Breaking down barriers

Contents
Introduction 3
Part 1: Barriers to achievement: the research to date 4
Changing attitudes: who is responsible for underachievement? 5
Groups at risk of underachievement 6
Factors within and beyond the classroom 7

Part 2: Identifying and understanding able learners who are underachieving 8

Episodic and chronic underachievement 8
Understanding behaviours associated with underachievement 9
Mindset and attributional style 10

Part 3: Breaking down barriers: what can schools do? 11

Developing metacognition and self-regulated learning 11
Equality of challenge 12
Low-threshold, high-ceiling activities 13
The importance of a whole-school approach 14

Conclusion: where next? 16

Further reading and resources 17
Additional academic references 18

Introduction
This NACE Essentials guide focuses on more able
learners who are failing to reach the standards of
attainment and levels of achievement of which
they are capable. It explores the potential reasons
for this and offers suggestions to help schools
support learners with a significant gap between
high potential and actual achievement and
attainment. Removing barriers to success can
be difficult, but there are many evidence-based
strategies schools can adopt.
What might motivate us to focus on removing such
barriers? We might be uneasy about an education
system that allows talent and ability to remain
undeveloped, hampering the contribution those talents
and abilities could make to wider societal improvements
(see White et al, 2018 for more on this). We might worry
that individual instances of underachievement could
impact negatively on other learners, or we could simply
be disheartened at our personal failure to help all learners
to flourish in our role as a teacher or school leader.
The main concern for educators, parents and also
for learners is likely to be the negative impact of poor
performance on the individual themselves. Repeated
frustration at a lack of progress, improvement,
achievement and attainment will inevitably affect the
individual’s wellbeing and self-concept. In a stronger
formulation, we might assert that individuals have a
right to every chance for optimum achievement and
to make the very best of themselves. We may also
consider the potential problems caused by leaving
the underachievement of able pupils unchecked.
Whether our concern is for individual pupils, or
a more generic disquiet around broader failures
of the education system, lack of achievement is
worthy of our attention – and never more so than
when it concerns those who have very significant
gaps between potential and performance, in this
case more able learners who need our support in
removing barriers to success and opening doors
to high achievement.
This guide is pertinent to all phases of education. Of
course, very young children are not subject to (quite)
as much testing and measurement as older children,
so the focus in the early years is initially on progress
and achievement rather than test results (attainment).
However, the principles for raising attainment and
achievement apply equally to all age groups, including
adult learners. Similarly, the suggested self-regulation
and metacognitive strategies are applicable across
the age phases and are germane to a wide range of
curriculum areas, activities and to learning in general.
Breaking down barriers
Key terms: attainment versus
achievement
In the field of research into more able learners and their
needs, ideas around potential for high achievement and
actual demonstration of high achievement have been
difficult to pin down and explain. To help untangle these
issues, it is worth starting with some definitions for the key
terms of attainment and achievement, as used in this guide:
• Attainment refers to the level or standard of a learner’s
work as demonstrated by some kind of test, examination
or in relation to a predetermined expected level. In UK
schools, the common measures for attainment are
Standard Attainment Tests (SATs) and public examinations
such as GCSEs. The emphasis here is on how learners
perform when tested.
• Achievement also refers to the success of a learner,
but also takes into account the progress made and
improvements demonstrated across time. The notion of
added value over a term, year or key stage is part of the
equation here, not merely the summative test scores.
Both terms are relevant when we ask ourselves about
learners who are failing to live up to apparent potential as
evidenced in other aspects of their development. More
specifically, as teachers and school leaders we are right to
wonder what is going on when learners who demonstrate
high ability in some areas do not perform well in the
classroom or in tests. We are right to be curious about the
difference between those who are or are not high attainers.
It is appropriate for us to explore the different characteristics
of both groups and consider what can be done to support
those whose performance belies their ability. This guide
aims to help educators explore such questions.
3

