FACULTY OF ARTS, CULTURE AND HERITAGE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

BACHELOR OF ARTS HONOURS IN ENGLISH AND

COMMUNICATION (BHEC)

BHEC115: LITERARY CRITICISM

CUSTOMISED IN 2020

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Authors: Dr. Augustine Tirivangana
PhD – Arts (UZ)
MA – English Literature (UZ)
MSc – RuP (UZ)
DPPM – Postgraduate Diploma in Project Planning and Management (UZ)
BA (Honours) English (UZ)
CE (Hillside Teachers’ College)

Dr Anna Chitando
DLit (UNISA)
MA in Literature in English (UZ)
BA General (UZ)
PGDE (ZOU)

Taurai L Chinyanganya
MA in English for Specific Purposes (UZ)
BA Honours (UZ)
BEd (UCT)
Grad CE (UZ)

Booker Jambaya
MA in English Language Teaching (USA)
BA General (Vermont USA)

Juniel Matavire
MA Linguistics (UZ)
BA Honours (UZ)
CE (Morgan ZINTEC)

Content Reviewer: Nhlanhla Sibanda

MA English (UZ)
MSc Peace and Conflict Studies (UZ)
BA (Honours) English (UZ)
CE (Hillside Teachers’ College)

Editor: Sithembile Manyuchi

MADE IGNOU, India
PGDE IGNOU, India
BEd (UZ)
CE (TI) (GTC)
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Customised by: Taurai L Chinyanganya
MA in English for Specific Purposes (UZ)
BA Honours (UZ)
BEd (UCT)
Grad CE (UZ)
Table of Contents
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE
1.0.Introduction
1.1.Objectives
1.2. Towards Defining Literature
Activity 1.1
1.3. The Function of Literature
Activity 1.2
1.4. The Genres of Literature
1.4.1 Poetry
1.4.2 Drama
1.4.3 Prose
1.4.4 Essay
1.5. Summary
References

UNIT 2: KEY DEVELOPMENTS IN LITERATURE

2.0. Introduction
2.1 Objectives
Activity 2.1
2.1.2. 1580-1610. Elizabethan and Jacobean period
2.1.3. 1600’s: Metaphysical poetry
Activity 2.2
2.1.4. 1689-1848 The Eighteenth-century novel
Activity 2.3
2.1.5. 1812-1880. The Victorian era
2.1.6. The Romantic poets
Activity 2.4
2.1.7. The Victorian Poets
2.1.8. The Modern Era
Activity 2.5
2.2 Literature in English
2.3. Summary
References

UNIT 3: THE PLACE OF THEORIES IN LITERARY APPRECIATION/CRITICISM

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3.0. Introduction
3.1. Objectives
3.2. Literary Theories
3.3. Worldview
3.4. Ideology
Activity 3.1
3.5. Literature as a product of socio-economic and cultural context.
3.6. The place of theory in the study of literature
Activity 3.2
3.7. A brief review of literary theories
3.7.1. Archetypal criticism
3.7.2 Feminist criticism
Activity 3.3
3.7.3. Marxist criticism
3.7.4. New criticism
3.7.5. Psychoanalytic criticism
3.7.6. Reader response criticism
3.7.7. Deconstruction
3.7.8. Historical criticism
3.7.9. Postcolonial
Activity 3.4
3.7.10. Postmodernism
3.7.11. Russian Firmalism
3.7.12. Afrocentricity
3.7.13. Africana womanism
3.8. Conclusion
References

UNIT 4: THE BASICS OF LITERARY APPRECIATION

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.1.1. Literary Appreciation/ criticism
Activity 4.1
4.2 The Basics in Appreciating Poetry
4.3 Types of poems
4.3.1. Poems that tell stories
4.3.2. Poems that present an argument
4.3.3. Poems based on Observations
4.3.4. Poems based on changes in emotion
4.3.5. Poems as games
Activity 4.2
4.4 The Persona
4.5 Methodology for Analysis
Activity 4.3

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4.6 Drama
4.6.1 Conventions of Drama
4.6.2 Verse and Prose and other linguistic conventions
4.6.3 The Soliloquy
4.6.4 The Aside
4.6.5 Other conventions
4.6.6 Stage Directions
4.7.0 Appreciating Narratives/Prose
4.7.1 Author’s Craft
4.7.2 Narrative Technique
4.8 Characters
4.8.1 Study of Character
Activity 4.4
4.9 Summary
References

UNIT 5: POETRY APPRECIATION

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 What is Poetry?
Activity 5.1
5.3 Classification of Poetry
Activity 5.2
5.4 Appreciation of A Poem
Activity 5.3
Activity 5.4
Activity 5.5
Activity 5.6
5.5 Summary
References

UNIT 6: APPRECIATION OF UNSEEN POEMS

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Questions as Guides to Literary Criticism
6.3 Golden Rule
Activity 6.1
Activity 6.2
Activity 6.3
6.4 Summary
References

UNIT 7: DRAMA APPRECIATION

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7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.1.1 What is drama?
Activity 7.1
Activity 7.2
7.2. Types of Drama
7.2.1 Tragedy
7.2.2 Elements of Tragedy
Activity 7.3
7.3 Comedy
Activity 7.4
7.4 Tragicomedy
7.5 The Language of Drama
7.6 Drama Appreciation
7.7 Summary
References

UNIT 8: CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF DRAMA: TOOLS OF ANALYSIS

8.0 Reading Drama
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Elements of Drama
8.3 Questions for Critical Thinking
Activity 8.1
8.4 Summary
References

UNIT 9: LITERARY APPRECIATION – UNSEEN PROSE PASSAGES

9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Critical Strategies on Essay Questions
9.2.1 Explication
9.2.2 Analytical question
9.2.3 Compare and contrast
9.2.4 Major Literary Elements of Prose
9.3 Questions to Ask for Responsive Reading
9.4 Taking You through the Drills
9.5 Summary
References

UNIT 10: MORE PASSAGES FOR PRACTICE

10.0 Introduction
10.1 Practice Passages with Suggested Answer Guidelines
Activity 10.1
Activity 10.2
Activity 10.3
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Activity 10.4
Activity 10.5
Activity 10.6
Activity 10.7
10.2 Passages without guidelines
Activity 10.8
Activity 10.9
Activity 10.11
Activity 10.12
Activity 10.13
10.3 Summary
References

UNIT 11: LITERARY TERMS

11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Selected Terms Defined
11.3 Section 1: A To F
Activity 11.1
11.4 Section 2: G To L
Activity 11.2
11.5 Section 3: M To R
Activity 11.3
11.6 Section 4: S To Z
11.7 Summary
References

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Module Overview

This module is a very important key that unlocks our study of literature. Literary appreciation/criticism
has been conceived not only as a key course to understanding any literature but also the most difficult
aspect of literary study. Up until recently very little literature has been in circulation in the area of
literary appreciation or criticism and this module comes in handy in our analysis of texts. This is
especially so, when we consider the fact that our understanding of literature is predicated on our ability
to analyse and interact meaningfully with literary texts. The module comprises eleven units which are
carefully designed to prepare you for critical reading and analysis of literary texts.

