HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS - PART 1, 2 and 3

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R.
RANA) 1
➢ enlist the types of diabetes mellitus with its sign and
symptoms
➢ explain the principles of operation of test strips for

measuring the concentration of glucose in urine
➢ explain the principles of operation of biosensors for

measuring the concentration of glucose in blood
Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 2

Q. Complete the following passage describing the action of a biosensor/glucometer.
Many people with diabetes use a biosensor to measure the concentration of glucose in
their blood.
The biosensor uses the enzyme _________________, which is _______________ on a pad.
This enzyme converts glucose into gluconolactone and ___________________
An electrode in the biosensor produces a tiny _____________________ current, the size
of which is ____________________ to the concentration of glucose in the blood.
The current is read by the meter, which produces a reading for blood glucose
concentration. If the reading is too high, the person needs to take ________________to
lower it.
14. Test strips can be used for testing biological samples other than urine for glucose.
State the advantage of using test strips rather than Benedict’s solution to test for
glucose.
15. b. People with diabetes are taught how to inject themselves with insulin.
i. Explain why insulin cannot be taken by mouth.
ii. Suggest how people with diabetes can monitor the effectiveness of the
insulin that they take.
16. Suggest the advantages of using an electronic biosensor to measure blood glucose
concentration, rather than using test strips to measure glucose in urine.

15. a. Looking at Figure 14.31:
i. Describe the changes in the

concentrations of glucose and insulin in
the blood over the three hours of the
investigation.
ii. Explain the differences between the

responses to the ingestion of glucose in
the two people.
Figure 14.31: Concentrations of blood glucose and insulin

following intake of glucose in a person with normal control
of blood glucose and a person with type 1 diabetes.
By the end of this lesson you will be able to:
➢ state the meaning of stomata and guard cell
➢ enlist the features of guard cells
➢ enlist the conditions for closing and opening of stomata

❖Photosynthesis
❖Transpiration
❖Respiration

Figure: General representation of a dicot leaf epidermis.
Figure: Photomicrograph of a transverse section (TS) of a leaf of Helleborus (×100).
The arrow is pointing towards an open stoma in the lower epidermis. The sub-stomatal air
space is continuous with all the intercellular air spaces in the mesophyll, as can be seen in
scanning electron micrographs of the inside of leaves.
Stoma is the hole between the guard cells, but the term is usually used to refer to the
two guard cells and the hole between them.
Stomata may look very simple, but guard cells are highly specialised cells that
respond to a wide range of environmental stimuli and thus control the internal
atmosphere of the leaf.
Guard cell is a kidney-shaped epidermal cell found with another, in a pair surrounding
a stoma and controlling its opening or closure

Stomata show daily rhythms of opening and
closing. Even when kept in constant light or
constant dark, these rhythms persist.
Opening of stomata during the day maintains the

inward diffusion of carbon dioxide and the
outward diffusion of oxygen.
However, it also allows the outward diffusion of

water vapour in transpiration.
The closure of stomata at night when

photosynthesis cannot occur reduces rates of
transpiration and conserves water.

Figure: (a) Stomatal apertures were measured
in leaves of Tradescantia over several days to
reveal a daily rhythm of opening and closing.
This rhythm persisted even when the plants

were kept in constant light (b) and in long
periods of constant dark (c)

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS (R. RANA) 13
➢ state the meaning of stomata and guard cell

➢ explain the mechanism for stomata to open and close

▪ Thick cell walls that face the air outside the leaf and the stomatal pore.
▪ The outer wall has a thick waxy cuticle and is often extended into ledges.
The walls facing the adjacent epidermal cells are much thinner.
Figure: A photomicrograph and electron micrograph of the guard cells. Cont….

https://propg.ifas.ufl.edu/01-biology/02-cell-types/10-celltypes-stomate.html
▪ The nucleus is the same size as in mesophyll cells, but occupies a much larger
proportion of the cell because guard cells are so much smaller than mesophyll
cells.
▪ Cellulose microfibrils are arranged into bands around the cell as shown in figure.
▪ The cell walls have no plasmodesmata.
▪ The cell surface membrane is often folded and

contains many channel and carrier proteins.
▪ The cytoplasm has a high density of

chloroplasts and mitochondria.
▪ Mitochondria have many cristae. Figure: Bundles of cellulose microfibrils in guard cell.
▪ There are several small vacuoles rather than one large vacuole.
Cont….
▪ Chloroplasts have thylakoids, but unlike chloroplasts in mesophyll cells they have
few grana.
▪ The starch grains in chloroplasts increase in size as starch is stored at night and
decrease in size during the day.
Figure: The structure of a chloroplast.

Figure: A TEM of a section through a pair of guard cells surrounding stoma of thale cress,
Arabidopsis thaliana.
The air outside the leaf is at the top and epidermal cells either side of the guard cells are on the
left and right of the TEM. Scale bar = 2 μm. Thale cress plant, Arabidopsis thaliana. (right)
Q. Make a labelled drawing of the pair of guard cells shown in Figure 14.34. Show in your drawing
the features of guard cells as described here.
Figure: A TEM of a section through a pair of guard cells surrounding stoma of thale cress, Arabidopsis thaliana.
The air outside the leaf is at the top and epidermal cells either side of the guard cells are on the left and right of the
TEM. Scale bar = 2 μm.
Figure: An electron micrograph of the guard cells reveals the large nucleus, relatively thick
cell walls, numerous vacuoles and chloroplasts.
https://propg.ifas.ufl.edu/01-biology/02-cell-types/10-celltypes-stomate.html
https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article/174/2/689/6117470
Stomata open in response to:
■ increasing light intensity
■ low carbon dioxide concentrations in the air spaces within the leaf.
Stomata close in response to:

■ darkness.
■ high temperature.
■ low humidity.
■ high carbon dioxide concentrations in the air spaces in the leaf.
■ water stress, when the supply of water from the roots is limited and/or there
are high rates of transpiration.
Figure: Photomicrograph of two stomata and guard cells in a lower epidermis of a leaf of Geranium.
Figure: Photomicrograph of stomata and guard cells in a lower epidermis of a leaf of Tradescantia.