Part 1: Barriers to achievement: the research to date
The research literature confirms what practitioners
already know: there is no single homogenous group
of highly able learners, so it is not helpful to try and
generalise about possible reasons for such a group
failing to achieve in line with their apparent potential.
However, while it is unlikely that we would find a
large group of learners with the same characteristics,
it is useful to think about general reasons for lack
of achievement. Some learners are managing
significant physical or health issues, impacting on
their participation in learning activities; some have
emotional concerns; others are unable to access
activities due to social or family reasons. Research
helps us to group some of these characteristics and
review possible approaches for support.
Numerous studies in high ability have grappled with
the perplexing issue of how we can define or explain
gaps between potential and actual achievement.
It is worth considering how this area of study has
developed; this journey tells us a great deal about how
we now understand learning and highlights changes in
how we think about learners, which in turn impacts on
the responsibilities of teachers and schools.
For example, in a fascinating historical overview of
how able learners have been failed by the school
system, Ziegler and Stoeger (2012) trace the history
of “underachievement research” from the 1950s to
the present day. They show how the complexities of
human ability and education have been further
complicated through our developing understanding
Breaking down barriers
of how we should or should not measure and Other research papers discuss approaches to defining
understand intelligence, and the impact of shifts in and explaining “underachievement”, and question
societal values and differing pressures on the school whether the phenomenon even exists (e.g. White
system over time. Recognising that the area of et al, 2018; Ziegler and Stoeger, 2012). However,
improving attainment for more able learners is incredibly this question is of little consequence if teachers find
complex – and in some instances controversial – the themselves working with learners who are not able to
authors conclude that there should be further work to express their abilities. Teachers want to promote high
illuminate the field, out of both “practical and theoretical achievement through interesting and relevant tasks, and
interest” (Ziegler and Stoeger, 2012: 128). to ensure that no one is held back from achieving due to
spurious reasons or as a result of inequity.
Ziegler and Stoeger identify three groups of
learners: So: how can we move forward?
Already, key shifts have occurred in
1. Achievers are talented (or gifted) persons whose
the language we use to discuss
development progresses toward excellence as
these learners, revealing changes
expected.
in how we think about young
2. Dropouts are once-talented persons who can no people with barriers to success...
longer achieve excellence; for example, because of
having had insufficient support.
3. Underachievers are highly at risk of also
becoming dropouts.
Different factors can be involved in a failure to thrive
in the school context, but there are some common
features. Individuals in both groups 2 and 3 (above)
suffer deficits of achievement and because of their
continued low attainment, they are also met with
low expectations and experience low levels of
aspiration. This causes a downward spiral into a
negative pattern of low achievement and lack of
motivation to improve, which is difficult to break out
of and which in turn makes addressing barriers to
success even more urgent.
4

Changing attitudes:
who is responsible for
The onus for underachievement?
improving learning In the literature concerning learners’
underachievement, a discernible shift has occurred
is shared with learners, over the last few decades. Researchers have
moved away from thinking of learners as solely
with an emphasis responsible for their lack of achievement. They
have been concerned instead with considering
on improving the how teachers, schools and policymakers can work
systems and contexts together to raise attainment, recognising their
responsibility to do so. The onus for improving
surrounding learners, learning is therefore shared with learners, with an
emphasis on improving the systems and contexts
and on understanding surrounding learners, and on understanding how
these structures and methods can unwittingly hold
how these structures back learners’ development and progress.
and methods can The following overview reflects this shift of emphasis
and responsibility in how we think and talk about
unwittingly hold back learners with low achievement (collated from a range of
sources, with indicative references). As you peruse the
learners’ development list, consider the implications for your own school:
• Some learners have spates of underachievement
and progress. peppered with times where they achieve
well. This can predict more chronic prolonged
underachievement if there is no intervention (Reis
and Greene, 2014);
• Lack of challenge in the curriculum can lead to
demotivation, and consequently lack of attainment
(Wallace et al, 2009; EEF, 2017);
Breaking down barriers
• Peer groups and families impact on achievement
levels (Wallace et al, 2009; Reis and Greene, 2014);
• If there is no learning problem per se, we
can consider underachievement to be an ability-
productivity discrepancy, rather than an ability-
learning discrepancy, i.e. we can determine if the
learner needs help with their motivation, study skills
or knowledge and understanding (Clemons, 2008;
Snyder and Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2013);
• It is beneficial to help able learners to develop
regular work patterns; recurring habitual times for
homework etc. can be very helpful for developing
positive self-regulation strategies (Reis and Greene,
2014; Panadero, 2017);
• Having a caring adult in school, such as a
counsellor or coach, can help reverse the process
of underachievement (Reis and Greene; 2014).
Since research has discovered these more nuanced,
subtle ways of understanding and discussing ideas
around underachievement, it has been possible to
develop strategies to support teachers and learners.
Findings are positive, in that definite ways to reverse
underachievement have been identified. However, it is
now clear that responses must be carefully considered,
well-targeted and properly resourced if they are to
be effective in addressing low achievement and
attainment.
5