In Unit One, we define literature itself in terms of its nature, function and complexity. All the major
genres are introduced in this unit. The complexity and diversity of literature implies that there is no
universally agreed definition of literature. This unit makes this abundantly clear, showing that there is
no genre that is necessarily superior to the others.

In Unit Two we focus on key developments in literature. We help you develop an understanding of the
broad movements in the development of literature, including the evolution of the genres. Here we trace
the literary evolution from the medieval period all the way through the Elizabethan and Jacobean
periods to the contemporary times.

In Unit Three we familiarise you with some of the theories that inform literary studies. For us to fully
make sense of what we read as literature, some basic understanding of theory is crucial. We briefly
skim through some of these literary theories to illuminate to you some of of their tenets which form
the bedrock of appreciating literature.

In Unit Four we introduce the basics of literary appreciation and develop in you an awareness and
appreciation of different literary genres and the practice of literary criticism. Special focus is on literary
appreciation techniques and the basics of appreciating poetry, drama and prose. It provides just the
general overview touching on the actual basics of interpretation.

While the above unit is generalist in approach, in Unit Five we focus on poetry appreciation in
particular. We introduce you to the role of the poet in society in terms of content, form, style, intention,
feelings and other relevant attributes of poetry. We provide both the questions and sample answers for
illustrative purposes.

The skills cultivated above are further discussed in Unit Six where we shift attention to appreciation
of unseens. We discuss the different components of style in general and explore how various
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components of style contribute to meaning.

In Unit Seven we shift attention to appreciation of drama. Here we clearly distinguish between tragedy,
comedy and tragicomedy. There is need for candidates to know that there is a thin line between these
sub-genres. Above all we provide the critical tools of analysing drama.

In Unit Eight we focus on appreciating prose passages and explain the elements of prose that make it
unique. In Unit Nine we provide practice exercises on prose. In Unit Ten we provide practice exercises
for drama. Finally, in Unit Eleven we provide a useful glossary to critical literary terms.

UNIT 1

Introduction to literature

1.0 Introduction

In this unit we examine the meaning of literature and its value in society, and education in
particular. The questions that this unit attempts to answer are; what is literature? What is its
function, if any, in society and education? What is literary appreciation/criticism? Answers to these
basic questions help to set the foundation for our appreciation of all literary work, be it poetry,
prose, drama or the essay. The complexity and diversity of literature implies that there is no
universally agreed definition of literature, so the descriptions and attempts at defining it should be
viewed in the light of this fact. In the same view, no genre of literature is viewed as superior to
others, although poets would want to impress that it is “the breath and finer spirit of all art”, so
equal treatment on the genres is encouraged. An understanding of this unit serves as a foundation
upon which all other succeeding units are based.

1.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define literature in line with its nature, function, diversity and complexity
 outline the general function and value of literature to society in general and the individual in
particular
 briefly describe each genre of literature and their origins
 outline briefly the meaning of literary appreciation (Practical Criticism)
 evaluate the value in any piece of literary work

1.2 Towards Defining Literature

The development of powers of imagination, understanding and reflection should certainly be part
of any truly educational process. The primary aim of literature is to give pleasure, to entertain those
who voluntarily attend to it. It springs from man’s in-born love of telling a story, arranging words
in pleasing patterns, of expressing in word some special aspect of our human experience. There
are of course, many different ways of entertaining or giving pleasure, ranging from the most trivial
and sensational to the most philosophical and profound. Unlike the historian, the economist,
scientist and others, the author of literature is not enslaved by fact. The author or inventor of
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literature has the liberty to create, to originate in fiction and to build his/her own art form in the
world of ideas, fantasy and unreality.

The greatest pleasure and satisfaction to be found in literature occurs where it brings back to the
realities of human situations problems, feelings and relationships. Authors of literature have wider
scope to comment on facts, to arrange them in unusual ways and to speculate with vision or
prophetic insights into human life. Moody (1994: 3) writes:

All of us who read works of literature will find our knowledge of human affairs broadened
and deepened, whether in the individual, the social, the racial or the international sphere;
we shall understand the possibilities of human life, both for good and evil; we shall
understand how we came to live at a particular time and place, with all its pleasures and
vexations and problems; … and we shall perhaps be able to make right rather than wrong
choices.

Aside of pleasures and enjoyment educated people have high capacity for discrimination, judgment
and decision-making. When different people read the same text they are likely to develop different
tastes towards the text read. What is happening is that we are beginning to discriminate, to
appreciate and feel the difference between what is really important, truly first class, and what is
trivial and second hand, easily dispensable. Daiches (1981: 398) sums it up thus,

“To enjoy with discrimination, to discern value, to recognise and reject the spurious, to
respond maturely to the genuine, never to be fooled by the shabby and the second-hand-
that is the civilised approach to the arts, we should not waste our time on trivia and should
move on to quality, first grade and critical issues without expending energy on the
substantial if we are to benefit most both in our individual capacities and in our contribution
to the world at large.”

In the exercise of discrimination we establish criterion upon which we base our judgment and the
factors that we value. We reflect upon our judgments and deliver an opinion about the rights and
wrongs of a situation or problem that we often find other people in agreement with. Such ability
to weigh and consider will remain hallmarks upon which practical action will be based in the
decision making process across the spectrum of life, from business to politics and academics. Some
pieces of writing will still seem skilful but trivial; others serious but clumsy; others both effective
and penetrating and so on. T.S. Eliot uses the term ‘objective correlative’ which signifies the verbal
structure, standing independently by itself, as created by the writer, which must be sufficiently
complete and self explanatory to produce in the mind of the reader the conception which the author
originally set out to convey.

The appreciation of literature is concerned with the judgment of complete works, yet the majority
of works of literature are lengthy novels, plays and poems. The discussion so far seems to have
focused on short extracts, short poems short plays. The question that may arise is whether there is
a connection between these or not. The matter is that there is a very important relationship between
them. When we judge lengthy works of literature we shall be concerned with some of its broader
aspects such as the unfolding of the plot, the development of the characters, the description of the
setting and the background, the social problems presented, the interweaving of the plots and
accompanying subplots, the play and complementary play-lets and so on. But equally important in
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our judgment is our “appreciation” of the texture of the work. It is in the texture of a larger work,
in the actual interweaving and management of the very materials from which the work is
constructed, that is, the words used, that the best indication of its quality can nearly always be
found.