➢ explain the mechanism for closing of stomata
➢ explain the mechanism for opening of stomata
➢ describe the role of abscisic acid (ABA) in the closure of stomata

1. ATP-powered proton pumps in the
cell surface membrane actively
transport H+ out of the guard cell.
2. The low H+ concentration and
negative charge inside the cell
causes K+ channels to open. K+
diffuses into the cell down an
electrochemical gradient.
3. The high concentration of K+
inside the guard cell lowers the
water potential (ψ).
4. Water moves in by osmosis, down
a water potential gradient.
5. The entry of water increases the Figure: How a stoma is opened.
volume of the guard cells, so they Guard cells do not have plasmodesmata, so all exchanges of water and ions
expand. The thin outer wall expands must occur across the cell surface membranes through the pump and
most, so the cells curve apart. channel proteins.
▪ Stomata close when the hydrogen
ion pump proteins stop and
potassium ions leave the guard
cells and enter neighbouring
cells.
▪ Malate ions (soluble) are returned

to the chloroplasts to be
converted to starch (insoluble).
▪ Now there is a water potential

gradient in the opposite
direction, so water leaves the
guard cells so that they become
flaccid and close the stoma.
Figure: Proposed pathways involved in the metabolism
and transport of malate during stomatal movements.
Figure: Bundles of cellulose microfibrils restrict expansion of guard cells to the ends so cells
push against each other and push outwards against the adjoining cells.
Figure: The thickness of guard cell walls and opening/ closing movements.

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant growth inhibitor substance.
The discovery of growth inhibitors in plants came from investigations of dormancy in
buds and seeds.
ABA is formed in mature leaves, in ripe fruits and is present in dormant seeds.
ABA can be found in every part of the plant, and is synthesised in almost all cells that
possess chloroplasts or amyloplasts (organelles like chloroplasts, but that contain
large starch grains and no chlorophyll).
One role of ABA is to coordinate the responses to stress; hence it is known as a stress
hormone.
If a plant is subjected to difficult environmental conditions, such as very high
temperatures or much reduced water supplies, then it responds by secreting ABA.

ABA is also involved in the closure of stomata under conditions of drought. Green plants that
are experiencing drought produce ABA in their chloroplasts, including those in the guard cells,
and this ‘stress hormone’ triggers stomatal closure.
This response involves calcium ions as the ‘second messenger’, as follows.
ABA triggers release of calcium ions from the cell sap in the guard cell vacuoles into the guard
cell cytosol, via activated calcium ion channels in the tonoplast. Consequently, the
concentration of calcium ions in the cytosol is abruptly increased, and directly triggers:
1. a sudden efflux of potassium ions from the cytosol, across the cell surface membrane, by
activated potassium ion pumps.
2. inhibition of efflux of potassium ions into the guard cells (a feature of the stomatal opening
mechanism).
As a result, the water potential of the guard cells is abruptly raised. It is now higher than the
water potential of the surrounding cells, and a net efflux of water occurs from the guard cells
(water passes out by osmosis).
The guard cells become flaccid and the pores close.
Q.1. Describe the role of abscisic acid in the closure of stomata. [8]
Q.2. Explain the mechanism by which guard cells open stomata. [9]
Q.3. State the changes in the external environment that lead to stomatal
opening and closure.
Explain why these stomatal responses are necessary. [6]


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Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R.

➢ explain the principles of operation of test strips for

➢ explain the principles of operation of biosensors for

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 2

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 4

i. Describe the changes in the

ii. Explain the differences between the

Figure 14.31: Concentrations of blood glucose and insulin

➢ state the meaning of stomata and guard cell

➢ enlist the features of guard cells

➢ enlist the conditions for closing and opening of stomata

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 6

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 7

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 10

Opening of stomata during the day maintains the

However, it also allows the outward diffusion of

The closure of stomata at night when

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 11

This rhythm persisted even when the plants

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 12

➢ enlist the features of guard cells

➢ enlist the conditions for closing and opening of stomata

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 15

➢ enlist the features of guard cells

➢ enlist the conditions for closing and opening of stomata

➢ explain the mechanism for stomata to open and close

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 16

Figure: A photomicrograph and electron micrograph of the guard cells. Cont….

▪ The cell walls have no plasmodesmata.

▪ The cell surface membrane is often folded and

▪ The cytoplasm has a high density of

Figure: The structure of a chloroplast.

Stomata close in response to:

➢ enlist the conditions for closing and opening of stomata

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 29

➢ explain the mechanism for closing of stomata

➢ explain the mechanism for opening of stomata

➢ describe the role of abscisic acid (ABA) in the closure of stomata

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 30

▪ Malate ions (soluble) are returned

▪ Now there is a water potential

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 35

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 37

Thursday, September 8, 2022 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS (R. RANA) 41

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