Groups at risk of
underachievement
As teachers we are unable to level the societal
playing field. We cannot free learners from the
impact of all inequalities, but we can be alert to
those who are more likely to be vulnerable to
lack of attainment due to particular identifiable
pressures. This allows us to direct interventions
and target support in helpful ways and to focus
funds in areas of greatest need. The following list
details the (loose) groups of more able learners who
are typically susceptible to low achievement:
• From low socio-economic groups;
• Who need support to learn English as an
additional language (EAL);
• In small primary schools, where they may be
perceived as the ‘only one’;
• Who have special/additional educational needs;
• Who are poor attenders;
• From cultural and faith groups that differ from
their school;
• In public care;
• With medical conditions;
• Who act as carers in the home;
• From families under stress;
• Who are already at risk of disaffection and
exclusion.
(DfES and NAGTY, 2006:7)
Some of these pupils will be in receipt of additional
support, such as an Education and Health Care Plan
(EHCP) or Pupil Premium (PP) funding, but these support
systems do not always address the additional challenge
needed by able learners. The focus is understandably
on filling a deficit, but although this may help in some
ways, it can also leave able learners feeling disaffected
through a combination of low expectations and a lack
of understanding of their broader needs, since projects
tend only to target basic skills such as literacy and
numeracy (EEF, DfE, 2012).
Breaking down barriers
Since the DfES list (left) was published, a further key
issue has emerged: that of mental health and wellbeing.
Mental health encompasses a wide range of concerns
such as anxiety, low mood, self-harm or attachment
problems; unsurprisingly, pupils with such problems are
at risk of not enjoying their learning and being unable to
thrive in school (Anna Freud National Centre for Children
and Families). As societal shifts have allowed for people
to discuss mental health concerns more openly, it has
become clear that far more children than previously
thought are struggling to cope with significant mental
health difficulties. Writing for the National Children’s
Bureau, Cowburn and Blow identify a mental health
crisis in our schools. They observe:
“Emotional wellbeing is a clear indicator of academic
achievement, success and satisfaction in later life.
Evidence shows that mental health and wellbeing
programmes in schools can lead to significant
improvements in children’s mental health, and
social and emotional skills. Wellbeing provision in
schools can also lead to reductions in classroom
misbehaviour and bullying.”
(Cowburn and Blow, 2018: 4)
Schools are urged to develop policies to support the
young people and families in their communities, and
to “focus on mental health, wellbeing and building
emotional resilience” (Brown, 2018: 78). These
strategies should be carefully linked to whatever work
is being done to support children who have low levels
of achievement.
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 Breaking down barriers

Factors within and beyond

the classroom
Achievement and lack of achievement are complex
matters (Clemons, 2008; Obergriesser and Stoeger,
2015). Using students’ measurable ability as an More complex are further factors linked to lack of
indication that they could be capable of academic achievement, such as gender, parental involvement and
excellence, Clemons (2008) demonstrated socioeconomic status. For example, there are ways to
that several factors impact on the actual encourage parents to be more actively involved, but
achievement learners exhibit. For some, these can be tricky to implement. Similarly, there is
the key factor was the perceived value of little that teachers can do to ameliorate socioeconomic
the task they were undertaking, since this issues. Knowing about these factors is nonetheless
provided motivation. Another relevant helpful; we can still find ways to help all learners, no
factor was the expectation they had of matter what their backgrounds, by focusing on the
their own success, and this interacted aspects that can be improved, as seen in research and
with their self-perceptions and with the practice. First, we need to decide who needs help…
ways they attributed success and failure.
In some instances, the actual strategies
employed were relevant; some of these self-
regulatory strategies impacted on how well the
learners applied themselves to the given tasks.
Discovering that these are key issues is helpful
as teachers can certainly help pupils improve in
these areas; suggestions for how to do this are
discussed below.

7
 Breaking down barriers

Part 2: Identifying and understanding able learners who are underachieving

Sometimes it is clear when there is a mismatch Episodic and chronic
between a learner’s capacity to do well and the
demonstration of such capacity, in which case it is underachievement
obvious that a learner is failing to thrive. But this is not Some learners will go through a period of failing to
always the case. Test scores can tell us about actual achieve, alternating with times when the work they
attainment in specific areas, but what can we do if we produce really does reflect their abilities in a subject
want to uncover more information about how learners or activity. This episodic lack of attainment can be
could perform, given the right support? Here are some distinguished from chronic lack of attainment, and Episodic
suggestions: knowing the difference can be helpful for teachers
• Observations of learners in class – what
and mentors in supportive roles. For example, a
learner whose lack of achievement is clearly episodic
underachievement
are they doing instead of working on a
prescribed task?
can be shown instances where they have managed
to exhibit their abilities more convincingly. This can
can act as an early
• General or specific ability checklists – can
illuminate patterns of abilities
be helpful evidence for persuading them to remain
motivated. Sometimes episodic low achievement warning system;
can be explained by issues such as illness or family
• Opportunities for self-referral – learners can be
keenly aware of their own under-performance disruption. support can be put in
• Opportunities for peer-referral – it can be
interesting and valuable to ask learners to put
Increasing periods of episodic underachievement will
eventually result in chronic underachievement.
place in time to prevent
forward peers with abilities that might not seem
immediately obvious
If teachers are aware of this, episodic underachievement
can act as an early warning system; support can be put any periodic problems
in place in time to prevent any periodic problems from
• Information from parents and others – what
abilities are learners demonstrating at home or
becoming permanent. Similarly, lack of attendance or from becoming
increased absence will also signal potential problems
in out-of-school activities?
with achievement. permanent.
• Portfolios of work – provide a more rounded
picture than single test results
• Trying out a range of new activities – exposure
to new subjects and opportunities
• Formal referrals to professionals – sometimes
an educational psychologist or therapist can
uncover aspects hitherto hidden
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 Breaking down barriers