A writer’s powers of observation and analysis; the integrity with which s/he handles his/her
subject, and his/her sensitivity to words are revealed in quite small extracts. Experienced critiques
can sometimes tell, after reading a few lines or paragraphs, whether it is a piece of genuine
craftsmanship or just a routine, hackneyed piece of casual journalism. This means that in training
our powers of critical appreciation upon short pieces of writing we are developing essential skills
for use in longer pieces of literature. Understanding and recognition of the other elements of
literary appreciation (analysis of plot, character, setting, theme and so on) automatically find
importance as factors leading to our judgment of good and poor, high and low quality, valuable
and pedestrian value.

A definition of literature should begin with an examination of the terms art, literature and poetry.
The terms are often used interchangeably but a finer analysis may reveal some salient differences
between them. We shall try to examine each one separately. Art seems to involve some skill in
doing things such as construction of a house, making a table, cooking a delicacy, sewing a piece
of garment, sculpture making, playing a tune, reciting a poem or even drawing.

From the purposive action results something we may use or enjoy. Even then we may classify art
into fine arts (such as architecture, painting, sculpture, music and literature) and practical arts (such
as building. carpentry, cooking, pottery, weaving). The fine arts are supposed to have value to us
just as the practical arts have demonstrable use. Fine arts, then, are of little use but could be of
much value, and when we talk of art we are generally referring to those fine arts. In them we must
obtain value, beauty, truth, reality and knowledge. It is the inner feelings, or imagination that the
artist expresses on his artefact. He or she gives form to the dream or vision conjured in the mind.
It is also the external world that impinges on the mind to start the process of image-making. The
process may be seen as a dialectic. The artist has to make use of some material medium such as
stone, bronze, colour, sound or symbol, something that could be seen or heard, or that stimulates
thought; something that could enliven the artist’s dream, vision or experience.

Architecture, sculpture and painting are called visual arts or space arts because these are meant to
be seen. They are two-dimensional. Music and literature are often called time art for these are
meant to be heard, and the sense of sequence is paramount, giving them a beginning, a middle and
an end in musical and literary composition. Hegel in Iyengar and Nandakuma (1990: 4-5) arranged
them in the following order.

Architecture: three- dimensional, spatially expansive, materially substantial as well as

symbolic.

Sculpture: three dimensional, an approach to an ideal image of the living body, apparently
static yet suggestive of inner poise or tension; the sculptor presents Laocoon’s struggle
with the serpents, stresses the tension of suffering, while the poet Virgil is able to render
the fierce agonising cries and the whole pathos of the situation.
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 Painting: two dimensional, but the play of colour facilitates far greater freedom in the
rendering of life and nature than the solid media of sculpture or architecture. “A good
painter”, says Leonardo da Vinci, “has two chief objects to paint, man and the intention of
his soul”, it is the latter that exercises his art, for he has to make the suggested movement
of the body reflect the working of the mind, and the very attitude suggests the fluttering of
the heart or the disturbance in the soul.

Music: in which the three dimensions of space are wholly eliminated, while the stream of
sound (like the play of colour in painting) tries to render the inner emotional experience of
the artist.

Poetry (or Literature); which employs language, an essentially symbolic medium, to render
the inner landscape of the mind or the passions, feelings, agitations and ecstasies of the
heart and soul. Literary art is supposed to be capable of universal expression because in a
way it comprises the other arts as well.

Let us now examine the term literature. From the Hegelian view we have seen that literature, since
it has to handle the symbolic medium of language, is not only the most elusive of the arts, but also
the most inclusive. Literature involves more that a mere assortment of words. There is even a
tendency to define the terms literature and literary in circular ways. Literature is a collective term
for what is literary; what is literary pertains to literature. Literature is a written art which is not
easily definable, that we as readers must struggle to define each time we read a piece of writing
which moves, delights or changes us in a special way. For whatever else it may be, literature is a
kind of writing which carries more than one meaning, and that deserves to be read thoughtfully
and with attention. Some language is quite obvious in meaning such as a telephone message,
doctor’s prescript, a news bulletin, the shopping list and so on, and there is some language which,
by not communicating a single, straightforward message, is making us wonder, question and
dream.

Perhaps the most fruitful of all critical discussions devoted to inquiry into the nature and value of
imaginative literature has been The Poetics of Aristotle, written in fourth century before the birth
of Christ. The Poetics remains incomplete but quite comprehensive in the aspects it covers,
particularly its analysis of tragedy. Aristotle’s definition of literature brings out its special,
differentiating qualities, demonstrates its function and assesses value in terms of that function, and
vindicates it against those who consider it immoral and, hence, of little value.

Literature refers to any kind of composition in prose or verse which has for its purpose not the
communication of fact but the telling of a story either wholly invented or given new life through
invention, or the giving of pleasure though some use of the inventive imagination in the
employment of words. The Greek use the term poesis and the German use the term Dichtung,
terms which refer to products of the literary imagination and do not include, as the term literature
does, anything at all that is written. There is, unfortunately, no English term equivalent to the terms
poesis and Dichtung, The term poetry as used by some earlier writers such as Sir Philip Sidney
and P.B. Shelly has the wider meaning of poesis. The term poetry, however, has narrowed in
meaning as the term literature has widened in scope.

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We have already met the term poetry as having undergone transformation or metamorphosis with
respect to its meaning as literature equally expanded. We may now see literature as consisting of
all the books where moral truth and human passion are touched with a certain largeness, sanity and
attraction of form. Literature is a collection of books (poems, drama, and novels) and there can be
no exclusion in respect of the country of origin, the time of composition or the language medium.
A distinction is often made between pure and applied literature. Poetry is not only pure literature
but is the purest of the pure. In a platonic dialogue, Socrates is made to say, “… the poet is a light
and winged and holy thing, and there is no invention in him until he has been inspired and is out
of his senses, and the mind is no longer in him.” The Socratic view is that poetry is the creation of
sundry inspired individuals. The conscious mind is in abeyance, and a sudden frenzy takes control.
When this happens the words come, as if unbidden, in some deluge, from a source extraneous to
the poet himself or herself. Surely this is some extreme view. We shall leave the discussion of
poetry to the relevant unit. We now return to literature.

The material of literature is usually provided by the age. The language of the age is the tool with
which the writer has to handle as his efficient instrument of expression. The current taste of the
people is the other determining factor. The heroic age created the epic, the city-centred
sophisticated ages evolved drama, the industrial age the novel and the modern technological age
the Cinema, the Television (TV) and other devices like computers and smart phones. It is,
therefore, possible to see a writer as a creature of her/his age, owing much to it and being
conditioned by its climate of thought and opinion as well as speaking in the idiom of the age.

