacks by the herdsmen, killing some of the farmers, destroying farmlands

6
 and crops, destroying homes, properties and displacing people who subsequently

find shelter in Internally Displaced People (IDPs) camps. If this armed conflict

continues, what will be its effects on food security in Guma Local Government Area

of Benue state.

The incessant armed conflict between herdsmen/farmers and the communal

conflict between communities in Benue state is indeed a serious threat to food

security. The crisis has resulted in dire humanitarian, social, economic, and socio-

economic consequences such as loss of lives and property, displacements and hunger

in the state. This has created an atmosphere of mental siege and terror among the

populace in a way that affects farming activities. Although, Benue State government

has made efforts by providing camps for Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) and also

enacted a law prohibiting open grazing, the herdsmen are still attacking and the

affected farmers are yet to return to their ancestral lands to commence their farming

activities. This may negatively affect food production in the study area as well as

income generation. It is against this background that the study sets out to examine the

effects of armed conflicts on food security in Guma Local Government Area of Benue

state.

1.3 Research Questions

The identified problems above lead us to ask the following questions:

i. What is the trend of armed conflict in Guma local Government

Area?

ii. Why is Guma Local Government Area in the centre of armed

conflict in Benue state?

iii. What are the effects of armed conflicts on food security in Guma

Local Government Area?

7
 iv. How can food security be sustained in Guma Local Government

Area in spite of the armed conflict situation?

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The general aim of this study is to assess effects of armed conflicts on food

security in Guma Local Government Area. In specific terms, the study will cover

the following objectives.

1. To ascertain the trend of armed conflicts in Guma Local Government area.

2. To examine the reasons why Guma Local Government Area is in the centre of

armed conflict in Benue state.

3. To identify the effects of armed conflicts on food security in Guma Local

Government Area.

4. To suggest measures on how food security can be sustained in Guma Local

Government Area in spite of the armed conflict situation.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study has both theoretical and practical significance. Theoretically, this

study is expected to contribute significantly to the already existing literature on armed

conflicts and food security which is not much enough for a sociological work on the

discourse. The study will also provide invaluable opportunity for testing the validity or

explanatory prowess of existing theories on conflict. The research will in addition

serve as a reference point for future research work on the subject to stimulate further

research on armed conflicts arising from resource use. It is also hoped that this study

will provide valuable information to the general public on the extent to which armed

conflicts have affected food security and how it has impacted on the lives of the

people’s poor condition in the area of study. It is also hoped that this study will

8
 motivate as well as help interested persons to conduct more research on armed

conflicts and food security in Nigerian communities.

Empirically, this study hopes to generate findings that may form the basis for a

policy response to the problem. In addition some intervention programs must be pulled

due to the practical significance to the policy makers and non-governmental

organizations and social workers. Finally, findings may go a long way in positively

reforming the response of the public and government to the problem. The ideas

expressed above draws us directly to the significance of this work. Policies shall be

formulated by the government to address this challenge of food security, also a

working relationship shall be provided through recommendations to bring about

lasting peace and food security in Guma Local Government Area of Benue State.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The geographical scope of this study is Guma Local Government Area of

Benue State. Guma Local Government Area has 10 council wards. These incude,

Ndzorov, Uvir, Mbabai, Mbawa, Nyiev Yandev, Abinsi, Kaambee, Shangev and

Mbadwem.

Academically, the study shall cover only the causes of armed conflicts in

Guma Local Government Area, the effects of armed conflicts on food security in

Guma Local Government Area and the measures to sustain food security in spite of

armed conflicts in Guma Local Government Area.

The study will further, cover the period between 2010- 2019. This is because

this period saw an upsurge of the crisis in the geographical area under study and most

of the rural dwellers who are farmers are still in Internally Displaced Camps (IDCs),

thereby, affecting food security in the area.

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1.7 Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined as they apply to this study:

i. Conflict. Conflict is understood as a process in which two or more parties

attempt to frustrate the attainment of the other’s goals. It occurs when there is a

struggle between opponents over values and claims to scarce status, power and

other resources.

ii. Armed conflicts: this can be described as, open armed (guns, hatchets, and

daggers) clashes between two or more centrally organized parties, with

continuity between the clashes, in disputes about power over government and

territory.

iii. Food security. This refers to all the activities aimed at ensuring food

availability for human consumption. Such activities include growing of crops,

rearing of animals, nurturing, harvesting, processing and marketing.

10
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter reviews scholarly researches that are related to this study. The

review is done under the following sub- themes: Conceptual review, causes of armed

conflicts in Nigeria, the effects of armed conflicts on food security and the measures

to reduce armed conflicts. The chapter closes with a theoretical review, which

attempts to explain the effects of armed conflicts on food security in Guma Local

Government Area of Benue state.

2.1 Conceptual Review

This section contains conceptual review of Armed Conflict and Food security.

2.1.1 Armed Conflict

Armed conflict is an existing state of disagreement or hostility between two or

more people involving the use of arms such as firearms, matchet, spear, bow and

arrow among others (Nicholson, 2015). By this, it means two or more parties do not

have an accord and are as such on two different parallels on the same issue. It thus

suggests the pursuit of incompatible goals. Put differently, conflict means collision

course; it also refers to opposition to existing view, stand, or position. In politics,

conflict is more explicitly defined. Armed conflict is said to exist when two or more

groups engage in a struggle over values and claims to status, power and resources in

which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate the rivals

(Jeong, 2014).

Goal incompatibility implies opposing or diametrically opposed motives or

pursuits. For instance, the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics were pursuing incompatible goals (capitalist democracy and socialism

11
respectively) between 1945 and 1990, an era historically referred to as the Cold War

The ‘war’ implies the conflict of ideologies and irreconcilability of foreign policies.

The period between 1967 and 1970 witnessed the total breakdown of relations and

concord in Nigeria, as the East seceded from the federation because of irreconcilable

differences with the rest of Nigeria. This led to the Civil War, which further

aggravated the conflict because the East pursued the cause of sovereignty and

nationhood, which ran contrary to the cause of ‘unity’ that the Nigerian government

pursued (Anther, 2016).

Conflict also connotes different perceptions, which may not necessarily result

in hostility. This way, conflict simply means ‘a different perception’ or view to an

issue or situation (Barash and Webel, 2012). Here, it may mean a different

interpretation of a motive, or a different world-view. These include religion, customs,

cosmologies or values. Such differences may never culminate in direct and sharp

confrontations. On the other hand however, different perceptions, values or world-

views may transcend just ‘differences’ and result in the extreme connotation of

conflict. Inter-faith violence is a critical example of such breakdown. Sometime ago

in Nigeria, a splinter group of the Oodua People’s Congress (OPC) in the Southwest

emerged as a result of growing differences in perceptions, motives interests and

values. But soon after, the split and differences led to direct clashes and breakdown of

law and order.

Armed conflict may also connote hostility or physical confrontation (Jeong,

2014). When goal incompatibility or perception/value differences reach a crescendo, a

manifestation of actual hostility or clashes is possible. In general literature, conflict is

interchangeably used with other terms. This is where it becomes pertinent to mention

words or terms that represent synonyms of conflict. These include contrast,

12
 disharmony, discord, struggle, contest, strife, antagonism, controversy, clash, rivalry,

contest, contention, brawl, fisticuff, fight, battle, feud, combat and war. In politics, it

is not too dissimilar; however, conflict technically means an existing state of

disconnect between two or more parties on a prevailing issue. It is however important

to know that conflict does not always denote war. While all wars are a state of

conflict, all conflict situations may not be a war situation. Why is this so? War is a

state of mutually declared aggression between two or more parties prosecuted by

conventional (uniformed and armed) soldiers, with the knowledge and observation of

a third (neutral) party who sees to it that acts are within the rules of engagement

(Waltz, 2017). Anything less or short of this cannot be the same thing as war.

Booth (2014), cited in Moe and Pathranarakul (2016, p.13) avers that, armed

conflict is a situation faced by an individual, group or organization which they are

unable to cope with by the use of normal routine procedures and in which stress is

created by sudden change. The problem with this definition is that it emphazes that,

crises cannot cope with routine procedures. However, there are known situations

where crisis situations are managed by well -known routine approaches.

According to Alexander (2015), a notable issue associated with armedconflict

is its unexpectedness and uncontrollability which disrupts and/or impedes normal

operations.

2.1.2 Food Security

Food is mankind’s basic need, and it has shaped the course of man’s

endeavour throughout history. One of the most important objectives of man at all

times has been the question of how to obtain food to feed the entire family,

communities, nations and indeed, the whole world, (Stamoulisk & Zessa 2013).

Originally, the concept of food security was understood to apply at the national level,

13
with a state being food secure when there was sufficient food to sustain a steady

expansion of food consumption and to offset fluctuations in its production and prices.

However, a new definition emerged at 1996 World Food Summit. The World Food

Summit (1996) defined food security as existing “when all people at all times have

access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life”.

Related to the above, the World Ba nk (2010) identified three cardinal elements of

food security: i. Food availability (adequate supply of food items): sufficient food is

available for the house hold members ii. Food accessibility( adequate purchasing

power): which also means reducing poverty, what it implies here is that one must be

to purchase food. iii. Food utilization (safe food for human consumption): This entails

ensuring a good nutritional outcome. Good nutrition must be accompanied with other

complementary resources such as nutrition, health care, safe water and better

sanitation. Food security incorporates a measure of resilience to future disruption on

unavailability of critical food supply due to various risk factors including drought,

shipping disruptions fuel shortages economic instability and wars (Domgba, 2010).

Nigeria is still characterized by high reliance on food imports. Malnutrition is

widespread in the entire country and rural areas are especially vulnerable to chronic

food shortages, malnutrition, unbalanced nutrition, erratic food supply, poor quality

foods and high costs of food (Akinyele 2017). This phenomenon, he argues is more

prevalent in the rural areas and among children.

Food security is one of the major economic drivers in Nigeria. Food is

produced and sourced through industry-based production of agricultural and fisheries

products, as well as important country-food chains that involve non-commercial

elements, including fishing, hunting, gardening and gathering. Food systems rely on

14
 responses by social mechanisms to manage environmental changes that affect food

production and food security (Domgba, 2010)

2.2 Trend of Armed Conflict

Armed conflicts in Guma local government gain ethnic coloration because

those targeted are the farmers, chiefly the Tiv speaking group while the herders are

predominantly the Fulani speaking group. The history of the conflict in the Local

Government Area is as old as the history of the creation of the Local Government

Area (Bello, 2015). Guma Local Government is situated in Makurdi west and it is

blessed with a lot of resources such as barites, common salt, kaolin and clay and

besides this listed features, it is one of the major tributary of River Benue and River

Katsina-Ala also passes through the Local Government Area. This development has

made the Local Government Area a marshy one; suitable for the cultivation of food

crops such as rice, cassava, sesame, soy bean and many more (Sani, 2014). This

development has also attracted the presence of herders and predominantly the Fulani

herders in the Local Government Area. The Local Government Area’s natives have

seen the presence of different herders in different period of time; there are those

herders that have been staying in the area for a longer period of time and there were

those that are seasonal and only come during dry season (Sani, 2014). Things have

now changed with the anomalies associated with penetration of global warming such

as: distortion of the weather decline in the rain and unpredicted rain pattern, drought

in the far north coupled with issues such as challenges associated with urbanization,

land fragmentation, land extension and occupation, increase in the population of

farmers and collections of cows, blockage of the traditional cattle route and the loose

and porous borders of the country which have encouraged the influx of non-

indigenous Fulani in the country (Bello, 2015). T

15
 he conflict between herders and farmers in Guma is now a recurrent decimal

and despite the several intervention of the state’s actor’s and non- state’s actors, the

conflict has continued to rear up its ugly head. The conflict in Guma started in the

later parts of 1990s but it was not frequent and common as it is being seen in this

contemporary time. The tune of the conflict conflagrate and became a nightmare in

the early part of 2010. The passage of bill for anti-open grazing in 2017 by the

Ortom’s administration further exacerbated the condition. The tempo of the conflict

kept up-swinging despite the effort of both the state and national government to curb

the ugly incidence. There were several cases of attacks, reprisal attacks, protracted

cases and increasing cases of cattle rustling and other crimes that have labeled the

area to a conflict zone. The conflict and confrontation that used to be seasonal have

now known no bound between seasons and has become unabated (Cinjel and Akende,

2015).