Understanding behaviours
associated with underachievement
Vignettes of different types of behaviours typically Classroom practitioners will certainly recognise Most learners have a mix of different characteristics and
associated with underachievement can potently some of the characteristics of pupils, such as consequently require a selection of support strategies,
illustrate associated problems in the classroom and “butterfly learners” who tend to flit from task to since there is rarely one simple solution. Nevertheless,
some possible strategies to counter such difficulties. task, rarely completing things fully, or “apathetic the portraits in the table below are helpful for thinking
Wallace et al (2009) offers helpful explanations of non-engagers”, who fail to see the relevance of the about the nature of the behaviours of different learners
typical classroom behaviours, alongside suggested tasks they are set. in the classroom, and while in no way exhaustive, they
approaches to encouraging learners to engage. can prompt us to consider our own practices.
In a sense, we are all probably capable of higher
Pupil typology Characteristics How to challenge them to improve achievement in certain areas of our lives, since it is
rare for people to focus exclusively on one sole area of
Conforming coasters Teacher pleasers; can rest Anything to move them out of their comfort
learning and development. This means that any work
on their laurels zone.
on lifting barriers to achievement can have quite wide
Impatient inattentives Butterfly learners; often fail Set individual challenges to maintain relevance.
to complete tasks motivation. Learning how to stay on course
is important.
Apathetic non-engagers Do not contribute or Use real-life problems to sustain interest.
engage effectively
Risk-avoiders Stick to what they have Develop learning responsibility and resilience.
proven they can manage
Disaffected disengaged Complain and disrupt Tasks should require group work for
integration, but must be relevant, with a sense
of ownership.

(Adapted from Winstanley, 2009)

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 Breaking down barriers

Mindset and attributional style
Whether an able child achieves or underachieves has
also been linked to notions of learning dispositions,
or mindsets (Dweck, 2012). A flexible, growth
mindset leads learners to believe that
effort can reap rewards, and that
success is achievable as a result
of hard work. This contrasts
with the less helpful fixed
Pupils who mindset in which learners
fret about view ‘intelligence’ and
hence academic success
completing things
as predetermined.
‘perfectly’, either
in their own eyes or These Dweckian
ideas have become
those of others, may immensely popular in
be unable to classrooms and while
complete tasks there are aspects
due to their own that can be helpful,
caution should be
impossibly
taken to ensure they are
high standards.
employed well.
In the most useful
scenarios, a growth mindset
can be developed to help
learners explore ideas and learn
from their mistakes. However,
some studies have found that there is
no statistical significance to the use of growth
mindset activities in class, particularly with primary-aged
pupils. Teachers are therefore cautioned against over-
reliance on mindset alone (Foliano et al, 2019).
Mindset theory is at its most useful and least In this context, it is relevant to mention perfectionism.
controversial when we consider which learner Clearly, maintaining high standards of process and work
behaviours (and teacher behaviours) are the presentation is good, but if learners become excessively
most beneficial to good learning outcomes. worried about making errors, this becomes a negative
In the following table (below right), consider the type of neurotic perfectionism. Pupils who fret about
characteristics that serve as barriers to success. completing things ‘perfectly’, either in their own eyes or
How easy might it be to help learners adopt a those of others, may be unable to complete tasks due
more useful mindset as they strive to succeed? to their own impossibly high standards. This can result
in a kind of paralysis where procrastination and anxiety
These characteristics all contribute to the formation
prevent any production of work.
of the learner’s self-concept; that is, how they perceive
themselves in relation to the people in their social
context, contributing to their general sense of ability. Characteristics of Characteristics of
low-achieving pupils
It is not surprising that studies reveal that some high-achieving pupils
learners have lower self-concept levels than others, Rarely monitor their Continually self-
and this relates directly to their consequent performance monitor
achievement levels. This is especially the case for Stick to the same Adapt their strategies
younger pupils, although some studies have shown strategies to contexts and tasks
that low levels of self-concept can persist into
secondary and higher education contexts.
Vague learning goals Specific learning goals
Static learning goals Willing to adapt their
Self-efficacy refers to how well an individual expects
learning goals
to be able to perform in assigned tasks. Rather than
Narrow range of Use a wide range of
relating to the social context, self-efficacy relates
learning strategies learning strategies
directly to the task in hand. It’s about what learners
believe their attainment can be and how they attribute Focus on performance Mastery goals (focusing
success and failure. goals (comparing with on self-improvement)
others)
Give up readily in the Demonstrate
face of failure persistence in the face
of failure
(Winstanley, 2017: 742)
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Part 3: Breaking down barriers: what can schools do?
Developing metacognition
and self-regulated learning
Research suggests the most helpful approaches
teachers and schools can take to help learners
increase achievement and attainment are those that
improve metacognition and self-regulated learning,
both of which focus on getting learners to think
directly and explicitly about the efficacy of how they
are learning.
The Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) has
funded 20 separate reports on metacognition
and self-regulated learning, finding consistent
and large positive impacts, and so the evidence is
robust: it appears that teaching self-regulation and
metacognitive strategies can add an average of two
to seven months of progress to learners’ attainment
(EEF, 2018). The EEF also notes that the approach
seems to be generalisable across subjects and that
some programmes are proving to be particularly
beneficial for learners from low-income families.
Self-regulated learning is basically a self-directive
process for learning about one’s own learning.
It can be broken into three essential components:
• Cognition – the mental process involved in
knowing, understanding, and learning;
• Metacognition – often defined as ‘learning
to learn’;
• Motivation – willingness to engage our
metacognitive and cognitive skills.
(EEF, 2017)
Breaking down barriers
Teachers can help learners to implement specific Moreover, learners tend to lapse into making
strategies for planning, monitoring and evaluating unhelpful assumptions, such as “over-attributing
learning, and these strategies, once learnt, can differences in performance to innate ability” and
be applied throughout the curriculum. More able believing that “learning should be easy” (p. 436).
learners are shown to benefit very well from these Working to understand the processes of learning
techniques. The EEF also strongly recommends is therefore of great help in setting realistic and
paying careful attention to levels of challenge in the achievable goals.
classroom.
In education, we are still some way off being
Self-regulation skills can be difficult to implement, able to base improvements in learning on secure,
since they require pupils to take a lot of responsibility uncontested evidence from neuroscience, but
for their own learning. This requires a strong there is already support from neuro-education
commitment from teachers and, where possible, for the kinds of self-regulation and
parents. In the school context, teaching the metacognitive strategies noted
techniques in collaborative peer groups has also above (Howard-Jones et al,
been shown to be helpful. The overall costs for using 2014 and 2018).
these types of strategies are relatively low; however, Teachers
working on teaching self-regulation to pupils can help
necessitates an investment in teachers’ professional
development. The Education Endowment Foundation learners
has a succinct and helpful poster summarising to implement
key recommendations for teaching self-regulated
specific strategies for
learning and metacognition, available online
(educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk). planning, monitoring
Learners need considerable help in developing the and evaluating learning,
skills to understand their own learning; teachers are and these strategies,
required to provide helpful guidance. Studies have
demonstrated that learners are generally not very
once learnt, can be
adept at understanding their own learning and that applied throughout
they often have a “faulty mental model of how they the curriculum.
learn and remember” (Bjork et al, 2013: 417).
11
11
 Breaking down barriers