The relationship between language and literature could be likened to that of a hunter and his game.
It is the nature of the animal being hunted; the nature of landscape or environment in which the
hunting takes place, the abundance of game in the territory and even the skill of the hunter that
may determine the technique to be used for hunting. Such is the relationship between language
and literature. We may equally draw similar parallels among the river, the current and the
swimmer. The three influence each other in the process of swimming. While the swimmer may be
central to the whole process of swimming, the other factors have a very strong influence in the
direction of events and hence constitute an indispensable background.

Literature is language about language (Collins, 1992: 240). In literature everything means
something; both form and content communicate.

Activity 1.1
1. Evaluate the assertion that a writer is a product of his/her time.
2. Distinguish art from literature and show the relationship between the two.
3. Discuss the dialectical relationship between the internal and external influence on the
artist.
4. A Literary artist is an inventor. What roles do imagination and inspiration play?

1.3 The Function of Literature

We have seen in the preliminary section that a strong relationship exists between the writer and
his environment. We have also seen how the artist uses or borrows ideas from his/her society and
attempts to interpret the issues in it through literature, leading to the conclusion that the writer is
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only a creature of his/her age. This section examines the uses of literature in society. The question
we seek to address is ‘What is the place of literature in today’s world?’

Socrates attributed literary creation to the frenzy that suddenly sieges the poet. Milton (1674) says
that a good book is the precious life blood of a master-spirit. We have seen, too, that the
environment has a prominent role to play in literary creation. There is collision between the author
and his world resulting in literature. While there are clearly known technological processes that
result in the manufacture of a car, stove, paper or yoghurt, there are no such generally agreed and
universal principles applicable to literary creation. Factors both external and internal to the poet
influence each other resulting in literature. We may go to literature to learn something about the
author or the society he lived in. This is the basis of the sociological approach, popularised by
Samuel Johnson. With certain writers, and with certain form of literature, the personal element
may be quite strong. However, it is the work of great literature that it is “classically” free from the
taint of personality. T.S. Eliot maintains that, “The poet has, not a ‘personality’ to express, but a
particular medium …in which impressions and experiences combine in peculiar and unexpected
ways”. Literature is neither emotion nor recollection in tranquility, but a kind of ignition and the
new thing resulting from such ignition. External reality and the writer’s inner universe are both
somehow involved in the literary process, and the art itself, once it is finished, has an individuality
of its own which sets it apart as something autonomous, unique. In the past literary artists have
been honoured as seers and makers.

We return to our major question; is literature really worthwhile? Is it not positively injurious?
Since authors and poets can hardly explain the meaning of what they write about, there may be
doubt over what they write about. Is it wholesome or only subversive? It would, thus, be idle to
look for steady wisdom or some guidance in literature. Literary artists portray the unwholesome
and violent passions and appeal to man’s irrational part, unleashing violent passions like pity, fear
and terror. They may tell such shameful stories of gods and men, misrepresenting gods and
misleading humanity. The heroes are often un-heroic (Shakespeare’s tragedies, Oedipus Rex-
typical of the tragedy), the just suffer more than the wicked (as in the character of Desdemona in
Othello) and even allegorical interpretations hardly satisfy the reader. The author creates a utopian
setting and a contrived scene far from truth, trafficking in shameful fictions, pandering to the baser
passions, and provocatively deserving condemnation all round. Such is the function of literature,
to entertain, delight and amuse, to purge us of those emotions through catharsis, provoke thought
and generate debate, to set the agenda and reflect the power of the imagination and initiate soul
searching. For Plato the ideal preceded the actual – everyday life was the best drama, and literature
was to be judged with reference to its capacity to serve as a vehicle of knowledge and as a force
for morality. To Aristotle the poet (or author) does indeed imitate nature and everyday life. Being
an imitation it is no doubt less than life or removed from life. The poet’s imitation is also a
fulfilment of nature’s designs. In the act of imitation the poet is not engaged in mere apery; he is
actually trying with the power of his imagination to suggest the ideal form, thus making a direct
contact with the real. Poetic mimesis (imitation) is thus not mechanical coping but an attempt to
catch the movement of the inner action, to impress the logic of casual relations and the roundness
of form on the casual and chaotic nature of everyday life; and in literature “a convincing (probable)
impossibility is preferable to an unconvincing (improbable) possibility” (Iyengar and
Nandakumar, 1990:14).

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The greatest pleasure and satisfaction to be found in literature occurs where it brings us back to
the realities of human situations, problems, feelings and relationships. All that read literature will
find our knowledge of human affairs broadened and deepened. One of the glories of literature is
that it can enlarge our conception of humanity and answer our very deepest needs.

Going yonder than Aristotle, Sidney argued in his Apologie for Poetry (1593) that the poet
translates the brazen world of actuality into a golden world, dis-realising everyday reality and
bringing out of it the purer essence of ‘fore-conceit’. Literature then has a social function and can
fruitfully and wisely serve the whole human being. Literature affects the reader pleasurably and
profoundly. A communion is established between the reader and the text, leaving the former
absorbed in imagination. The reader experiences the erotic, comic, pathetic, furious, heroic,
terrible, odious or marvellous, leaving the reader in calm and purged of all emotion. It is the
function of literature to charge language with a universalising connotative richness of meaning. At
its best the enjoyment of literature is no escape from life but rather a seeking and finding of
quintessential life, and deriving from it a joy akin almost to religious ecstasy or beatitude.
Structural adequacy, emotional intensity, the choice of diction and their appropriate deployment,
the magic of rhythm, all add up to the total momentum with which a work of literature makes its
impact on the reader. The ideal reader, when he/she confronts a piece of literature, finds that it
does something to him/her. It affects him/her at different levels of his/her being, from the physical,
the emotional, the mental, the intuitional and the spiritual. The reader’s sensibility is awakened,
quickened, roused and raised to dizzy heights of apprehension and left at last becalmed, fulfilled,
and serene.

Our quest for beauty finds fulfilment when we come across the power of language, embellished
with form and portraying elements in existence. Art, beauty, organic form, life and the joy of
existence form a single spectrum and any one of them involves all the others.

Activity 1.2

1. In a nutshell what functions does literature serve?

2. Is literature really worthwhile?
3. Discuss the role of imagination in literary composition.
4. Critique the view that literature is all about “artistic excitement”.