The conflicts have led to the destruction of a lot of human lives and properties

worth billions of naira. A lot of people are homeless and thousand were disseminated.

Settlements have been polarized and criminal elements have taken advantage of the

scene to further perpetuate heinous activities. This has affected a lot of socio-

economic activities in the local government area. The conflict has bred room for

malaise such as cattle rustling, communal clash, and bandit and worse of it all is that,

it is now being seen as a way of lives and the local government area is just a shadow

of itself with surplus of victims such as: widow, orphans, fatherless and many

vulnerable; wondering helplessly and without direction. This development has

affected mutual co-existence that hitherto has been experiencing in the time past

(Cinjel & Akende, 2015). Agricultural produce and their productions have declined

due to the curious fact that marketers (merchant and investors) have not only lost

16
 confidence but have turned their back to this unwanted and ugly development that is

so common in the area (Cinjel & Akende, 2015).

2.3 Causes of Armed Conflict

According to Amani (2013), the causes of armed conflict are often linked with

attempts to control economic resources such as oil, metals, diamonds, drugs or

contested territorial boundaries. In countries such as Colombia and the Sudan, for

example, oilfield exploration has caused and intensified the impoverishment of

women and men. Entire communities have been targeted and killed, displaced and/or

marginalised in the name of oil development.

Folarin (2016) summed up the causes of conflict to include:

Natural Resources. Both scarcity and abundance in natural resources in Nigeria can

increase the risks of armed conflict. Resource scarcity in some instances foments

violent competition (for example, in Guma Local Government where both herdsmen

and farmers compete over the scarce resource of land or cultivatable land are

shifting). Resource abundance can also lead to violent competition in the exploitation

of those resources for the wealth that they bring. The conflict diamonds story testifies

to the contribution of natural resources extraction to the occurrence and durability of

armed conflict. A study of the role of forestry also finds that in a number of conflict

settings (Burma for instance) logging has fueled corruption, financed weapons

purchases, has drawn workers into conflicts, generated militias, and helped to launder

funds from other criminal activity. Conflicts can escalate into violent disputes over

land ownership and logging concessions. Another study by Morell (2013) suggests

that while “natural resources do not always play a primary role in starting armed

violence,” they are instrumental in keeping it going. Thus “conflict erupts for a

variety of inter-related reasons, but they can be perpetuated by greed when a state is
17
weak and unable to protect its porous borders from state and non-state armed

combatants.” Scholars tend to agree “that weak, weakened and/or unaccountable

states with natural resources such as minerals, diamonds and oil are more prone to

conflict.” In some instances “conflict is used as a strategic tool so the resources can be

unlawfully extracted with impunity.” (Folarin, 2016)

A number of studies document the exacerbation and extension of armed

conflict through drug markets Oakland, (2009). On the grievance vs greed debate, it

can be said that grievances are often at the root of the development or beginning of

conflicts, while greed may become more involved in ensuring that conflicts persist.

Even in conflicts begun to redress injustice, economic opportunity or greed can take

over as combatants have opportunities to loot, sell valuable minerals, trade drugs and

weapons, and so on.

Political Factor. A focus on the structural conditions that clearly foster or are

conducive to the outbreak of prolonged armed conflict has a tendency to depoliticize

it, to understate the place of human decision-making and the role of charismatic

leadership in either rejecting or choosing and persisting in violence and conflict.

Nigeria at present has the structural conditions associated with the onset of armed

conflict – extreme grievances, communal suspicion and a long history of politicized

identity, and opportunity in the form of a mobilized and energized population. The

crucial fact that the population has become convinced that there was a non-violent

alternative was not that they trusted the country’s public institutions to now deliver

justice, rather it is because of one charismatic leader who embodies the alternative

(Sheriff, 2014).

18
 An examination of the structural correlates to conflict is essential to improving

its prevention strategies, but it should not verge toward structural determinism.

Human beings shape their material and social surroundings, and they also shape “the

conceptual framework and the ideas through which they understand the social order

and what is possible within it.” (Juha, 2011). The absence of charismatic leadership in

Government can of course hasten the loss of credibility for any regime that manifests

structural conditions of instability. Ohlsen (2014) refers to “vertical legitimacy” as

public acceptance of governmental authority and the voluntary acceptance of the

prevailing order, and “horizontal legitimacy” as mutual acceptance at the popular

level – that is, a high degree of tolerance and acceptance across racial, cultural, ethnic,

and economic lines. But the two are linked and a lack of vertical legitimacy

contributes to horizontal suspicions inasmuch as distrust of public institutions can

lead to the search for stability and security through loyalty to one’s own group. The

vertical “legitimacy gap” is the difference between citizen expectations of the state

(i.e. protection of political and cultural freedom, socio-economic well-being) in

exchange for their taxes and loyalty, and what the state is actually willing or able to

deliver. The horizontal “legitimacy gap” relates to the absence of tolerance and

mutual respect between communities. The wider these gaps the greater the risk of

intra-state conflict.

Government actions that contribute to both vertical and horizontal

delegitimization include exclusionary and discriminatory governance arrangements,

especially when the discrimination is against particular communities or classes. Thus

political and economic inequality linked to regional or communal disparity is divisive

and conducive to instability and armed conflict. When these conditions are joined by

demographic factors, like high levels of young males in the population, changing

19
environmental conditions, or other external stresses, the threat of conflict escalating to

violence is intensified (Folarin, 2016).

Intergroup competition and armed conflict: In Nigeria just like in other regions of

the world, historical grievances that become focused by one community or ethnic

group on another are thereby intensified (Okon, 2015). They foster the vilification of

the “other,” making that part of a community’s culture and story, and thus a strong

mobilizing instrument. Furthermore, grievances that are politicized along communal

and geographic lines are especially conducive to long-term or extended armed

confrontation because they carry all of the emotional, political, and financial

resources that are available through such communities. Recruitment to the cause,

whether for groups that hold power or those that seek it, is facilitated through group

loyalty appeals, and the same goes for raising financial resources. Compromise is

difficult and “winning” is not necessarily associated with immediate gains but is

understood to be a long-term goal, generations long perhaps, that is worth fighting for,

“if not for me then for my children” (Usman, 2011).

When grievances over poverty and inequality parallel or are identified with

particular ethnicities or regions they come to be perceived as group-based inequalities,

thus increasing the potential for conflict as particular communities link their

aspirations and identity to collective action in response to concrete grievances. The

politicization of such grievances through specific communities escalates the potential

for violent confrontation, especially when those same communities are effectively

marginalized in the national political process. Religion and ethnicity are prominent

factors in the majority of contemporary conflict in Nigeria.

20
 According to Bello & Osim (2016), religious and ethnic conflicts are as much

a product as a cause of conflict. When states fail to produce the security that their

citizens need, many are led to appeal to other political and social units or entities,

such as ethnic communities, through which to pursue individual and collective

security. Ethnic or "identity" conflicts – that is, conflicts in which the rights and

political/social viability of ethnic groups or national communities are central issues –

are invariably reflections of a more fundamental social conflict, borne out of a

community's experience of economic disparity, political discrimination, human rights

violations, pressures generated by environmental degradation and other factors.

Identity conflicts emerge with intensity when a community loses confidence in

mainstream political institutions and processes and, in response to unmet basic needs

for social and economic security, resolves to strengthen its collective influence and to

struggle for political/legal recognition as a community. Failure to address grievances

by the Nigerian government makes group solidarity an increasingly attractive political

strategy, and when easy-to-use and easy-to-get small arms are thrown into the mix

(the matter of resources or capacity), the result, not surprisingly, is often persistent

armed conflict. “Conflicts that develop around issues of identity, ethnicity, religion, or

culture are often grounded in unmet human needs.” And human needs are broad,

obviously including food and shelter, certainly safety and security are basic. But less

tangible values like dignity, freedom and self-esteem are also relevant and

consequential (Mattew, 2009)

Diaspora Groups. According to Peterson, (2011) diasporas often support militants

and tend to frame conflicts in uncompromising and categorical ways that influence

political strategies of parties (largely those opposing government) at home. These

parties also rely on diaspora supporters for resources and access to international

21
 media, international organisations, and powerful host governments. And this in turn

gives diaspora groups influential roles in the adoption of strategies relating to conflict.

That influence means, of course, that diaspora communities can also be mobilized for

peace-building purposes and to minimize risks of armed conflict.

2.4 The Situation of Armed Conflict in Benue State

The situation of armed conflict is common in Agatu, Apa, Gwer and Guma

Local Government Areas of Benue state. These are executed with sophisticated

weaponry. The Tivs are also in bloody battles with Hausa communities in Azara in

Nasarawa state over land ownership. The herdsmen and Tiv militia extended their

confrontations by turning Kadarko, Kwara and other villages in Giza Development

Area of Keana Local Government (Nasarawa state) and other villages on the Benue

side into a conflict zone. Arising from the armed violence in 2010, between the

herdsmen and Tiv farmers in Guma Local Government Area of Benue state, the

displaced herdsmen moved from Benue state and took refuge in Akpanaja, Rukubi

and Doka in Doma Local Government Area of Nasarawa state, on the fringes of the

boundary with Benue state. Shortly afterwards, the Tiv militia attacked the Akpanaja,

Rukubi and Doka communities, while in pursuit of the herdsmen. The herdsmen

waged a ferocious attack on a number of Tiv communities that destroyed many lives

and property. The armed confrontation involved the use of cutlass and sophisticated

assault rifles, such as AK47.

Aan (2019) revealed that the magnitude of herdsmen attack in Benue State is

very high; he continued that between 2012 and 2017, 49 violent incidents were

recorded in 14 out of 23 local government areas in Benue State, 1,878 people were

22
killed, 750 were seriously injured, with 200 people still missing, 99,427 households

were affected in the attacks, properties worth 95 billion naira were destroyed.

According to Genyi (2017), since 2000, nomadic herdsmen are conspicuously

accompanied by AK 47 guns and other light weapons dangling under their arms. In

this condition, their herds are often deliberately driven into farms and attempts by

farmers to push them out would be met with fierce resistance including attacks on

their farms and home stead. These reprisal attacks could occur several hours or days

after initial encounters and at odd hours of the day or night. Attacks had often been

orchestrated when farmers were on their farms or when residents were observing a

funeral or burial right that record heavy attendance at night during wake keeps and

when residents were asleep (Odufowokan, 2018). In addition to being heavily armed,

there were indications that deadly chemical (weapons) were used in the attacks

against the farmers and residents in Anyiin and Ayilamo in Logo local government in

March 2014. Indicators were that dead bodies had no single injury or gunshot wounds

(Vande-Acka, 2014).

According to Tojo (2017), an accurate account of the death toll resulting from

herdsmen - farmer violence in Benue is difficult to come by due to the lack of a

dedicated database. Therefore, most of the evidence comes from newspaper reports of

various incidents involving the herdsmen and farmers in settled communities. Some

sources claim that since 2013, over 10,000 persons had died as a result of the

conflicts, making it deadlier than the notorious Boko Haram uprising. A BBC

reported that over 5,000 deaths were caused by the crisis between 20011 and 2014

alone. Of these deaths, women and children accounted for almost 3,000. Some

accounts have it that the violent confrontations started since 1990s or earlier than that.