Equality of challenge Teachers must ensure the classroom is a safe

space for exploring abilities and interests; a space
Strong leadership and understanding of what
where learners are permitted and even encouraged
constitutes appropriate and high levels of challenge
to try out ideas and take risks. It is worth noting
in learning will contribute to overall higher levels of
that aspirations that are too high can also impact
achievement and attainment. Pitching challenge at
negatively on learners. The additional pressure
the right level and allowing for the uneven profile of
and stress can result in disengagement and
some learners is important. The principle of Equality
withdrawal, which almost inevitably leads to low
of Challenge requires that children are presented
achievement. High but manageable targets and
with activities that provide enough challenge to be
realistic expectations should be set with care and,
engaging (Winstanley, 2004).
wherever possible, in discussion with learners.
“The teacher is the key in providing challenge. It
In addition, bear in mind that sometimes it may be
is the responsibility of the teacher to engage with
necessary to look beyond the classroom to provide
ideas, such as the various ways challenges can be
the kinds and levels of challenge that motivate
manifested, and then to make considered decisions
learners to engage with their studies – in turn making
about how best to support the learners in their
achievement more likely.
care [...] The ingredients are to be integrated and
combined in ways that successfully enhance pupils’ Plenty of advice is available on hitting the right
education. For this to be meaningful, teachers balance to simultaneously engage and support
need to engage with the principles of what they are learners. The table below (page 13) summarises the
undertaking and examine their own understanding, ingredients of challenge, with some questions to ask
reviewing how they feel and what they do.” yourself as a teacher and some ideas to try (worded
(Winstanley, 2010) for primary levels, but applicable more broadly).

12

Ingredient of challenge Ask yourself…
Cognitive engagement and Are learners hooked in to
cognitive dissonance the ideas they’re working
on? Are the activities giving perceived level of difficulty.
them the right level of
puzzlement?
Risk of failure and chance What is the attitude
of success to making mistakes
in class? Are there
genuinely manageable
and genuinely difficult
activities?
Independence and self- How frequently
direction
can learners get on
without support? What
opportunities are there for
independence and self-
direction?
Metacognition Do learners regularly
review their own ways of
working?
Like-minded peers Are groups mixed up for
tasks, including across
the year group or wider
school?
Ideas to try
Children source a ‘challenge of the week’ so
you can see what they find interesting and their
Follow up some ‘mindset’ activities and have a
‘celebration of learning from mistakes’ board.
Encourage individuals to undertake a sustained
project of their own choosing.
Post some key questions for nudging children to
review how they learn.
Run a ‘hobbies day’ where everyone shares their
passions across the school, finding like-minded
children.
Breaking down barriers
Low-threshold, high-ceiling
activities
Accessible low-threshold, high-ceiling (LTHC) tasks
and activities are helpful for all pupils and are
particularly suitable for more able learners lacking
confidence. Such activities are designed to be
accessible for all, while simultaneously catering for
those who need additional stretch and open-ended
challenge. LTHC tasks allow for a whole group to
work on the same project but taking things at their
own level. The group can then come together to
share ideas and experiences.
“Low Threshold High Ceiling (LTHC) tasks… offer
many possibilities for learners to focus on more
sophisticated process skills rather than more
knowledge. It’s often mistakenly thought that the
only way to challenge learners is to offer them
content at a higher level; in LTHC tasks the content
often remains quite simple but the level of thinking
required can become very sophisticated.”
(McClure, 2011, p. 1)
A concept well-developed in mathematics, LTHC
activities can be adopted across the curriculum. For
example, see Winstanley (2018) for further discussion
with particular reference to philosophy as a great subject
for LTHC activities.
13
 Breaking down barriers