1.4 The Genres of Literature

The term genre is borrowed from French and has assumed the same meaning as the term ‘class’ in
English. Literature can be classified in various ways. We may use the terms tragedy, comedy and
tragicomedy if we focus on the effect that a piece of literary work does on us as and after we read
it. We may as well use the terms fiction and non-fiction if the focus is on the nature of its subject.
Literature may be seen from the purpose it serves, ranging from didactic literature (that meant to
educate or send a message), committed literature, art for art’s sake and so forth. It is inevitable that
individual words and sentences and fragments of dialogue will carry meaning, and legitimate or
even necessary that meaning should reflect the serious concerns of the writer. What is crucial is
that these meanings should be part of a pattern. However, the generally acceptable way of
classifying literature is to use its form. From this approach result the three major classes of poetry,
15
prose and drama. Of late the essay has evolved as a major genre of its own, making four major
genres of literature. In this section we consider these as the four genres of literature.

1.4.1 Poetry
Poetry relies most on the power of words, on their manifold suggestiveness, and in a sense is
regarded by other literary scholars as the most literary of all branches of literature; the most literary
because it makes the greatest use of the raw material of literature, which are words. In ancient
Greece, poetry was the only form of literature that existed in the form of the lyric, the dramatic
and the epic. In lyric poetry the poet was concerned with the expression of certain emotions such
as love, hate, pity, fear. In dramatic poetry (or plays) he/she also depended on actions, a plot and
character to augment words. In epic poetry he/she could tell a tale, making use of character and
action as well as his/her skill as a narrator and his/her constructive power. From the epic has
originated the novel, written in prose.

The dramatic poem has become the film or the play. Lyrical poetry is the only kind of poetry left
to assume the whole meaning of poetry. In other words, there is very little room for the epic poet
or the dramatic poet nowadays. The poet, as opposed to the playwright or the novelist, writes short
poems and publishes or performs them. Hardly can a living poet make a living out of his/her poetry.
This is a very unfortunate situation.

What a man or woman writes when he/she has no gift for poetry or the novel, as what journalists
do in their work, constitutes near-literature and hence is pooled together as the essay. Since the
essay exploits language, it deserves classification as a separate genre.

1.4.2. Drama
Drama is regarded as the most natural of the arts, being based on one of the most fundamental of
the human and animal faculties of imitation. It is through imitation that animals learn to fight,
climb, hunt and so on, just as humans learn to talk and perform a number of complicated human
functions. There is a close relationship between the origin of drama and religion. We find early
plays were centred on religious themes and that these were largely tragic, and were concerned with
the relationship between God and man. Since then drama has continued to evolve into today’s
theatre.

1.4.3 Prose
Prose originated from epic poetry as we have already seen. The desire to tell a story appears to
have influenced the break away from the restrictive characteristic of the poem into the more liberal
novel. The English word novel has the same origins as the German word Novell and the French
word nouvelle which both describe a short fictional narrative, somewhere between a regular novel
and what are we think of as a short story. Since the break-up, the novel has gained in popularity
and now stands as the most dominant genre of literature and also having undergone the greatest
transformation. It is through the novel that some of the greatest imagination, innovation and
creative art are being witnessed today.

1.4.4 Essay
The growth of the novel has brought with it the popularity of the essay. The first English essayist
was Sir Francis Bacon (1561 –1626). The essay is popular for being brief, simple, concise and
16
clear. It is this form that is the hallmark of today’s newspaper, the classroom write-up, the
examination answer script, the letter and the report. Its adaptability to many functions means that
its use value is equally greater. The essay is accredited to Michel Eygem Montaigne (1533 – 1592)
and he invented it as a brief, loose composition in which he could informally chat of subjects that
interested him (Burgess, 1971: 94).

1.5 Summary

In this unit we have laid the background on what literature is and its value in education and society.
The last section dealt with the important aspect of appreciation, particularly the three genres. In
the next unit we continue on with background information on literature, its key developments and
how these might be of help to you students of literature in your endeavour to appreciate literary
works of art.

17
References

Aristotle's Poetics c. 335 BCE (translated from the Greek version).

Burgess, A. (1971). A Clockwork Orange. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lowenthal, M. and David, R. (Eds.) (1877). Essays of Michel de Montaigne. Paris: Godine
Publishing.

Daiches, D. (1981). Critical Approaches to Literature. London: Longman Group.

Iyengar, K.R.S. and Nandakumar, P. (1990). Literary Criticism. Michigan: University of

Michigan.
Moody, H.L.B. (1968). Literary Appreciation. London: Longman UK.

Milton, J. (1674). Prolusiones. London: Paperback.

Shakespeare, W. (1565). Othello. London: Penguin.

Sidney, P. (1593). Apologie for Poetry. New York: W. Norton and Company.

Sir Francis Bacon (1561 –1626) http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/bacon/

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 UNIT 2

KEY DEVELOPMENTS IN LITERATURE

2.0 Introduction
In the previous unit we took you through the definitions of literature from the classical period to
contemporary conceptions of it. What is basic in the definitions cited is the point that literature is
a result of composition/creation and that it arises from our inborn love for a good story. As we
look at the various literatures bestowed upon us this concern is consistently apparent.

In this unit we take you through a historical perspective of the development of literature over the
centuries. Developments in literature may sound peripheral for a module specifically on literary
appreciation, perhaps much as definitions of literature may have sounded in Unit 1, but it is our
considered view that this subsection provides necessary background information for a student of
literature. A holistic understanding of what has gone on in the literary arena gives you a fuller
appreciation of literature and therefore fortifies you in your endeavour to engage literary texts. It
is therefore logical to present a historical context to the development of literature. Of course we
cannot do this in very great detail, we do it in the most basic detail here to open you up to the vast
world of literature and help you appreciate that where we are now might just be a tiny little dot
compared to where we have been and where we might be in the future. In unravelling
developments in literature there are certain key eras which, and figures who, cannot escape
mention. You will note that focus is mainly on the English literary tradition.

2.1 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 analyse the broad movements in the development of literature

 specify the key names and figures in the development of literature
 describe, in general terms, the evolution of the genres of literature

2.2 The Medieval Period (1340-1400)

Most studies in English literature begin in the medieval period and the most popular author of this
period was Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400). He was a gifted and magnificent poet whose offerings
19
have something for everyone (Stephen, 1986). He is said to be the first English poet or at any rate
the first poet to write in a language recognisable as English.