A report showed that the economic cost of the herdsmen-farmer conflicts in only

23
Benue state, is about 6 billion annually. Current figures are likely to be higher,

especially with the spread of the conflict to other states.

Little wonder, the Global Terrorism Index showed the Fulani herdsmen as the

fourth deadliest terrorist group in the world in 2017. Only the fearsome trio of Boko

Haram, ISIS and Al-Shabab were adjudged deadlier. Though herdsmen-associated

carnage halved year later, herdsmen remain a formidable armed group (Tojo, 2017).

The Benue anti-grazing law has proven to be more of crisis igniter than a

problem solving vehicle ((Zayyad, 2018). One of the most prominent attacks

allegedly perpetrated by Fulani herdsmen in the in recent time was the Agatu

Massacre in Benue State. In February 2016, over 300 persons from the communities

were massacred, while some 7,000 were displaced. Some reports showed that many

people died in ten Agatu communities at the hands of suspected herdsmen in early

2016. These killings were accompanied by the destruction of houses and other

property as well as allegations of rape. According to their leader, the attacks were

reprisals against the Agatu people for killing a prominent Fulani man and stealing his

cattle in 2013. In an interaction, the member representing Agatu in the Benue State

House of Assembly, Mr. Sule Audu, accused the military of allowing the Fulani

herdsmen to occupy the sacked communities, while their cattle’s, numbering over

100,000, freely grazed on their farmlands. The general failure of the government to

successfully prosecute most of the perpetrators of the violence on both sides not only

fails to deter future attacks, but also encourages a dangerous arms racing on both sides

of the conflict (Nwosu, 2019).

Between 1st - 8th of January 2019, suspected armed Herdsmen carried out

coordinated attacks Guma Local Government, killing about 90 people including

24
 pregnant women, children and two Police Officers while 56 others were injured. The

fatality figures are expected to increase as several persons have been declared missing

during the incidents. Amongst the deceased were 20 Livestock Guards who were

deployed to implement the anti-grazing law. Affected communities in the LGA’s

include; Nongov, Saave, Tomatar, Tse Akor, Umanger, Nzorov communities in Guma

LGA and Ayilamo,

In a new report, “Harvest of Death: Three Years of Bloody Clashes between

Farmers and Herders”, Amnesty International found that 57 per cent of the 3,641

recorded deaths occurred in 2018. Security forces were often positioned close to the

attacks, which lasted hours and sometimes days, yet were slow to act. In some cases,

security forces had prior warning of an imminent raid but did nothing to stop or

prevent the killings, looting and burning of homes (Amindi, 2019).

2.5 Why Guma Local Government Area is at the Centre of the Armed Conflict

Guma Local Government Area continues to be affected by recurring violent

conflict between farmer-herders in some areas, posing a grave threat to the local

government area, national security and destruction of the sources of social and

economic livelihood of the people. Statistics generated from the Benue state ministry

of information from January – 16th March 2018, put the figures of deaths arising from

Farmer-Herders conflict at 5281 (Amindi, 2019). The figure suggests that the conflicts

have increased in frequency, intensity and geographical scope with dire humanitarian,

social, political and economic consequences.

Inherent in this conflict in the Local Government Area is the issue of access to

natural resources such as water and land for grazing or farming exacerbated by

worsening climatic conditions due to Global Warming. The increasing availability of

25
illicit Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) both locally-produced and those

smuggled in from other countries further compounds the crisis. As at 16th March

2018, a cumulative fatality of 149 people including women and children were

recorded in violent confrontations and attacks arising from the Farmers-Herdsmen

conflicts in Guma Local Government Area. Several people were allegedly injured

with houses burnt down during the incidents. Residents have abandoned their

ancestral homes to seek refuge in neighbouring communities and States for fear of

attacks and safety. Between 2nd -14th March 2018 and January 2019, 74 people

including four security personnel (2 Military Personnel and 2 Police Officers) were

reported dead with several others injured including security operatives and local

Vigilante members in violent attacks carried out in Guma Local Government Area of

Benue State – there are reports that indicate that the Military Personnel were killed by

suspected herdsmen while responding to a distress call of the clash between

community members and herdsmen at Uikpam village in the Local Government Area

of the State. However, a counter statement emerged from the Miyetti Allah Cattle

Breeders Association of Nigeria (MACBAN) claiming that five (5) Fulani Herdsmen

were killed with over 150 houses burnt down in the Local Government Area.

Similarly between 3rd -14th March 2018, 34 people including two (2) Police

Officers were also reportedly shot dead7 in attacks by suspected armed herdsmen in

Umenger, Tse Orogbo and Tse Igbe communities in Guma LGA, Benue State. On the

12th of March 2018, four (4) people including three farmers and one herdsman were

reportedly killed with 2 others injured in a violent clash between farmers and

herdsmen in Ndzoruv community, Guma LGA of Benue State. The communal clash

occurred when farmers demanded that the herdsmen vacate their farmlands (Amindi,

2019).

26
2.6 Effects of Armed Conflicts on Food Security

Accounting for the cost of war and its aftermath is an area that is still

insufficiently studied. To a large extend this is due to the difficulty to collect data

suitable for micro level analytic studies in war-torn areas (Mohammed, 1999). Below

we consider: a) the human and social consequences, and b) the economic

consequences.

The Human and Social Consequences

The human costs of conflict are not only the result of direct violence -

casualties from fighting between combatants, the undisciplined behaviour of troops,

deliberate terrorising of civilians and the sowing of landmines - but also arise from

hunger, forced migration and the collapse of public services stemming from the

wider effects of prolonged conflict on the economic and administrative structure of

the country as a whole. The indirect consequences of conflict - including deaths from

hunger and disease - generally far outweigh the direct destruction and battle deaths

(Steward and Fitzgerald, 2000).

Estimates on conflict-driven internally displaced people in 48 countries

suggest that at least 25 million people were displaced by the end of 2001 (Norwegian

Refugee Council, 2002). This figure greatly outnumbers conventional refugees

which, as of January 2001, were estimated at 12 million (UNHCR, 2001 and 2002).

Afghans constitute the largest single refugee population in the world with an

estimated 3.6 million people or 30 percent of the global refugee population. Civilians

from Burundi are the second largest group with 568 thousand refugees living mainly

in Tanzania. At the end of 2000, Asia hosted the largest refugee population (almost

45 percent), followed by Africa (30 percent) and Europe (19 percent). In at least 32

countries people suffered from malnutrition, poverty-related limitations in access to

27
food, and acute food shortages as a result of armed conflict. At the same time, at

least 10 more countries experienced persistent hunger in the aftermath of war, or as a

result of conflict related sanctions (Messer, 1998). The human consequences of war

are multidimensional. They include not only the death toll, but also disruptions to the

health service infrastructure and human capital formation. In this regard, Sudan is a

case in point (Mohammed, 1997).

Apart from the 1.5 million deaths, about 325 thousand persons took refuge

outside Sudan during the 1983-1993 episode of civil war. In addition, about 3 million

were displaced internally between 1983-1990, and over one year, 1989, about 10,000

children were recruited as soldiers. The destruction of infrastructure included the

destruction and closure of schools and hospitals. Immunization, preventive medicine

and malaria eradication services stopped completely in the South, while malnutrition

affected most of the children in the region. Conflicts take a heavy toll on the health

of the affected population, with between a third and half of those affected suffering

from mental distress. The most frequent diagnosis made is posttraumatic stress

disorder (PTSD), often along with depressive or anxiety disorders (WHO, 2001). For

instance, it is reported that during the Sudanese civil war the number of cases of

schizophrenia, depression and alcoholic addiction in many young people increased

significantly (WHO, 2001). Sexual violence and abuse are commonly used to

humiliate and degrade, instil terror, and promote social division. This phenomenon

can also be found in Mozambique, Yugoslavia, and in other countries. Cairns (1997)

estimates that some 80 thousand women and girls were raped in former Yugoslavia.

Mass rape was practiced in Rwanda as well as in many other countries (Lanceph,

2016).

28
Effect on Economic Development and Government Finances

Armed conflicts directly reduce production in areas of combat and may cause

it to stop altogether. Economic establishments are often direct targets of military

attacks, which aim to reduce the opponent’s economic capability and to paralyze its

ability to finance the war. These attacks reach all economic sectors but its main

effects are felt drastically in sectors with high transaction cost (Adrien, 2014). The

destruction of transportation networks leaves most of the industries ineffective. In

addition, armed conflicts also reduce labour supply in affected areas (Dola, 2014).

Until 1991 Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) a small mountainous almost

completely land locked Mediterranean country was one of the six republics of the

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In December 1995 the Dayton Peace Accord ended

the war among various ethnic groups which had erupted following the declaration of

independence (Mach 1992). The country is divided into two entities: Federation of

BiH (FBiH) and Republika Srpska (RS). The war destroyed much of the

infrastructure and devastated the economy (Akre, 2012). It is estimated that 2.3

million people (out of a total population of 4.5 million) left their homes and 329

thousand were killed. In 2001 the total current GDP of BiH's was only US$ 4.8

billion, 45 percent of its 1990 level of US $ 10.6 billion. In per-capita terms it

dropped from US $ 2,690 to 1,210. Industrial production dropped to only 10% of its

pre-war level. Total war damages are estimated at around US$ 100 billion, of which

direct damages to agriculture were over US $ 4.5 billion while the indirect costs have

not been defined. De-mining of the land will cost more than US $ 7.5 billion (Greaq,

2012).

In 1991 in Bosnia and Herzegovina there were 853 thousand cattle, 1,317

thousand sheep, 617 thousand pigs, 95 thousand goats, 96 thousand horses and 6.7

29
 million poultry. Small farmers kept the major part of animals, mainly in extensive

production systems with an average of 2.28 cattle or 13 sheep per farm. Available

estimates suggest that during the war the total number of farm animals halved.

Between 1991 and 1995 the number of cattle, sheep, pigs, horses and poultry

declined by 60, 75, 90, 65 and 68 percent respectively. In the Republika Srpska some

50 percent of cows and heifers were lost during the war. The animal production

sector has also been affected by the reduction in the area cropped (55 percent in

FBiH and 75 percent in RS). Data on animal performance have been lost. During the

war a nucleus herd of the endangered local cattle, Busa, was destroyed together with

relevant documentation. The breeding and conservation program for the Bosnian

Mountain Horse has been seriously affected. As a result of the displacement of the

human population, a number of flocks of improved local Pramenka sheep have been

destroyed (Sekh, 2014).

The importation of exotic breeds, which started on a larger scale at the end of

the last century, has been continued after the war as a part of the agricultural

rehabilitation programs. The planned, and partly realized, emergency importation of

60 thousand cows meant to alleviate the difficult economic position of farmers

affected by the war. However, unless there are supporting measures and changes in

production systems the productivity of exotic breeds will soon decline. The local

Busa breed, which was adapted to low input production systems, is almost extinct

(Quali, 2015).

2.7 Measures to Sustain Food Security In spite of Armed Conflicts.

The method used in resolving crisis depended on the nature and magnitude of

the crisis. In all cases, where conflict was occasioned by crop destruction and the

offender admitted guilt, interpersonal agreement could be reached, depending on the

30
extent of the damage. Compensation (varying in amounts) was often demanded and

paid. Where minimal crops were destroyed and the herdsman was remorseful, he was

only warned never to repeat such an occurrence. This is a situation where parties in

conflict have co-habited for a long time. In such cases the herdsmen could speak the

local language fluently, thereby enhancing social integration and good

neighbourliness (Gefu and Kolawole, 2017).