The importance of a whole-

school approach
There is little point in one enthusiastic teacher adopting The school climate shapes more than the ethos;
some helpful strategies if they are working in isolation. it impacts on the detail of how teachers relate to
For effective practice to thrive, positive school values
and sound leadership are essential (Wallace et al, Self-regulation learners. Reflecting high expectations of pupil
learning, it is customary to hold teachers to
2009; Cowburn and Blow, 2018; Winstanley in
Ogier, 2019). strategies work better similarly high standards of engagement. This
allows school leaders to work with teachers
Self-regulation strategies work better when
teachers and managers are also involved in
when teachers and to adopt helpful practices, such as careful
and regular review of progress (Wallace et
celebrating achievement and are consistent
in their insistence on attainable but high
managers are also involved al, 2009). Such processes allow teachers
to notice changes in learner performance,
expectations of learners (Ziegler, 2012). When in celebrating achievement potentially highlighting episodic
attainment problems before they become
school managers make decisions to integrate
strategies to improve achievement into general and are consistent in their chronic and more difficult to tackle.
If school leaders systemise this level of
insistence on attainable but monitoring, involving learners in the process
classroom activities this can be helpful for
all learners (Obergriesser and Stoeger, 2015).
Similarly, as seen in some of the schools reviewed
by Wallace and colleagues (2009) being able to high expectations as part of a self-regulation project, this can
lead to pupils developing a sense of ownership
adapt and develop the curriculum and timetable to
increase choice and opportunities is valuable. of learners. of their learning. Teachers can invite learners to
reflect on their understanding, and on their likes,
dislikes, anxieties, boredom levels and personal
“Research into authoritative school ‘climate’
targets. Such discussions impact positively on pupils’
indicates that it is one in which there is a balance
learning behaviours and progress (Wallace et al, 2009;
between a high expectations and structure on one
Obergriesser and Stoeger, 2015).
hand and warmth and support on the other. This
authoritative ‘climate’ has been cited as reducing
student dropout rates, improving attainment and led
to less bullying and victimisation in schools.”
(Scottish Government, 2018: 3)

14

Learner and teacher
perspectives
When trying to remember why this all matters, it can be
helpful to consider personal perspectives on the impact
of achievement or lack of achievement. As noted, there
are myriad reasons to try and reduce the gap between
learners’ potential and actual achievement. As a teacher,
your own motivations will depend somewhat on your
view of the aims of education as a whole. For example,
you might be predominantly concerned with personal
development, flourishing and wellbeing. You would then
be worried that low-attainers with high potential will be
unfulfilled due to a failing of the education system. If your
view is of education as a societal good, there are ample
reasons for finding and improving the experiences of
the able learner who could be making a more significant
contribution to local, national and global societies. It
may simply be that your own efficacy as a teacher is
disappointing to you if you feel that your learners are not
doing as well as they clearly could.
As these extracts from conversations with learners and
teachers illustrate, although people may differ in their
perspectives and experiences, the problem of failing to
achieve is significant.
Student A: Well, for me, just changing
teacher made such a difference. Even though
it was part-way through the term, it felt like
a whole new subject because actually she
asked us what we wanted to learn.
Student B: But there isn’t really much choice
because of the exams, surely?
Student A: Well, yes, but there were chances
to do things slightly differently and even just
that was better than always following the
teacher’s interests. I, mean, the whole class
was paying attention much more because
we’d had a sort of vote on which topic to do
and so we had to join in properly.
Primary school teacher: I definitely have
some children who are not performing as
well as they could, yeah, it’s especially the
gap between their discussion skills and
their writing. It’s not easy to find time to do
individual work with them and even if there
was time, I’m honestly not sure what I could
do. Some of them find it really hard to settle
and stay focused so it’s not surprising they
don’t finish tasks.
Breaking down barriers
KS2 learner: My maths is okay, but I
don’t like um, English and all the writing
for English. On my report I got ‘working
towards’ which means I’m not good
enough at English yet. The thing is that I
don’t like it. I suppose it won’t get better.
Newly qualified secondary teacher: I’m not
sure that my school teachers really got the
picture of what it is like to live in different
foster homes. I was moved about quite
a bit from Year 7 through to my GCSEs,
and I did get in trouble about homework
and attendance, but they were wrong to
think I wasn’t interested in learning. No
one really asked me how I was managing.
I think it’s better these days. I really try and
see if there is a reason from home that one
of mine [tutor group pupils] is in trouble
all the time. Sometimes in the staffroom
I hear other teachers being quite harsh
about some of our pupils who probably
have quite chaotic home lives, but I’m an
NQT and I find it hard to challenge them
– I don’t think they get how hard it can be
to do well at school when there’s no one
supporting you at home.
15
 Breaking down barriers

Conclusion: where next?