Chaucer is well-known for The Canterbury Tales, which is actually one of his later works. The
plan of the collection of tales included twenty one pilgrims who meet in London on a pilgrimage
to the shrine of St Thomas Becket in Canterbury. The landlord of the inn they gather in (otherwise
called the host) proposes that each of the pilgrims tells four stories, to while up time on the way,
with a dinner to be bought for the best story teller by all the others, at the host’s inn. Only twenty
four stories came out of this scheme. Some of the most popular stories are The General Prologue,
The Knight’s Tale, The Pardoner’s Tale, The Wife of Bath’s Tale, The Miller’s Tale among others.
Chaucer’s main themes included courtly love, marriage, chivalry, greed, religion, pride, morality
and so on. His craft included a lot of satire and irony in exploring his themes and was a master at
delineating character. His language, Middle English, is a definite barrier. A lot of the words he
used went out of circulation centuries ago. Some of those that remain are probably spelt and
pronounced differently and some of the times their meanings have changed. However, this should
not close out the serious student of literature from enjoying the scurrilous world conjured up by
this poet. Modern translations of Chaucer’s poetry do exist and you can read these to get a feel of
Chaucer’s world. But as with all translations, something of the original is lost.
It is highly unlikely that there may be any excerpts of Chaucer’s texts that may be set for literary
appreciation. If that happens, it most definitely would not be the original Chaucer but translations
of the original.

Activity 2.1

With your partner read the following extract from The Miller’s Tale by Chaucer.
This carpenter hadde wedded newe a wyf,
Which that he lovedemoore than his lyf;
Of eighteen yeer she was of age.
Jalous he was, and heeld hire narwe in cage,
For she was wilde and yong, and he was old, 5
And demed himself been lik a cokewold.
He knew natCatoun, for his wit was rude,
That bad man sholdewedde his similitude.
Men sholdewedden after hire estaat,

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 For you the and elde is often at debaat. 10
But sith that he was fallen in the snare,
He moste endure, as oother folk, his care.

1. Attempt a paraphrase of the extract.

2. Comment on the language.
3. Compare it to its translation that follows. (NB. The translation is done line by line.)

This carpenter had married a new wife

Not long before, and loved her more than life.
She was a girl of eighteen years of age.
Jealous he was and kept her in the cage,
For he was old and she was wild and young; 5
He though himself quite likely to be stung.
He might have known, were Cato on his shelf,
A man should marry someone like himself;
A man should pick an equal for his mate.
Youth and old age are often in debate. 10
However, he had fallen in the snare,
And had to bear his cross as others bear.

2.3 Elizabethan and Jacobean Period (1580-1610)

This period spans the time when Queen Elizabeth 1 was in power. It is after the feudal period but
England is still quite conservative and Theo-centric, though struggles with the Roman Catholic
Church were beginning. This was a period of great artistic boom. There was, during this time, a
great rise in literature as theatre. Along with, and perhaps supporting it, were concomitant rises in
the political, social and economic situation of Great Britain at the time. As pointed out in the
previous unit, literature originated in poetic form and although Sir Francis Bacon (1561 –1626)

21
had started the genre of the essay, the narrative/prose text as we know it today was still some time
off. Drama was the dominant genre of this era. The Elizabethan and Jacobean theatre was the first
theatre in England in which professional actors worked in purpose-built theatres (Stephen, 1986).
Prior to this, travelling theatre performed in the courtyards of inns. Makeshift stages would be set
up with the three sides of the inn forming a kind of theatre. Guests would buy seats at a price. The
seats closest to, or on balconies overlooking the stage would be sold at higher prices. This was the
concept which inspired the construction of the first public theatre in London in 1576.

Naturally productions took place in the afternoon to capitalise on the light. Sound effects were
mostly of a mundane kind. There was elaborate use of costumes and music. Because of the never
changing appearance of the theatre, costume and stagecraft were a crucial aspect of theatre. As
you go through drama pieces you want to be sensitive to the various stage directions that dramatists
use to direct the presentation of theme, setting, plot, character and so on. Quite a significant
percentage of the questions set for literary appreciation of drama have something to do with the
dramatist’s use of stagecraft to present their play.

Early theatre was performed by acting companies. These were usually under the patronage of
queens, kings and great lords. The companies made their money from gate takings. Often there
was bitter rivalry among companies as they competed for patronage. There also was a huge demand
for new plays- companies could not hope to survive if they continued recycling the same plays.
This explains the prolific output churned out for the Royal Shakespeare Company by William
Shakespeare.

Shakespeare is by far the greatest among others that are from this period. These artists include
Christopher Marlowe, Cyril Turner, John Webster and Ben Johnson. In fact Shakespeare is reputed
to be the greatest dramatist of all time. There are radical opinions that say that a student cannot
claim to have completed a course of study in literature unless they have studied some plays by
Shakespeare. Though our view is not that radical we are of the consensus that serious students of
literature should read, watch dramatisations, perform plays by Shakespeare (rather than avoid
them) to get a feel of this great dramatist.

Shakespeare has written a variety of these plays that include History plays, Tragedies, Comedies,
Problem plays (which do not seem to fall cleanly into specific categories) and Romances (also
referred to as Tragic-Comedy). We should not get bogged down, however, in an exercise of
classifying the plays in this way because all too often they overlap. What is important is that
everyone will find one or two that they will see as interesting. Even when your course of study in
literature does not include Shakespeare as one of the prescribed authors, the onus lies on you as a
serious student to read, watch or listen to taped/filmed dramatisations of Shakespeare. The later
two methods are recommended because we should always bear in mind that with Shakespeare, as
indeed with all drama, we are dealing with events as they are happening on stage; we are not
22
reading about the events as we do with novels.

As mentioned above, Shakespeare was a very prolific writer as is evident by the quantity and
quality of plays that he produced. The following table lists Shakespeare’s plays, provides estimates
of the dates of their authorship, titles, chronological number and the category they fall into.

Date Play Number Category

Pre-1592 Henry VI Part 1 1

Henry VI Part 2 2 History/

Henry VI Part 3 3 Early Plays

?1592-93 The Comedy of Errors 4 Comedy

Richard III 5 Tragedy/

History

1593-95 Titus Andronicus 6 Tragedy

The Taming of the Shrew 7 Comedy

The Two Gentlemen of 8 Comedy

Verona

Love’s Labours Lost 9 Comedy

1595-96 Romeo and Juliet 10 Tragedy

Richard II 11 History

A Midsummer Night’s Dream 12 Comedy

1596-98 King John 13 History

The Merchant of Venice 14 Comedy?