Sheriff (2016), suggested the following measures used in checking incessant

armed conflict in crisis ravaged areas;

The Use of Traditional and Religious institutions

In a research conducted by the Centre for Peace, Diplomatic and Development

Studies (CPDDS), University of Maiduguri (2012), on crisis management

mechanisms in the North Eastern Nigeria, a number of conflict management

institutions and mediation processes were identified in the study area. These include

various arms of the government, traditional and religious institutions, and non-

governmental or civil society organizations. Traditional institutions arose from the

pre-colonial and colonial systems of governance and were subsequently integrated

into the modern governance structure, although playing an ancillary role and

subsidiary to elected (or military) governments (CPDDS, 2012). State governments

and Local government councils both have subsidiary structures incorporating

traditional leadership on advisory capacity. This is because, traditional institutions are

recognized as inherent part of the culture of the community concerned.

Religious institutions include churches, mosques, shrines and their

organizations. In Nigeria, there is some overlap between traditional and religious

institutions, since in some communities “traditional” leaders such as emirs are closely

linked to their spiritual counterparts. Government assigns limited roles to these

31
institutions on the bottom rung of the ladder of judicial, political and administrative

authority. “Institutions” here refers to both the organizations (churches, mosques,

etc.), and the authority-holders (chiefs, ward heads, pastors, imams, priests, for

example), as well as practices such as praying for peace or carrying out mediation

(CPDDS, 2012).

Government Intervention in Farmers and Herdsmen Crisis

In the area of crisis management, the activities of government organizations

such as the Nigerian police have been very active in managing conflicts. However, the

problem with the police is that the force lacks the capacity to guarantee security due

to inadequate logistics, particularly mobility, which would enhance their ability to

respond to crises effectively and efficiently (CPDDS, 2012). Local, State and Federal

Governments have responded to the conflicts taking place within their areas over the

last few years. However, the narratives also show that in general the population has

lost faith in the security forces, the police and the judiciary, saying that corruption and

material greed have distanced these institutions from the general populace (CPDDS,

2012). According to the findings from the report by Centre for Peace, Diplomatic and

Development Studies (CPDDS, 2012), as far as dispute resolution was concerned, the

vulnerable and the less privileged prefer to take their cases to alternative dispute

resolution rather than to the police or the judiciary. In contrast, traditional and

religious leaders have a central role in managing farmers/herdsmen disputes. On the

other hand, formal mechanisms such as the court system merely calm the situation

without addressing the real causes of the problems. The mediation process is often

used by communities in the areas under study for settling disputes. According to

Mohammed (2014), this was the reason why the community leaders in Bida,

constituted the Sulhu committee, which calls the disputants to the negotiating table

32
and listens to the stories on both sides of the conflict. It is after listening to both sides

that the Sulhu elders offer their suggestions for resolving the conflict.

Interfaith Reconciliation and Peace Building Projects:

Some community-based and non-governmental organizations (CBOs and

NGOs) have played a role in solving intra- and inter-community crisis. These are

found mainly in the Middle Belt, where Christian and Muslim leaders and

associations hold joint meetings and other activities to exemplify values of mutual

tolerance and respect. In Dadin Kowa for example, local leaders have agreed with a

practice of publicly exploring and resolving every incident of violent conflict in turn,

while urging their co-religionists to resist the temptation to respond. This method

appears to have reduced the incidence of farmers/herdsmen conflicts by modeling

non-violent responses in preference to reprisals.

On the other front, Akerudu (2015), observed that there are genuine concerns

by discerning Nigerians on the need to review the existing constitution in the country.

Issues such as indigeneship and settlers rights in communities are review of the land

use acts which have been abused largely by the upper class should be in the front

burner in the constitutional review process. He further stated that it is in the interest of

the State to end the rhetoric on the demarcation of grazing land and take concrete

steps to address the genuine needs of herdsmen for availability of grazing land,

resolve the re-occurring conflicts in the agricultural sector which currently provides

employment to over 80 % of the country’s population

Moreover, Niklas and Mikael (2015) had identified two Conflict prevention

categories as direct prevention and structural prevention. Direct conflict prevention

refers to measures that are aimed at preventing short-term, often imminent,

escalation of a potential conflict. The direct preventive measures are directed at

33
issues with a shorter term goal in mind, i.e. to reduce tension and create trust

between the actors. Simultaneously, the window of opportunity for longer-term

initiatives, such as the building of institutions fades away slowly and the conflict

becomes more issue specific and more costly in financial and political terms. Direct

preventive measures can, for example, be formal or informal workshops dealing with

the possible conflict issues. They can also aim at creating openness in certain fields

such as the military, reducing military spending, or achieving cooperation in rescue

operations. Other examples include sanctions, coercive diplomacy, the dispatch of

special envoys, and problem-solving workshops. Direct measures, such as reduction

of military forces, third party intervention, informal and formal communication etc

can be designed to handle the conflict and reverse destructive behavior into

constructive, the dispatch of a mediator or the withdrawal of military forces are

examples of direct prevention.

Structural prevention focuses on more long term measures that address the

underlying causes of a potential conflict along with potentially escalating and

triggering factors. Economic development assistance or increased political

participation are examples of structural prevention. Structural preventive measures if

implemented at an early stage, including both the building of institutions and

development of trust and (longer-term) cooperation, they decrease the perceived

need to, and hence risk of, escalating a potential conflict issue into the level of

unstable peace. The more pronounced a conflict becomes the more specific measures

it requires. To him, structural measures are losing importance as a probable strategy.

Furthermore, measures taken after a war often have to involve third parties,

like the UN or stronger military actors that can guarantee security for all actors

involved, which is not needed to the same extent in the escalation phase. This takes a

34
lot of political compromises and intense negotiations in an environment that lacks

trust. Without exception, trust is lacking after a militarized conflict and trust between

the involved parties is tremendously difficult, although not impossible, to rebuild. In

the real world, there are often no, or limited, trust until the peace consolidation phase

has been initiated. (Eze, 2014) the broader approach acknowledges the importance of

economic and social development, as well as security, military, and judicial

measures. These aspects form an integral part of conflict prevention and have

contributed to the growing effectiveness of prevention measures. The importance of

conflict prevention has also been emphasized by the World Bank. The World Bank

views conflict prevention together with post-conflict reconstruction as critical to the

bank’s mission of poverty reduction, thereby acknowledging the vicious circles in

many of the world's poorest states, where poverty causes conflict and conflict causes

poverty. This new more inclusive approach is increasingly accepted by policy-

makers and has introduced new security threats onto the agenda. (Amudi, 2015), the

idea of a cultural way of prevention needs to be mentioned as it is central to thinking

about conflict prevention in the 21st century. This idea indicates a regional or global

understanding of the need and methods of prevention and is being promoted by the

UN Secretary General Anthony Guterres who has been trying to move his

organization away from a culture of reaction to one of prevention. Also the

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has emphasized

the need for a culture of prevention, both in development cooperation and foreign

policy. In its DAC guidelines, the OECD urges the international community to apply

a conflict prevention dimension to all its actions.

35
2.8 Theoretical Framework

This study adopts conflict theory as it theoretical orientation in effort to unfold

the dynamics of armed conflict as it affects food security in Guma Local Government

Area.

2.8.1 Conflict Theory

Conflict theory was propounded by Karl Max. Conflict theories draw attention

to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically

dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro-level analysis of society. The basic tenet

of the theory is that the society is in a state of perpetual competition for limited

resources.

In its general usage the word or term “conflict” envelops view of difference

and disagreement, strife and struggle. The proponent of this theory are Karl Marx,

Ralph Dahrendolf, Lewis Coser, Lois Althuser, Cohen Percen, Karl Meheim among

others.

The main assumptions of conflict perspective are as follows; society is made

up of individuals competing for limited resources; competition over scarce resources

is at the heart of all social relationships; competition, rather than consensus, is

characteristics of human relationships; social structures and organizations reflect the

competition for resources and the inherent inequality competition entails that some

people and organizations have more resources (power and influence) and use those

resources to maintain their positions of power in the society; society is constantly in

conflict over resources and that conflict drives social change; change comes about

through conflict between competing interests, not consensus or adaptation.

Over the years researchers have studied the conflict theory in order to

understand what the root causes of conflicts are, their effects on development and how

36
they can be managed for effective and sustainable development. According to Hornby

(1995), conflict is a serious disagreement, argument, struggle and serious difference

of opinions, wishes or a clash. The threat is directed towards limiting or eliminating

the access of one party to some resource or goal (Robinson & Clifford 2010).

Conflict theory, therefore, gives sociologists a framework for explaining social

change. All conflicts share common qualities. The first is that there is a kind of

contact between the parties that are involved, secondly, the parties in conflict perceive

conflicting views and finally, one of the parties always wants to redress existing

contradictions (Ofuoku & Isife, 2009). This could be seen in cases of land disputes

between crop farmers and herdsmen in the grass-fields where they share the same

environment for farming and grazing. The conflict theory attributes to a society the

characteristics of coercion, division, hostility, dissension conflict, mal-integration and

change. Klein and Ritti (1980), stated that conflict has various components which

include; differences in tasks, values, attitudes and goals priorities as groups try to gain

control over scarce resources. On a similar note, Ekong (2013), posited that crisis may

arise where there is difference of opinion between group leaders or in situations where

one group tends to be exploiting the other. Crisis between personalities may lead to

group quarrel and division of the community into several factions. Challenges to the

security of the community may engender crisis. Crisis has both positive and negative

effects on the society. Its negative effects include the disruption of social unity,

generation of bitterness which may lead to destruction of property and bloodshed,

generation of inter-group tension, disruption of normal channels of cooperation and

diversion of members’ attention from group’s goals. Crisis have been perceived to

begin with the basic premise that there should be a different distribution of some

37
scarce resources in society and that one group or individual should have more

equitable opportunity to maximize their potential than others.

Another cause of crisis is associated with inter-dependence. If two groups

depend on one another there tend to be more conflicts among them (Walton, Dolton &

Caffety, 2016). Since herdsmen and farmers are bond into a relationship by their need

for land, conflict is inevitable especially due to the fact that the land is increasingly

growing scarce. Also economic relations have led to conflicts which in turn have led

to change. Pelican (2000) identified ethnic conflict and integration as problems of

inter-ethnic relation facing the grazers and their neighbouring crop farmers. Since

their migration into the Grass-fields of the Middle Belt, the relationship between the

herdsmen and crop farmers has been both advantageous and problematic.

Essentially, we can state that, where resources are scarce, competition is

eminent and conflict inevitable. The relationship between farmers and herdsmen is

that of competition for resources in which each group claims superiority over the

other for the purpose of exploiting the dominated class. Each group strives to take

eminent control over the resources of the other leading to a situation of endless

conflict between the contending classes.

The conflict theory is relevant in proving the fact that competition for access

to natural resources between farmers and herdsmen gives rise to armed conflict in

Guma Local Government. It sets the background for the origin of the conflict in terms

of access to the means of production. Every farming system such as the nomadic

cattle herding has a boundary, which separates it from the larger system, the

environment. The boundary represents the limits in the larger system. Farmers

increasingly compete with nomadic herders for farmland, pastures, water, trees and

the use of rangeland in general (Sheriff, 2016).

38
 In this case the limited resources are lands, and the competition for land

resource is what originated armed conflict between herdsmen/farmers crisis in Guma

Local Government.

39
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter concerns itself with the design of the study, the study setting, the

population of the study, sample size, sample size determination, sampling procedure,

methods of data collection, technique of data analysis and limitations to the study.