We have discussed the reasons why some very able Additionally, school leaders and policymakers Other school policies need to address partnerships
learners may not achieve in line with their abilities. We are vital in supporting success, as classroom with other agencies and with parents, as these are also
have considered the nature of the barriers to learning and subject teachers are less able to achieve key factors in determining achievement. Essentially,
they experience, whether a lack of connection to the and demonstrate sufficient impact if they are schools need to be sure to have addressed the
ethos and environment of their school, or issues such as working in isolation. When teachers raise concerns, holistic development of all learners. This can be
language difference, learning difficulties, issues of social it is incumbent on those who create and maintain supported through wellbeing strategies combined
and economic disadvantage, or anxiety and excessive the overarching structures to facilitate policies and with activities that develop resilience and a positive
perfectionism. strategies that support and reinforce positive classroom self-reflective attitude.
activities. School policies should permit swift
Whilst, as teachers, we cannot overcome all these It is therefore possible for teachers and school leaders
interventions to counter lack of learner progress,
difficulties on behalf of our learners, in this guide we to lift some of the barriers to success for more able
while simultaneously holding appropriately high
have considered practical ways in which we might learners, and to equip them with the tools and strength
expectations in order to motivate and engage. The
tackle these concerns in schools. One main notion is to continue to overcome difficulties impacting on their
range and depth of learning opportunities available will
to really get to know our learners through being chances of achievement.
be impacted by the flexibility, resources and imagination
vigilant in classrooms, corridors and playgrounds,
of the leadership team, for example.
and through affording them many opportunities to
shine. This will help us identify their strengths and
help us to help them see that they can succeed.
The key strategy for teachers to adopt
systematically, is to work with learners on self-
regulation and metacognitive strategies. These will
equip them to become confident and independent;
a key way of lifting barriers to success. Helping
learners to shift to positive and dynamic mindsets
may also be helpful but cannot solve problems alone.
Teachers are also well-placed to keep tight checks on
progress, identifying potential problems and can monitor
how well learners respond to any interventions.

16

Further reading and resources
Anna Freud National Centre for Children and
Families – school toolkits and a wealth of information
around mental health: https://www.annafreud.org/what-
we-do/schools-in-mind/
Department for Children, Schools and Families
(DCSF) – series of relevant and interesting government-
funded reports on gifted and talented education; some
archived but can still be obtained from the DfE website:
• DCSF May (2007) Gifted and Talented Education:
Guidance on preventing underachievement – a focus
on dual or multiple exceptionality (DME), London:
Crown copyright.
• DCSF Jan (2008a) Gifted and Talented Education:
Helping to find and support children with dual or
multiple exceptionalities, London: Crown copyright.
• DCSF Jan (2008b) Gifted and Talented Education:
Guidance on preventing underachievement: A
focus on children and young people in care, London:
Crown copyright.
• DCSF Feb (2008) Gifted and Talented Education
Guidance on preventing underachievement: A
focus on exceptionally able pupils, London: Crown
copyright.
Breaking down barriers
Education Endowment Fund (EEF) – runs
various education projects and has many
evaluations and case studies to explore: https://
educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/
Open Learn: Self Regulated Learning (course)
– an open-access Open University-supported
course focusing on self-regulated learning and on
creating personalised technology-enhanced learning
environments: http://www.open.edu/openlearnworks/
course/view.php?id=1490%3F
Wallace, B., Leyden, S., Montgomery, D., Winstanley,
C., Pomerantz, M. and Fitton, S. (2009) Raising the
Achievement of All Pupils Within an Inclusive
Setting: Practical Strategies for Developing Best
Practice, Routledge: London. Based on a NACE-
commissioned research project, this book delves into
examples of proven effective classroom and whole-
school practices. Drawing on case studies of primary
and secondary schools, each chapter combines theory
with examples, tackling a broad range of issues from
multiple exceptionalities, social development, emotional
issues, inclusion and leadership.
Winstanley, C. (2010) The Ingredients of Challenge,
Staffs: Trentham. This book explains the notion of
Equality of Challenge and has a grounding in theory, but
is essentially a practical book with many suggestions
for supporting learners who are struggling to achieve
effectively.
Page 17