Henry IV, Part 1 15 History

Henry IV, Part 2 16 History

1598-1600 Much Ado About Nothing 17 Comedy

23
 Henry V 18 History

Julius Caesar 19 Tragedy

As You Like It 20 Comedy

Twelfth Night 21 Comedy

1600-02 Troilus and Cressida 22 Problem play

Hamlet 23 Tragedy

The Merry Wives of Windsor 24 Comedy

1600-06 All’s Well That Ends well 25 Problem play

Othello 26 Tragedy

Measure for Measure 27 Problem play

King Lear 28 Tragedy

Macbeth 29 Tragedy

1606-09 Anthony and Cleopatra 30 Tragedy

Timon of Athens 31 Tragedy

Pericles 32 Tragedy

Coriolanus 33 Tragedy

1606-10 Cymbeline 34 Romance

1610-13 The Winter’s Tale 35 Romance

The Tempest 36 Romance

Henry VIII 37 History

______________________________________________________________________________

Adapted from Stephen (1986)

Shakespeare tackles a variety of themes that include love, lust, appearance versus reality, kingship
24
and politics, good and evil, energy and time, destiny, fate, stoicism and courage, among others.
His comedies concentrate mainly on love, with plots centring on two or three lovers. Good healthy
relationships usually end up in marriage- a symbol of harmony and happiness. The capacity to give
and receive love is what makes a hero or heroine in the comedies. In the tragedies love is often
defenceless against forces of evil, yet it is the basis of all decency and goodness. Love is a
tremendous source of strength and healing in the face of evil. Romances tend to start off with
forces of evil that threaten the harmony that exists but love conquers these forces and restores
order. Shakespeare uses a variety of dramatic techniques to bring out his themes and concerns and
it is up to you to experience these to see how you relate and react to them.

You should also note that Shakespeare is a frequent source of excerpts set for exercises in literary
appreciation. Basic knowledge of this dramatist and his works come in handy when faced with
such a task.

2.4 Metaphysical Poetry (1600’s)

This is another significant period in the development of English Literature. The poets who have
come to be associated with this great literary period include John Donne (1571-1631), Andrew
Marvell (1621-78), George Herbert (1593-1633) and Henry Vaughan (1622-95). These poets lived
in a time of major social and political upheaval, “a few years after Donne’s death, England was to
execute its king and do away with the monarchy for twenty years” (Stephen, 1986: 121).
Uncertainty and unsettledness is felt in their poetry. There is also a strong religious element in
them.

The term metaphysical was coined by John Dryden (1631-1700). It characterised the poets who
extensively used the conceit, paradox, punning and word play. Their imagery was drawn from all
sources of knowledge particularly from science, theology, geography and philosophy. The images
were often startling and sometimes in heavy contrast to each other. They were criticised for the
violence that appeared in some of their poems though love, religion and nature are some of the
common subjects of their usually intensely emotional poetry (Stephen, 1986).

Activity 2.2
Read the following poem by John Donne (1572-1631) and discuss with your partner possible
answers to the questions that follow it.

The Flea
Mark but this flea, and mark in this
How little that which thou deny’st me is;
It sucks me first, and now sucks thee,
And in this flea our two bloods mingled be;
Thou knowest that this cannot be said
A sin, nor shame, nor loss of maidenhead;
Yet this enjoys before it woo,
And pampered swells with one blood made of two,

25
 And this, alas, is more than we would do.

Oh stay, three lives in one flea spare,

Where we almost, yea more than married are.
This flea is you and I, and this
Our marriage bed and marriage temple is;
Though parents grudge, and you, we are met
And cloistered in the living walls of jet.
Though use make you apt to kill me,
Let not to that, self-murder added be,
And sacrilege, three sins in killing three.

Cruel and sudden, hast thou since

Purpled thy nail in blood of innocence/
Wherein could this flea guilty be,
Except in that drop which it sucked from thee/
Yet thou triumph’st and say’st that thou
Find’st not thyself, nor me, the weaker now.
’Tis true. Then learn how false fears be:
Just so much honor, when thou yield’st to me,
Will waste, as this flea’s death took life from thee.

1. How does this poem strike you?

2. Who are the main players in this poem?
3. How are they related?
4. What is the conflict between them?
5. How is the conflict presented?
6. Discuss the role of blood in presenting the persona’s argument in the
poem.

(Adapted from Arp and Johnson, 2002)

2.5 The Eighteenth-Century Novel (1689-1848)

You should keep in mind that up to about this period, literature mainly existed in the form of
poetry. Even the plays that were so popular in England were written mostly in verse. Note however
that a number of Elizabethan dramatists ascribed prose as the language of the lowly, while verse
was reserved for nobility. But in the main it is when we get to this epoch (the Eighteenth Century)
that we begin to see experimentation in the genre of prose as whole works of fiction. The major
names associated with this period include Daniel Defoe (1689-1761), Henry Fielding (1707-1731),
Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), Jane Austen (1775-1817), Charlotte Bronte (1816-55) and Emily
Bronte (1818-48). It is this era that begins to see the emergence of the novel as a genre.

The novel developed late because of a number of factors. The first one was the fact that prose
demands a literate audience, unlike drama and poetry and yet the majority of the populations then

26
were not yet literate. Another factor is that prior to this era, all writing was by hand and the physical
exertion of writing lengthy novels was too much, especially when producing multiple copies for
sale. Related to this point is that the novel needed to be sold to a huge number of people for it to
be profitable in a situation where poverty was the norm. With the industrial revolution came the
printing press and better communication systems. There was also a rise in wealth and because of
it, urban populations increased; standards of living and literacy rose thereby increasing the
consumer of the product, thus promoting this new genre.

Prose fiction of the early period was quite experimental and style still matter of fact and almost
documentary like the essay. The narrator had a big role to play, having a continuous dialogue with
the reader to point out directions that the story, plot or character developments were taking. Letters
were a significant presence in such novels- hence the epistolary method. Novels mostly explored
morality, human nature, marriage, love etc. Henry Fielding was known for his adaptation of the
epic into his prose.

A later author of this era, Jane Austen, is popular for her presentation of the countryside and the
landed gentry. Her focus however, was criticised for being often limited to very small societies
and her themes mostly revolving around a young girl, who is either about to be married, or ready
for it. In her limited social space, the critics say, world events were often irrelevant; with manners,
morality, duty and decorum, marriage, estates and inheritance taking more prominence.

The Bronte sisters were also important figures of this literary epoch. They were essentially
opposites; while one was dealing with subjects similar to Jane Austen’s above, the other was
obsessed with violence, passion and the emotions. Their novels captured their difficult upbringing
in the moors of Yorkshire, where tuberculosis was decimating populations, especially among the
young. Significant novels to be written by the sisters include Emily’s Wuthering Heights and
Charlotte’s Jane Eyre. Both make intriguing reading. Earlier novels of interest in this subgroup
are Robinson Crusoe by Dafoe and Joseph Andrews and Tom Jones by Henry Fielding.

Activity 2.3

With your partner analyse and discuss the following excerpt that opens Jane Austin’s novel Pride
and Prejudice.

“It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be
in want of a wife.”