3.1 Research Design

This study adopted a combination of quantitative and qualitative designs. The

quantitative method included a cross-sectional survey method to generate data for

study (Babbie, 2007). The survey research design is broadly categorised into the

questionnaire and the interview, providing quantitative data that makes analysis and

interpretation easier. The research design included the use of in-depth interviews

which is qualitative in nature (Babbie, 2007).

3.2 The Study Setting

This study was carried out in Guma Local Government Area, which is one

among the 23 local governments in Benue State. Guma Local Governemnt is bounded

by Tarka and Logo Local Government in the east, Makurdi lies in the south. While in

the north, the local government has common boundaries with three local government

of Nassarawa state such as Awe and Keana Local Government in the north and Doma

local government in the West.

Guma local government with its headquarters at Gbajimba was created in

1981, when the civilian administration of late governor Aper Aku, who was

determined to bring government closer to the people, therefore creating additional

local governments in Benue State. Thus, Guma local government was created by the

40
Civilian Administration in 1981. However, the life span of the local government

short lived following the military intervention of 1983 which saw newly created local

government councils abolished nationwide.

In May 1989 to be precise, the yearnings of the people for a local government

area gained grounds once again as Guma was created out of Makurdi local

government. Guma local government derives its name from River Guma which

traverses the local government from Northwest and flows into the North bank of

River Benue. Guma local government has a land mass of about 240,000 square

kilometer and a projected population of 194,196 people (Bureau Of Local

Government, 2016 ). Guma local government is made up of ten council wards.

These are; Ndzorov, Uvir, Mbabai, Mbawa, Nyiev Yandev, Abinsi, Kaambee,

Shangev and Mbadwem respectively. Guma local government has a vast expanse of

land that is very fertile giving rise to agriculture as the traditional occupation of an

archetypal guma man. They chiefly produce cereal crops like rice, millet, guinea corn

and legumes like groundnut, soya beans. It is only a small number of people that are

engaged in non-agricultural activities such as public service, trading and schooling.

The main occupation of the people of Guma is farming. The area is endowed

with large expanse of fertile land within the hinterland. The Tiv people who are the

major occupants are by this natural endowment noted for the substantial cultivation of

seasonal foods which include yams, cassava, maize, millet, groundnuts, soybeans,

guinea corn, white and yellow mellon (egusi). Other ethnic groups such as Igbo,

Hausa, Bekwara, Ijawe and so on resides in the town. The geographical commercial

and agriculturally potential of the Guma has allowed for it growth and development as

well as migratory pattern into the town.

41
 There is salt deposits at Mbadwem district in Guma as well as other mineral

deposits. These mineral deposits provide investment opportunities, especially with

basic infrastructures already on ground. These include a network of roads and a

pocket of industries Also, electricity supply is provided in Daudu town, Guma Local

Government Area. With these basic infrastructures, the region looks sets set for

industrial take off.

Guma Local Government Area has a number of internal revenue sources.

These internal revenue sources include motor parks and market fees, ground rent,

abattoir/slaughter, liquor/tourism license, local food hotel license, hair

dressing/barbing salons, forestry exploitation, hawkers permit, permit to fell trees,

tractor hiring services, fishery, contractors registration fees, bicycle license,

certification of state origin, dispensary/clinics license, property tax, miscellaneous

revenue, barite, motor cycle license, fees from animal (i.e. cattle). These major

revenues are derived from its major markets within the Local Government Area.

3.3 Population and Sample of the Study

The population of this study was drawn from the farmers of Guma Local

Government area, especially those who were knowledgeable about the effects of

armed conflict on food security in the Local Government Area. Guma Local

Government Area has projected population of 194,196 people (National Population

Commission, 2012).

3.4 Sample Size Determination

The study applied the statistical formula for selecting the sample size from a

finite population as formulated by Taro Yamane (1967). Taro Yamane formula is

N
stated as thus: n= 2
1+ N (e)

42
 Where: 1 = Constant value

n = Sample Size

N = Population of the Study

e = level of confidence

According to Yamane, the merging error is meant to determine and get a

reasonable and workable population size. For this study therefore, since N = 194,196

N
and e = 0.05 n can be calculated as: n= 2
1+ N ( e)

Where: N = Population

n = Sample Size

1 = Constant

e = degree of tolerable error (0.05)

Based on the above, the sample size is gotten as:

N = 194,196

194,196
n= 2
1+194,196 (0.05)

194,196
n=
1+194,196 ( 0.0025 )

194,196
n=
1+ 485.5

194,196
n=
486.5

n=399.1 Appr .400

3.5 Sampling Procedure

The study will employ the multi stage sampling technique. Using the

procedure which is probability sampling technique in which the population or

geographical area of a place is divided into units or sections with district boundaries.

43
 Using the probability sampling technique which every member of the population have

equal chances of being selected from the geographical units, respondents were

selected using balloting system with options written on pieces of papers containing

“No” option and “Yes” options. 10 persons were selected representing the 10 council

wards of the local government; any four of the ten that picked a paper with the “Yes”

option automatically constituted the sample. 100 respondents weree therefore

randomly chosen from the selected council wards. The justification for adopting this

sampling technique was that, the study area, Guma local government area is

traditionally divided into ten (10) geo-political units called districts in which 1

respondent from each council ward was interviewed.

3.6 Methods of Data Collection

The main data collection instruments employed in this study were

questionnaires and in-depth interviews. A questionnaire was used to elicit information

from the population that was too large to be assessed directly, questionnaires were

administered on the general population whereas, an in-depth interview which provides

details needed for research was administered on traditional rulers, this enabled the

researcher to have direct contact with the primary source of the information.

3.7 Techniques of Data Analysis

Data generated for this study was analysed both quantitatively and

qualitatively using descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. Thus, quantitative

dada were presented through frequency distribution tables, while the qualitative data

as analysed using descriptive, narratives and content analysis by carefully presenting

the interview results to further the understanding of armed conflict in Guma Local

Government Area.

44
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Data Presentation

This chapter concerns itself basically with presentation of the data collected

from the field through the instrument of the questionnaire and interview. Analysis of

the data is also presented and discussion of the findings arising from the study done in

line with the objectives of the study formulated earlier.

4.1.1 Section A: Socio-demographic Attributes of Respondents

Table 1: Socio Demographic Attributes of respondents

Variable Frequency (N=384) Percentage (%)

Sex
Male 252 65.6
Female 132 34.4
Age
18-24 83 21.6
25-31 105 27.3
32-38 120 31.3
39+ 76 19.8
Educational Attainment
Non-formal Education 139 36.2
FSLC 108 28.1
SSCE 99 25.8
Degree/HND 45 11.7
Marital Status
Single 102 26.6
Married 202 52.6
Divorce 60 15.6
Widow/(er) 20 5.2
Religion
Christianity 111 28.9
Islam 88 22.9
Traditional 106 27.6
Others 79 20.6
Total 384 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021

45
Sex

Data in Table 1 show that 252 (65.6%) were males, while 132 (34.4%) were

females from the total 384 respondents. The data shows therefore that the opinions of

male respondents dominate those of the female respondents because, the males were

the most easily accessible farmers in the course of the research. More so, the men

were considered to be more of traditional farmers than women, this is because, males

traditionally have more access to and own land, this can rarely be said of women from

the study area.

Age

On age of respondents, the data show that 83 (21.6%) of them fell within the

age range

of 18-24, while the age range of 25-31 were 105 (27.3%), respondents within the age

range of 32-28 were 120 (31.3%), and those within the age range of 39 and above

were 76 (19.8%). The age range of 32-38 was the most represented age range in the

study, this is due largely because, this age is the most active in agricultural

production, they possess the agility and maturity to endure the stress of agricultural

production.

Educational Qualification

On the educational qualification of respondents collected data show that 139

(36.2%) had no formal education, respondents that had primary education were 108

(28.1%), while those with post primary education were 99 (25.8%), finally, respondents

that were either degree or HND holder were 45 (11.7%). Respondents with no formal

education were most represented with 139 (36.2%), this is so because, Guma local

government area is a rural area with the bulk of its inhabits uneducated farmers.

46
 Marital Status

On marital status, 102 (26.6%) of the respondents were single, 202 (52.6%) were

married; while 60 (15.6%) respondents were divorced and 20 (5.2%) either widows or

widowers out of the total 384 respondents, the implication of this data is that majority of

the respondents were married. This is because; married persons within the local

government area focus more on their occupation as farmers due to the enormous family

responsibilities upon them.

Religious Status

The religious distribution of respondents was 111 (28.9%) Christians, 88

(22.9%) Muslims, and 106 (27.6%) Traditional worshipers and 79 (20.6%)

respondents were of other religions or without religious affiliations. Christians

dominated this study because; the research setting is dominated by Christians.

4.2 Factors Justifying Why Guma Local Government Area is at the Centre of the

Armed Conflict

This section deals with the factors that justify why Guma local government

area has been the epicentre wherefrom incidences of armed conflicts have been

persistent in the recent past.

Table 2: Why Guma L.G.A. is the Center of Armed Conflict in Benue State.

Responses Frequency Percentage

Availability of fertile land 80 20.8
Presence of large grazing area 210 54.7
corrupt tendencies of the traditional leaders 40 10.4
The location of the local government area which lies 49 12.8
on the border between Nasarawa and Benue states
Total 384 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021

The table above presents the reasons for the advancement of Guma as the

center of armed conflict in Benue state. While 80 (20.8%) respondents opined that the

availability of fertile land within the area is the cause of armed conflicts, 210 (54.7%)
47
respondents were of the indication that, it is the presence of traditional grazing routes

in the area that lead for the persistence of armed conflict, 40 (10.4%) respondents

indicated that the corrupt tendencies of traditional rulers who compromise the security

of the people is the cause of armed conflict while 49 (12.8%) respondents were in the

opinion that, the location of the local government, sharing boundary with Nasarawa

state occasions the incidence of armed conflict in the area.

An interviewee from Uvir district of Guma local government area on why the

local government is the center for armed conflict posited that:

Guma local government area appears to be the center of armed conflict in

Benue state because of her large gazing area which is usually invaded by the

so-called Fulani-herdsmen to feed their cattle. (IDI/Uvir/2021)

Another interviewee from Nyiev district of Guma local area in affirmation of

the above said that:

Guma local government is at the centre of the armed conflict because it has a

lot of fertile land and a vast area of land for grazing activities. The location of

the area has it sharing border with neighbouring states which makes it easier

for the herders to penetrate into the area. The land is fertile with grasses; this

attracts the herdsmen for grazing. Also, the availability or presence of sources

of water makes it a point of convergence for herdsmen to forage their animals

(IDI/Nyiev, 2021).

Another interviewee from Mbadwem district of Guma local area had this to

say about why the local government area is the center for armed conflict:

48
 A look at the map of Benue state shows that, Guma local government has a

vast land mass. This makes it well a target for herdsmen who wish to graze

their herds, the forage produced within this area is basically highly nutritious

for cattle, there also is the availability of fresh water bodies, this makes it a

convenient destination for herdsmen (IDI/Mbadwem/2021).

The data presented above has the highest number of respondents in the opinion

that, it is the presence of a large grazing, fertile land and fresh water sources within

the area that leads to competition and subsequent armed conflict. Farmers who are the

natives of the land try to cultivate on the fertile land as agrarians, herdsmen also

compete for the grass for their cattle to graze, this competition for resources generates

armed conflict.