Additional academic references
Bjork, R.A., Dunlosky, J. and Kornell, N. (2013) ‘Self-Regulated
Learning: Beliefs, Techniques, and Illusions’, in Annual Review of
Psychology, 64 (no issue no.): 417-444.
Brown, R. (2018) Mental health and wellbeing provision in
schools: Review of published policies and information, DFE-
RR837, London: Department for Education https://assets.
publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
attachment_data/file/747709/Mental_health_and_wellbeing_
provision_in_schools.pdf (accessed Jan 2019).
Clemons, T. (2008) Underachieving Gifted Students: A Social
Cognitive Model, University of Connecticut: National Research
Center on the Gifted and Talented.
Cowburn, A. and Blow, M. (2018) Wise Up – Prioritising Wellbeing
in Schools, London: Young Minds and National Children’s Bureau.
DfE (2012) Literacy and Numeracy Catch-Up Strategies, London:
Crown copyright https://www.gov.uk/government/publications
(accessed August 2016).
DfES and NAGTY (2006) Effective Provision for Gifted and
Talented Children in Primary Education, London: Crown
copyright.
Foliano, F., Rolfe, H., Buzzeo, J., Runge, J. and Wilkinson, D.
(2019) Changing Mindsets: Effectiveness Trial Evaluation Report,
London: Education Endowment Foundation.
Howard-Jones, P., Ioannou, K., Bailey, R., Prior, J., Yau, S.H., Jay,
T. (2018) ‘Applying the Science of Learning in the Classroom’, in
Impact: Journal of the Chartered College of Teaching, open access
https://impact.chartered.college/article/howard-jones-applying-
science-learning-classroom/ (accessed 2018).
Howard-Jones P. (2014) Neuroscience and education: Myths and
messages. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 15(12): 817–824.
Breaking down barriers
McClure, L. (2011) Using low threshold high ceiling tasks in Winstanley, C. (2009) ‘Providing Challenging Opportunities in the
ordinary primary classrooms. NRICH. Available from https://nrich. Classroom’ in Wallace, B., Leyden, S., Montgomery, D., Winstanley,
maths.org/content/id/7701/LTHCArticle.pdf C., Pomerantz, M. and Fitton, S. Raising the Achievement of All Pupils
Obergriesser, S. and Stoeger, H. (2015) ‘The role of emotions, Within an Inclusive Setting: Practical Strategies for Developing Best
motivation, and learning behaviour in underachievement and Practice, pp. 101-130, Routledge: London.
results of an intervention’, in High Ability Studies, 26(1) 167-90. Winstanley, C. (2017) ‘Closing the Achievement Gap: Self-Regulation
and Personalising Learning’, in Capel, S., Leask, M. and Younnie, S.
Panadero, E. (2017) ‘A Review of Self-regulated Learning:
Learning to Teach in the Secondary School, (8th edition), Unit 5.5: 736-
Six Models and Four Directions for Research’, in Frontiers in
59, London: Routledge.
Psychology, 8, No.422, published online (accessed 2017).
Winstanley, C. (2018) ‘Deep thinking and high ceilings: using
Reis, S.M. and Greene, M.J. (2014) ‘Using Self-Regulated
philosophy to challenge ‘more able’ pupils’, in Journal of Philosophy in
Learning to Reverse Underachievement in Talented Students’,
Schools, 5(1): 111-33.
Renzulli Center for Creativity, Gifted Education, and Talent
Development https://gifted.uconn.edu/schoolwide-enrichment- Winstanley, C. (2019) ‘Developing a Supportive Ethos for All Learners’,
model/self-regulated_learning_reverse_underachievement/# in Ogier, S. (Ed.) (2019) A Broad and Balanced Curriculum: Educating
(accessed July 2017). the Whole Child pp.87-101. London: Sage.
Scottish Government (2018) Developing a positive whole school Ziegler, A. and Stoeger, H. (2012) ‘Shortcomings of the IQ-Based
ethos and culture – Relationships, Learning and Behaviour, Construct of Underachievement’, in Roeper Review, 34:123–132.
https://www.gov.scot/publications/developing-positive-whole-
school-ethos-culture-relationships-learning-behaviour/ (accessed
2018).
Snyder, K. and Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2013). A developmental,
person-centered approach to exploring multiple motivational
pathways in gifted underachievement. Educational Psychologist,
48, 209–228.
White, S.L.J., Graham, L.J. and Blaas, S. (2018) ‘Why do
we know so little about the factors associated with gifted
underachievement? A systematic literature review’, in
Educational Research Review 24: 55–66.
Winstanley, C. (2004) Too Clever by Half: A Fair Deal for Gifted
Children, Staffs: Trentham.
Page 18
 Breaking down barriers

Guide author
Carrie Winstanley
Carrie Winstanley has taught in schools and higher education for
25 years. She is currently Professor of Pedagogy at Roehampton
University, London, with a particular responsibility for learning and
teaching, working primarily on undergraduate programmes but also
with masters and doctoral students and with staff. Carrie is particularly
committed to encouraging learners of all ages to embrace museum
and gallery visits and outdoor activities as an essential aspect of their
education, as part of her interest in informal as well as formal learning.
She is fascinated by ideas around challenge in education, with an
emphasis on broadening diversity in all phases of education, with
reference to social justice.

Series editor
Hilary Lowe
Hilary Lowe has written, advised and presented widely on the
education of more able learners. She led a major national professional
development programme for gifted and talented coordinators and has
designed national training and guidance materials. She is currently
NACE’s Education Adviser.

National Association for Able Children in Education

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