Table 3: Frequency of Armed Conflicts in Guma L. G. A. Between 2010-2019

Responses Frequency Percentage

less than 5 times a year 11 2.9
5- 9 times a year 210 54.7
10 – 14 times a year 109 28.4
15times and above a year 49 12.8
Total 384 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021

On the frequency of armed conflicts in Guma between 2010-2019, 11 (2.9%)

were of the indication that armed conflicts had occurs less than 5 times within every

calendar year, 210 (54.7%) respondents indicated that armed conflicts occur 5-9 times

a year while 109 (28.4%) respondents indicated that armed conflicts occur 10-14

times a year and 49 (12.8%) respondents indicated that armed conflicts occur not less

than 15 times every year. The implication of the this data as indicated by respondents

at 210 (54.7%) is that, armed conflicts occur between 5-9 times every year.

49
 An interviewee from Ucha district had this to say on the frequency of armed

conflicts within the study area.

Hardly a year ever passes by without a host of armed conflicts within this part

of the globe, last year, we had recorded incidences of armed conflict more

than 5 times, the previous year was not any less, this year has already recorded

a host of armed conflict and next year wouldn’t be any better, this has been the

tale of our woes for the time being since 2010, we hope that peace can be

someday completely restored so we all can sleep not thinking of how we will

run the next morning (IDI/Ucha/2021).

The implication of the findings above is that, armed conflict has been

persistent in the area as they occur not less than five times annually beginning from

the year 2010.

Table 4: Number of Lost Family Members

Responses Frequency Percentage

1-5 220 57.3
5–9 90 23.4
10 – 14 40 10.4
15 and above 34 8.9
Total 384 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021

On the number family members lost in the outset of armed conflict, 220

(57.3%) respondents indicated that they had lost 1-5 family members, 90 (23.4%)

respondents indicated that they had lost not less than 5-9 families members while 34

(10.4%) respondents were of the indication that they had lost 10-14 family members

while 34 (8.9%) respondents indicated that they had lost 15 family members and

above to armed conflict. Form the data presented above on table 4, a greater

percentage of the respondents indicated that they had lost 1-5 family members.

50
 On the number of family members lost, an interviewee had this to say in Uzer

district:

Since the beginning of these armed conflicts, I think there is no family out

there that has not lost one of its own, some families have lost all of its

members therefore bring an end to their generation, others have lost just a

hand full, yet the point is, it is difficult for anyone to come out clearly that

they have not lost a family member (IDI/Uzer/2021).

The implication above is that, majority of the farmers have not mostly lost

between 1-5 of their family members.

4.3 The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Food Security in Guma Local Government

Area

Armed conflict pose significant challenges in varying dimensions, however,

this section evaluates the effects of armed conflicts specifically on food security in the

study area.

Table 5: Number of Displaced Cases Observed

Responses Frequency Percentage

5-10 34 8.9
11-15 90 23.4
16-20 60 15.6
21 and above 200 52.1
Total 384 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021

From the table above, 34 (8.9%) respondents indicated that between 5-10

persons have been displaced in their areas, while 90 (23.4%) respondents indicated

that between 11-15 persons had been displaced and 60 (15.6%) respondents indicated

that between 16-20 persons has been displaced while 200 (52.1%) respondents

51
indicated that more than 20 persons had been displaced. The above data show

therefore by 52.1% that, more than 20 persons had been displaced from their homes

and from agricultural activities, this is massive and detrimental to agricultural

activities leading inadvertently to food shortage in Guma local government area in

particular and Benue state in general. This is because in the outset of armed conflict,

all agricultural activities are suspended in the wake of displacement.

An interviewee from Ndzorov district had this to say on the displaced cases

observed in Guma local government area:

It very serious that up to 10 years now, people in their hundreds have been

displaced from their ancestral home with their farm land destroyed and

properties worth millions also destroyed. Some have resorted to taking up to

other sources of livelihood in the cities (IDI/Ndzorov/2021).

This implies on the long run that, a lot of persons have been displaced

from the homes in Guma local government area.

Table 6: Effects of Armed Conflict Farming Activities

Responses Frequency Percentage

Destruction of farm lands 200 52.1
Killing of farmers 90 23.4
Destruction of homes and properties 60 15.6
Displacement of farmers 34 8.9
Total 384 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021

Table 6 above presents data on the effects of armed conflict on farming

activities in Guma local government area. 200 (52.1%) respondents indicated that

armed conflicts lead to the destruction of farm lands thereby disrupting farming

activities, 90 (23.4%) respondents indicated that the killing of farmers also disrupts

52
agricultural activities while 60 (15.6%) respondents indicated that armed conflict

leads to the destruction of homes and properties, this also disrupts farming activities

because the farmers are displaced from their homes and 34 (8.9%) respondents

indicated that armed conflict leads to the displacement of farmers thereby having

negative effect on farming activities. From the analyses above, it is indicated that the

greatest effect of armed conflict on farming activities is the destruction of farm lands

due to conflict. This is so because, agricultural produce cultivated on the farm before

harvests are destroyed completely thereby rendering useless the efforts of farmers.

On the effects of armed conflict on farming activities and interviewee from

Mbabai district had this to say:

Armed conflicts have been very serious in that it has led to the displacement

many people from their homes thereby living in the IDP camps rendering so

many people homeless. Life and properties have been wasted, the local

government is not moving forward in terms of agriculture because people are

no longer farming there again (IDI/Mbabai/2021).

Similarly, an interviewee from Uzer district decried that:

It is very serious in that it has affected the living condition of the people in the

area by not living uncomfortable, it has killed many people having properties

destroyed and displacing a lot of people in the area, making them to go and

leave in the IDP camps which also stop them from going to their farms

(IDI/Uzer/2021).

53
Table 7: Effects of Armed Conflict Food Security

Responses Frequency Percentage

Low output of farm products 200 52.1
Hike in prices of farm products 90 23.4
Difficulty in food accessibility 60 15.6
Disruption of Farming activities and reduction in the 34 8.9
population of farmers
Total 384 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021

Table 7 highlights the effects of armed conflict on food security in Guma L. G.

A, 200 (52.1%) respondents were of the indication that armed conflict lead to low

output of farm products, while 90 (23.4%) respondents were of the opinion that the

persistence of armed conflict leads to a hike in the prices of farm products which is

occasioned by scarcity, 60 (15.6%) respondents indicated that armed conflict leads to

difficulty in assessing food products, this is due to insecurity issues, it becomes

dangerous for people to move to the interiors where food is produced, while 34

(8.9%) respondents indicated that, armed conflicts lead to the disruption of farming

activities and reduction in the population of farmers which therefore threatens food

security on the long run. It is indicated above that the effect of armed conflict on food

security is most felt in the low output of farm products, this is because in the outset of

the conflict, farmers are more or less displaced, and this leads inevitably to the

disruption of faming activities and the subsequent low output of farm products.

An interviewee from Udei village had this to say on the effect of armed

conflict on food security:

Over the years now, farmers have not prospered because of the intermittent

obstruction of farming activities by armed conflicts, the implication is that,

there has been shortages in food production, this has been evident in the

incidences of hunger in the land, in the past when all of these conflicts were

54
 not routine, farmers produced continuously through the seasons, today, the

same story of glory cannot be told, it is quite saddening that a once

agricultural prosperously people are starving due to low agricultural

productivity (IDI/Udei/2021).

In the same manner, an interviewee from Daudu posited that:

Our markets are now very empty, marketers come in droves to buy our

agricultural products but end up in disappointment because agricultural

production has reduced drastically, this was not the case in the distant past, yet

the incidences of armed conflicts have led to a decline in the activities of

farmers. This is because, the insecurity in the land makes agricultural activities

relatively difficult to be carried out, farmers are killed on their farms, their

products on the farms are destroyed and their homes burnt to ashes, with all of

this calamities, agricultural activities have significantly declined to the barest

minimum (IDI/Daudu/2021

This implies inevitably that, armed conflict have impacted greatly agricultural

production leading correspondingly to low agricultural productivity.

4.4 Measures of Sustaining Food Security In Spite of Armed Conflicts in Guma

L. G. A.

This section suggests the measures to be taken to ensure food security despite

the continued armed conflict in Guma local government area of Benue State.

55
Table 8: Measures of Combating Food Insecurity

Responses Frequency Percentage

Putting an end to armed conflict within the area 180 46.9
through formal security Agencies
Migrating to other areas to continue with agricultural 102 26.6
or other activities
Compensation of farmers 80 20.8
Enforcement of anti -open grazing law 22 5.7
Total 384 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021

The table above show the suggested measures of combating food insecurity

where, 180 (46.9%) of the respondents indicated that, putting an end to food insecurity

would be best achieved through the deployment of formal security agents to the areas

most affected by armed conflicts, 102 (26.6%) respondents were of the opinion that,

farmers should migrate to other areas where armed conflicts are less to continue with

their agricultural activities, while 80 (20.8%) respondents were of the indication that,

farmers should be compensated and 22 (5.7%) respondents suggested that the anti-

open grazing law should be strictly enforced. It is indicated on table 8 above that the

leading measure capable of combatting food insecurity is the deployment of security

personnel to areas that are ravaged by armed conflict. Since the conflict is executed by

arms, it can only take arms to quell the fracas, it is only the formal security agencies

that are predisposed with the monopoly of arms to tackle this challenge and return the

farmers to farming ways to ensure food security. An interviewee in Guma LGA had

this to say on the measures of combating armed conflicts:

Formal security agencies must be deployed to areas that are most prone to

armed conflict, the security agencies should also be committed to apprehending

and arresting anyone bearing unlicensed arms, this would be the starting point

in the process of reducing the incidences of armed conflicts in Guma local

government area (IDI/Orogbo/2021).

56
 In a similar manner, an interviewee from Uzer was of the opinion that:

The arms that are used in times of conflict are heavy weapons of mass

destruction, it is only formal security agencies that have the fire power to quell

incidences of armed conflict, it is therefore in my opinion that, without the

armed forces, nothing can be sustainably done to quell the incidence of armed

conflicts (IDI/Uvir/2021).

Against the backdrop of this corroborative information, it is inferred that,

without the presence of formal security outfits, there is a tendency for the persistence

of armed conflicts for a long time in Guma local government area.

4.5 Discussion of Findings

i. The Trend of Conflict Situation in Guma Local Government Area

The first objective of the study was to assess the situation of armed conflict in

Guma local government area. Findings of the study revealed armed conflict have been

pervasive in the study area. The findings on the current conflict situation in Guma

local government area is in line with major studies that have been carried out in the

recent past especially the study of Onaji (2017) whose longitudinal studies revealed

that Guma local government area has been engulfed in armed conflicts well over 8

years. According to his findings, there has never been any prolonged and persistent

occurrence of armed conflict in Benue State in the manner that is obtainable in Guma

local government area today. The study went further and revealed the persistence of

armed conflict in areas such as Torkura, Tse Ukaa, Tse Hyo, Asange Bar, Kaseyo,

Umenger, Uikpam, Tse Zayol, Tse Toko, Ama Udogbo, Tse ukuma, Tse Agbe, Tse

sule, Tse Hyoon, Tse Abur, Tse Donyi, Tse Iortim, Orogbo and Tse Koraga all in

Guma local government area. These conflicts have led to the displacement of

thousands of residents within these areas.

57
 Another independent study conducted by CEDAR (2014-2017) in Benue state

confirmed the earlier standing of scholars, revealing that the incidence of armed

conflicts in Benue State have had a higher concentration in Guma local government

area, stating that between 2014-2017, a projected number of 120,000 persons from

Guma local government have been displaced at one point in time or the other with

death toll well over 2000.

From the findings of the study above and the congruence of literature

regarding the incidences of armed conflict in Guma local government area, inference

is drawn widely that, armed conflicts have been pervasive and reoccurring within the

study area.

ii. Why Guma Local Government area is at the centre of Conflict in Guma

Local Government Area

The second objective of the study was to identify why guma local government

area is at the centre of conflict. Findings of the study indicated that, the location of

Guma local government area, at a border territory to the north makes it vulnerable for

herdsmen attack. Findings of the study also indicated that, the reach alluvial soil of

Guma flourished green pastures that were attractive for herdsmen to graze their cattle.

This finding was in line with the stud of Alam (2014) whose study revealed that

conflict was most persistent in areas that were endowed with natural resources. The

economic theory of resource curse therefore applies in this scenario where the fertile

land of Benue makes if a cause of unending conflict.

58
iii. The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Food Security in Guma Local

Government Area

The third objective of the study was to identify the effects of armed conflicts

on food security in Guma Local Government Area. The findings of the study revealed

the effects of armed conflict on food security to include amongst others; low

agricultural output, hike in prices of farm products, difficulty in food accessibility,

and the disruption of farming activities.

Low Agricultural Output: Armed conflict could be devastating to the economy and

lives of all and sundry, in the advent of armed conflicts, the engagement in

agricultural activities become less, this is because, farmers are more likely to flee

away to more safe places in the intensification of the conflict, the implication is

therefore that, less farmers are able to engage in seasonal farming activities. This can

be even more terrific in instances where the youth who constitute the bulk of the

farming population are equally actively involved in the armed conflict, this leads

down to a complete shot down of the faming activities. In this case, low agricultural

output arises. No particular society can develop in whatever form in the persistence of

armed conflict, the fear that is instilled in people does not support hard work, and the

displacement of farmers invariably signifies a bad farming season for the farmer and

the society.

This finding find correlation in the work of Adekaa (2017) whose study

revealed the impact of armed conflict on food security to manifest in low farm output

due largely to the inability of the farmers to actively engage in agricultural productive

activities with ease. Furthermore, Vaatyo, (2016) and Lado (2010 are unanimous in

their predictions that the gains recorded in the agricultural sector of the economy,

59
especially in the area of food production, may suffer a serious setback as a result of

the negative effects of armed conflict activities on farmers in Benue and neighbouring

states. Already, seven out of the 23 local governments in Benue State, namely Agatu,

Guma, Katsina-Ala, Gwer West, Logo, Kwande and the northern part of Makurdi

mostly affected by the rampaging herdsmen have tale of woes to tell. The effects of

the sustained herdsmen/farmers crisis in the affected localities have led to farmers’

reluctance to go back to their farms even as the current farming season goes on.

Resident farmers nearby fled the area leaving their farms un-harvested and

uncultivated, thereby subjecting farms to unwarranted grazing by the herdsmen. In all

the attacks, heavy casualties in human lives and properties are recorded on both sides.

This has led to a low down turn in the agricultural output of farmers.

Hike in the Prices of Agricultural Produce: The laws of demands come to fore in

the wake of low agricultural output, there is always the tendency that the laws of

demand and supply will set in unavoidably expressive in the increased cost of

procuring agricultural products. When the available agricultural output cannot meet

the demands of the people, competition for the scarce agricultural goods set in, in

which case prices also respond accordingly to increasing demand.

The finding above is in congruence with the study of Aya (2009) which

revealed that armed conflict have a tendency of worsening the economic conditions of

the people, he posited that, after the continued armed conflict in a settlement of

farmers, farm products yet to be harvested and already stored are destroyed, even the

seedlings for the next planting seasons are destroyed, in the wake of this scarcity,

farmers cannot afford for expensive seedlings to continue the next farming session on

a good note, that is, if peace is eventually restored. This leads unavoidably to a hike in

the prices of farm products. If the trend is not controlled by some positive form of

60
urgent intervention in aid for farmers to procure seedlings, there is a tendency for this

scarcity to continue for longer periods.

Difficulty in the Accessibility of Agricultural Produce: In the peak of continued

armed conflicts, without securities measure put in place, there is bound to be chaos in

the land, people flee far away to neighbouring areas they consider safer to their

traditional homesteads. These persistent threats to life and property make vehicular

movements less than is always hitherto obtainable. This is because; the stories and

observation of blood sheds keep everyone aloof. This inevitably leads to a hike in the

transportation of agricultural products. Farmers are scared of going into their local

villages to move their goods, that is, in situations where the goods are not destroyed

by rivals already. This makes it more difficult for the farmers, marketers and

consumers to access agricultural products for food and other purposes. In some

situations where farmers may try against all odds to surmount this challenge and

transport their goods using motorcycles, ambushes may be laid to track them down,

having them to their end by the enemies.

These findings are in corroboration with prior researches, most especially the

study of Alen (2009) evaluating the effects of herdsmen/farmers conflict on

agricultural productivity. He revealed that the tension created in the heat of crisis

between herdsmen and farmers evokes palpable fear in the people, this makes

movement difficult, apart from the fear of victimization by transporters, there usually

is scarcity of vehicles themselves given that, everyone seeks to move to safer places.

This makes the movement of agricultural goods and subsequent accessibility by

marketers and consumers rather more difficult. Furthermore, Bimpe (2011) posited

that, for the marketers and the final consumers, the occasion of armed conflict makes

agricultural products inaccessible, this is because, farmers all scamper away for safety

61
with no one willing to return to their native communities for fear of being silenced by

the conflicting party. Inference is therefore drawn from the corroborative studies that,

armed conflicts affect in no small measures the accessibility of agricultural products,

and that, in the hight of armed conflict, a scarcity situation is created that affects the

farmers, the marketers and the final consumers all alike.

Disruption of Farming Activities and Reduction of Farmers Population: A great

challenge that armed conflicts have on food security lays on the reduction in the

population of these farmers. The population of these Crops farmers is drastically

reduced leading to the reduction in the labour force and the output of farm products.

The productive populations drastically migrate to the cities abandoning the rural areas,

leaving them desolate. Imo (2017) observed that, the level of intolerance among the

nomadic herdsmen and farmers in Nigeria has deteriorated to unimaginable level of

arms struggle resulting in countless deaths among villagers with the attendant

reduction in the population of the peasant farmers. Hence, it is important to note that

these violent clashes have direct impact on the lives and livelihoods of those involved

and lead inevitably to the displacement of economic productive population of the

community.” Furthermore, Ijir, (2014) posited that, a lot of killing by the nomads

and reprisal killing of nomads by the host communities take place during armed

conflicts. Herds of cattle belonging to the nomads are also killed. Also some of the

victims (young and old) are badly injured or maimed. This reduces some women

farmers to the status of widows. All these lead to drastically reduced agricultural

labour force in such areas which pose huge challenges for food security.

Moreover, Lina eta el (2017) maintained that, “socio-economic shocks,

technogenic catastrophes, and armed conflicts often have drastic impacts on local and

62
regional food security through disruption of agricultural production and food trade,

reduced investments, and deterioration of land and infrastructures”.

Additionally, Arias (2013) observed that conflict affects land use and

investment beyond violent shocks. Conflict shocks induce households to reduce land

allocated to perennial crops, and increase use to pasture and seasonal crops. Total

production may decrease as the percentage of idle land is higher and overall

investment falls. Conflict may have direct and indirect effects on farmers. Direct

effects of armed conflict on the household include changes in household composition

due to killings, injuries and recruitment of fighters by either the government or the

rebel groups, changes in the household economic status due to the direct destruction

of assets and effects caused by forced displacement and migration. Indirect effects

(represented by the full lines) include changes in households’ surrounding

institutions and environments such as changes in social networks, changes in access

to or destruction of exchange and employment markets and changes in local and

national political institutions. Justino (2009)

Adisa and Adekunle (2010), in a quantitative study examined armed conflict

between Farmers-Herdsmen and its socio-economic implications in North Central

Nigeria. Random sampling was used to select 300 farmers. The result of the study

showed that 90.8% of the respondents lost their income as a result of farmers and

herdsmen conflict in Nigeria, 85.0% lost their farm yield, 23.5% lost their house hold

resources and 22.5% lost their stored products. Loss of farm yield could pose far-

reaching consequences by reducing family food and income as well as planting stock

for the next farming season. Clashes that involved loss of household items and stored

farm products also have the potential to exacerbate indigence among farmers. In a

survey research conducted in Yobe State, Nigeria, Bello (2013), examined

63
“Herdsmen and Farmers Conflict in North-Eastern Nigeria; Causes, Repercussion

and Resolutions”. The sample size consisted of 500 farmers and 250 cattle herdsmen,

making a total of 750. The study used quantitative methods with structured

questionnaire as the major instrument for data collection. The result of the study

revealed the following repercussions of farmers and herdsmen crisis in Yobe state,

Nigeria; (a) Economic repercussions such as loss of income/resources/yield; (b)

Physical, such as home/farm destruction, bodily injury or death of family members;

(c) Socio-psychological repercussions such as emotional exhaustion; (d) the social,

economic and political tensions created as a result of numerous escalations of violent

conflicts have raised fundamental national questions for the survival of the Nigerian

State.

Odegbami (2009) reported that the present recurrent clashes between

herdsmen and farmers in the Guma Local Government has resulted in the destruction

of lives, farmlands and have become a major threat to the efforts to boost agricultural

productivity. From Benue state to Taraba, Nasarawa and Plateau in the North Agro-

ecological zone and Zamfara State in the North West, clashes between famers and

herdsmen have left in its trail heavy losses of lives and property. These losses of lives

have adversely affected farming activities and other related businesses and socio-

economic activities. This has resulted in a drastic reduction in farm outputs, a

development that has heightened the fear of hunger (Kasaly, 2015). Already most

farmers in the affected states have abandoned farms and schools for fear of being

attacked by the herdsmen. For the predominantly farming communities of Benue and

border communities of Nasarawa and Taraba states, farming is no longer a business as

usual. Several farmers have been displaced and dispossessed of their farms by armed

men believed to be herdsmen (Ali, 2008).

64
iv. Measures of Ensuring Food Security in Guma Local Government Area.

The third and last objective of the study was to suggest measures of ensuring

food security in Guma local government area. The findings of the study revealed the

measures to include among others the deployment of formal security agencies to areas

prone to armed conflict, the securement of land for agricultural activities in

neighbouring areas with less incidences of armed conflict, the provision of palliatives

to farmers in form of farm inputs and improved seedlings as well as the strict

enforcement of the prohibition of open grazing and ranches establishment law.

Deployment of Formal Security Agencies to Areas Prone to Armed Conflict: To

ensure the sustenance of food security in Guma local government area, the study

suggests deployment of formal security agencies to the areas of conflict concentration

to enable farmers continue with their farming activities, the security agencies the

study revealed if stationed specifically at the boundaries of the local government with

other state where armed conflict occur most frequent will prevent the escalation

further armed conflict. This will restore the security of the farmers and boost

agricultural production in the area.

According to Lanre (2009), the state has the monopoly of power in all conflict

situations, it is therefore within the exclusive powers of the state to curb all manners

of conflict, crushes all opposing forces who chose to deploy force resisting peace. It is

therefore the sole responsibility of the state to restore peace to communities that have

been torn wide apart into shreds by armed conflicts; this is largely because the state

has the weapons for such executive functions. It is therefore more appropriate that, the

state deploys its special forces in operations to combat headlong cases of armed

conflict.

65
Relocation to Neighbouring Communities in Furtherance of Agricultural

Activities: Upon the outset of armed conflict, the study revealed farmers should

migrate to neighbouring areas that are better secure to continue agricultural activities

intermittently, this would invaluably provide for the farmers a lifeline of food security

as the conflict lasts. There should be a synergy created by the traditional rulers of all

armed conflict prone areas, to provide alternative land for displaced farmers in their

domains when a particular community is displaced, this will lead to continuity in

agricultural production and insurance of food security.

According to Oma (2016) securing land for agricultural production can be

very demanding especially for persons who are not natives of the farming community,

however, it is usually possible to get land that is leased, so that at the end of the

production season, a portion of the harvest is given to the owners of the lands as

payment for rent. The implication is that, displaced farmers can also source of

alternative land in other places that are relatively peaceful to carry out their farming

activities.

Provision of Palliatives for Farmers: The state more specifically as well as NGOs

and other donor agencies should provide agricultural facilities for farmers in form of

equipment, grants and improved seedling, this will serve as a shock absorber and

encourage the farmers to continue in their agricultural productive activities.

This stand is in corroboration with the work of Agaba (2015) in which he

revealed that, the agricultural survival of rural societies is dependent on the nature of

improved species provided for the farmers. He went further to reiterate that the capital

intensity of these farm inputs makes it very difficult for farmers to procure and that it

66
is only when government and other agricultural agencies provide for farmers that their

plight is alleviated and agricultural productivity boosted

Enforcement of the Prohibition of Open Grazing and Ranches Establishment

Law: The enforcement of the prohibition of open grazing and ranches establishment

law would ensure that, farmers continue their seasonal production activities without

disruption. Memorandum of understanding should be signed with private indigenous

and private investors with land made available for them by government to establish

and maintain cattle in the ranches.

According to (Nari, 2016), no economy can grow the way it should without

the acceptance of state of the art techniques, the agricultural sector has been

promising and instrumental to the development of nations who have long abandoned

traditional methods of agricultural production, this abandonment is made even more

meaningful in situations where agricultural laws have been formulated to guide the

production activities of the people and their agricultural rules of engagement. The

implication of the statement above is that, with the enactment of laws prohibiting

open grazing, armed conflicts that arise intermittently between farers and herdsmen

will be meaningfully contained.

67
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter is designed to focus on the summary of the study, conclusions of

the results as well as recommendations made for the study.

5.1 Summary

The general objective of this study was to assess effects of armed conflicts on

food security in Guma Local Government Area. While in specific terms, the study had

the following objectives; to examine the current conflict situation in Guma Local

Government Area, to identify the effects of armed conflicts on food security in Guma

Local Government Area and to suggest measures on how food security can be

sustained in Guma Local Government Area.

Conflict theory was adopted for the study, data were gathered quantitatively using

questionnaire as well as qualitatively using in-depth interview methods, sample size

was determined using Yamane’s formula. A multi stage sampling technique

consisting of probability, balloting and random samplings were used for the study.

Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and content analysis.

Findings of the study revealed that the current situation of armed conflict in

Guma local government area was pervasive; the study revealed that many villages

were affected by these armed conflicts leading to the displacement of the native

farmers from their ancestral homes. The study revealed further that, this conflict has

led to the death of many with some physically incapacitated by injuries from the

conflict situation. The study revealed that the nature of armed conflicts within the

study area was manifest in the conflict between farmers and herdsmen. This conflict

assumed its peak around 2012 and has not had a long break. Efforts meant at

68
brokering peace to restore sanity in the area have proved rather abortive, the very

reason the conflict continues to escalate and spread in a centrifugal fashion to the

neighbouring areas.

Furthermore, the study revealed that armed conflicts have devastating effects

on food security in Guma local government area. This was manifest in the low output

of agricultural products. The findings revealed that since this conflict distorts all

farming activities sometimes for complete seasons, there is a growing tendency that

farmers will not go to the farm; this does affect significantly the seasonal output of

farmers. The study indicated that there would even be lower outputs in agricultural

production in situations where the youths who constitute the bulk of the farming

population are actively involved in the conflict by way of defending their territories,

also, it was revealed that in response to the economic laws of demand and supply,

armed conflicts led to a hike in the prices of agricultural products having demand

superseding supply. Additionally, the study revealed that armed conflicts make it

difficult for farmers, marketers and final consumers to access agricultural produce due

to transportation issues, and that armed conflicts also led to the disruption of farming

activities and the reduction of the farers population due to the fact that, some farmers

had to abandon farming for the urban areas in search of other sources of livelihood.

Finally, the study revealed that in the wake of armed conflicts in Guma local

government area, food security could be guaranteed through the deployment of formal

security agencies to the areas of conflict concentration to enable farmers continue in

their farming activities, that farmers should migrate to neighboring areas that are

better secure to continue agricultural activities intermittently, the study also revealed

that if farmers are provided with aid and grants in form of improved seedling, it will

alleviate their pains, it was also revealed that, the enforcement of the prohibition of

69
 open grazing and ranches establishment law would ensure that, farmers continue the

seasonal activities without disruption.

5.2 Conclusion

Armed conflicts pose significant threat to the food security of any society, for

Guma local government area that is largely an agrarian local government; its economy

has been disrupted for about five years running. There has been a down turn in the

agricultural fortunes of the farmers due to persistent armed conflicts that have gone on

unabated, leaving bitter scares on the hearts of many. The unfortunate development is

that, the occasion of food insecurity in Guma local government is an extension of

food insecurity to the state, the nation and the world at large. In the light of this, there

is every need to ensure the restoration of peace and tranquillity in Guma local

government to pave way for the displaced farmers return to their native homes; it is

only by so doing that the economic fortunes of the local government are expected to

see the light of the day again.

4.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that:

i. To ensure the sustenance of food security in Guma local government area,

there should be the deployment of formal security agencies to the areas of

conflict concentration to enable farmers continue in their farming activities,

the security agencies should be stationed specifically at the boundaries of the

local government with other state where armed conflict occur most frequent.

This will restore the security of the farmers and boost agricultural production

in the area.

70
ii. Upon the outset of armed conflict, farmers should as strategies migrate to

neighbouring areas that are better secure to continue agricultural activities

intermittently, this would invaluably provide for the farmers a lifeline of food

security as the conflict lasts. There should be a synergy created by the

traditional rulers of all armed conflict prone areas, to provide alternative land

for displaced farmers in their domains when a particular community is

displaced, this will lead to continuity in agricultural production and insurance

of food security.

iii. The state more specifically as well as NGOs and other donor agencies should

provide agricultural facilities for farmers in form of equipment, grants and

improved seedling, this will serve as a shock absorber and encourage the

farmers to continue in their agricultural productive activities.

iv. The enforcement of the prohibition of open grazing and ranches establishment

law would ensure that, farmers continue their seasonal production activities

without disruption. Memorandum of understanding should be signed with

private indigenous and private investors with land made available for them by

government to establish and maintain cattle in the ranches.

71
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 Appendix I

Department of Sociology,
Faculty of Social Sciences,
Benue State University,
PMB 102119,
Makurdi.
19 May December, 2021

Dear Respondent,

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION
I am final year student of the above named department in Benue State University,
Makurdi. I am conducting a research on “The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Food Security
in Guma Local Government Area of Benue State”. This study is required as a partial
fulfilment of the basic requirements for the award of B.Sc. Degree in Sociology.
Therefore, I solicit your cooperation in filling this questionnaire which purpose is
purely academic. I assure you that your honest responses shall be treated with every sense of
confidentiality.

Yours faithfully,
Buter Alfred

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 Appendix ii

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

Instruction: Please tick (√) or fill appropriately.

SECTION A: Socio-Demographic Attributes of Respondents

1. Sex: (a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]

2. Age: (a) 18-24 [ ] (b) 25 – 31 [ ] (c) 32-38 [ ] (d) 39 and above [ ]

3. Educational attainment: (a) Non-formal education [ ] (b) FSLC [ ] (c) SSCE [ ]

(D) Degree/HND [ ] (E) Others [ ]

4. Marital status: (a) single [ ] (b) married [ ] (c) divorce [ ] (d) widowed [ ]

5. Religion: (a) Christianity [ ] (b) Islam [ ] (c) Traditional [ ] (d) Others [specify]

……………………………………....................................................................

SECTION B: Trend of Armed Conflict in Guma Local Government Area

6. How often do you experience armed conflict within your area? (a) Seasonally [ ] (b)

Occasionally [ ] (c) once in more than two years [ ] (d) more than twice in a season

[ ]

7. What are the kinds of weapons used in the conflict? (a) Guns [ ] (b) Daggers [ ] (c)

cutlasses [ ] (d)

SECTION C: Factors Justifying Why Guma Local Government Area is at the

Centre of the Armed Conflict

8. Why is Guma Local Government Area at the centre of the conflict in Benue State? (a)

Availability of fertile land [ ] (b) Presence of large grazing area [ ] (c) corrupt

tendencies of the traditional leaders [ ] (d) The location of the local government area

which lies on the border between Nasarawa and Benue states [ ]

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9. How often did you experience armed conflict in your area, between the periods of

2010 - 2019? (a) less than 5 times a year [ ] (b) 5- 9 times a year [ ] (c) 10 – 14

times a year [ ] (d) 15times and above a year [ ]

10. How many members of your family are been killed or injured? (a) 1 - 5 [ ] (b) 5 –

9 [ ] (c) 10 – 14 [ ] (d) 15 and above [ ]

SECTION C: The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Food Security in Guma Local

Government Area

11. How many people have been displaced in your area? (a) 5-10 [ ] (b) 11-

15 [ ] (c) 16-20 [ ] (d) 21 and above [ ]What effects do you think armed

conflict have on farming activities in your area?

(a) Destruction of farm lands [ ]

(b) Killing of farmers [ ]

(c) Destruction of homes and properties [ ]

(d) Displacement of farmers [ ]

12. What do you think are the effects of armed conflict on food security in

Guma Local Government Area?

(a) Low output of farm products [ ]

(b) Hike in prices of farm products [ ]

(c) Difficulty in food accessibility [ ]

(d) Others (specify)………………………………………………………………...........

SECTION D: How Can Food Security be sustained in Guma Local Government

Area in spite of the armed conflict?

13. What ways do you think food security can be sustained in your local

government?

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(a) Putting an end to armed conflict within the area [ ]

(b) Migrating to other areas to continue with agricultural or other activities [ ]

(c) Compensation of farmers [ ]

(d) Compensation to farmers [ ]

(e) Enforcement of anti -open grazing law [ ]

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 In-depth Interview Guide

SECTION A: Socio-Demographic Data

1. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]

2. Age: (a) 18-24 [ ] (b) 25 – 31 [ ] (c) 32-38 [ ] (d) 39 and above [ ]

3. Level of Education: Junior Secondary [ ] Senior Secondary [ ] Tertiary [ ]

4. Family Type: Monogamy [ ] Polygamy [ ] Divorce [ ] Separated [ ] Others [ ]

5. Religion: Christianity [ ] Islam [ ] Traditional [ ]

Trends of Farmers Herders Conflict

6. How many times do you experience armed conflict within your area?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

6 In what form does the conflict manifest?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Factors Justifying Why Guma Local Government Area is at the Centre of the
Armed Conflict in Benue State

7. How would you justify why Guma Local Government Area is at the centre of the
armed conflict in Benue state?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

7. How serious is the Armed conflict in Guma Local Government Area?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

The Effects of Armed Conflicts on Food Security in Guma Local Government

Area

8. What are the effects of armed conflict on food security in Guma Local Government
Area?

i. ……………………………………………………………………………………
ii. ……………………………………………………………………………………
iii. ……………………………………………………………………………………
iv. ……………………………………………………………………………………
v. ……………………………………………………………………………………

How Food Security can be sustained in Guma Local Government Area in-spite
of the Armed conflict

9. In your opinion, how can food security be sustained in Guma Local Government in
the face of the armed conflict?

i. ……………………………………………………………………………………...
ii. ……………………………………………………………………………………...
iii. ……………………………………………………………………………………...
iv. ……………………………………………………………………………………...

83