2.6 The Victorian Era (1812-1880)

This period is again another highly significant epoch in the development of English Literature. It
is a period characterised by marked growth in industrialisation, and the attendant adverse effects
of capitalism that began to be felt. High levels of wealth increased the rural-urban drift, resulting
in a population explosion and ghastly overcrowding, piling up of rubbish, water reticulation
problems and general poverty and squalor among the lower rungs of English society. The era
however, presented the opportunity for development - many of the English towns and a lot of their
27
infrastructure were built during this time, thus laying the foundation for the present day England.

Authors mainly associated with this period are Charles Dickens (1812-70), William Thackeray
(1811-63) and George Elliot (1819-80). Charles Dickens emerges as the foremost of the writers
tackling a variety of themes that include benevolence, children, prison, the law, the social
panorama and wealth. The author is criticised for his rather flat characters that are often sketched
out as caricatures. But what he loses by way of characterisation, Dickens more than makes up for
with his refined powers of description and attention to detail. His presentation of minor characters
and the downtrodden is particularly remarkable. He is also a master in describing the macabre and
bizarre; some of his characters hit us as real forces of evil. We recommend that you select at least
one Dickensian novel and read and enjoy it. Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Dombey and Son,
Hard Times, Great expectations are some of the most accessible and interesting of Dickens’
novels.

2.7 The Romantic Poets

At about the same time, albeit before Queen Victorian’s era, and starting from 1770, there arose a
group of poets who essentially reacted against values of the eighteenth century. They were
somewhat against accepted social conventions of the day and vacillated between ecstasy and acute
depression. Their poetry drew from nature. There is also in their poetry a reaction against the
industrialisation that was just beginning and a nostalgic yearning for the past untarnished by the
industrial revolution. Industrialisation, it can be appreciated, had changed and threatened to even
destroy every aspect of society and the way people lived and a lot of the poetry of this period in
many ways addresses the artificialities of this period.

The foremost names of this tradition include William Blake (1770-1827), William Wordsworth
(1770-1850), Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), Lord Byron (1788-1824), Percy Shelley
(1792-1822) and John Keats (1795-1821).

Activity 2.4
With your partner read and discuss the following poem by William Wordsworth (1770-1850).
The Solitary Reaper
Behold her, single in the field,
Yon solitary Highland lass!
Reaping and singing by herself;
Stop here, or gently pass!
Alone she cuts and binds the grain,
And sings a melancholy strain;
O listen! for the vale profound
Is overflowing with the sound.

No nightingale did ever chant

More welcome notes to weary bands
Of travellers in some shady haunt
Among Arabian sands.
A voice so thrilling ne’er was heard
28
 In springtime from the cuckoo-bird,
Breaking the silence of the seas
Among the farthest Herbrides.

Will no one tell me what she sings?

Perhaps the plaintive numbers flow
For old, unhappy, far-off things,
And battled long ago.
Or is it some more humble lay,
Familiar matter of today?
Some natural sorrow, loss, or pain
That has been, and may be again?

Whate’er the theme , the maiden sang

As if her song could have no ending;
I saw her singing at her work,
And o’er the sickle bending-
I listened, motionless and still;
And, as I mounted up the hill,
The music in my heart I bore
Long after it was heard no more.

2.8 The Victorian Poets

Victorian poets followed closely after Romantic poets. These included Alfred Tennyson (1809-
92), Robert Browning (1812-89) and Thomas Hardy (1840-1928). Like the romantic poets before
them their poetry reflected a kind of romanticism with nature, God, man’s relationship to both
nature and God, sensuality, destiny. Thomas Hardy also captures the same themes in his novels.
Some of this author’s most reputed works are The Mayor of Casterbridge, Far from the Madding
Crowd and Tess of the D’Urbervilles. Again students of literature ought to select one or two from
this author to sample the writing of this period. The poems also present interesting reading.
Tennyson is particularly good with sound and other poetic effects that he skilfully conjures up in
his poetry.

2.9 The Modern Era

We now approach contemporary times with poets like W. B. Yeats (1865-1939), W. Owen (1893-
1918), T.S. Elliot (1888-1965), P. Larkin (1922-85) exploring themes like anarchy, joy, the
physical and the spiritual, loss of faith, sexuality et cetera. Modern drama was mainly founded on
the writings of the Norwegian realist Henrik Ibsen. Other important dramatists of this period
include George Bernard Shaw and T.S. Elliot. This era is also marked by the rise of the theatre of
the absurd which moved in a different direction from the realism of Elliot and Shaw. Samuel
Becket (1906) is the dramatist who popularised the theatre of the absurd with his penning of
Waiting for Godot. The first performance of this play in 1953 was, however, an absolute shock, so
much that many among the audience walked out in disgust. The play is nihilistic and captures the
absurdity of life through characters that are cold, bored, useless and living in an absurd world that
does not recognise, acknowledge nor care for them (Stephen, 1986). Nothing happens to the
29
characters and nothing will. They wait for this person called Godot, but he does not appear. The
truth of the play, that we exist in a meaningless world, is what got to some among Becket’s early
audiences. This dramatist’s attitude to life is continued by Harold Pinter (1930). His play The
Caretaker raised the same questions about the meaning of life.

Modernist literature thus stands out as important to us mainly because it is the literature of
contemporary times. We therefore give it slightly more time and space here in this module by
adapting and summarising some of Kathleen Kuiper’s ideas on the period. According to the scholar
modernism in the fine arts, represented a break with the past running alongside a concomitant
search for new forms of expression. Modernism brought in its wake a period of great
experimentation in the arts from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, particularly in the years
following World War I. It was the era of industrialisation, upheavals on the social scene and great
advances in science and the social sciences (e.g., Freudian theory), Modernists experienced a
nagging and growing alienation from the Victorian ethos, morality, optimism, and convention. The
burgeoning ideas in psychology, philosophy, and political theory engendered in them a yearning
for new modes of expression.

In literature the Modernist spirit gave impetus to various literatures in response to industrialization,
urbanization and a much changed and rapidly changing world. Although pre-war works by Henry
James, Joseph Conrad, and other writers are considered Modernist, Modernism as a literary
movement is mainly associated with the period after World War I. The ravishes of the war had
grossly undermined people’s faith in the foundations of Western society and culture. Thus post-
war Modernist literature reflected a sense of disillusionment and fragmentation. The dominant
theme of T.S. Eliot’s poem The Waste Land (1922) is the search for redemption and renewal in a
sterile and spiritually empty landscape. With its fragmentary images and obscure allusions, the
poem is typical of Modernism in requiring the reader to take an active role in interpreting the text.

https://www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art

While English Literature was evolving in the United Kingdom a parallel development was
happening in America, as the new colony became settled around the 1700’s. This branch of
American literature in English is very important and a whole lot of exciting authors have emerged
from it. One of the founding fathers of American literature is Herman Melville (1819-1891) best
known for his novel, Moby Dick. Later artists that you may want to try include: William Faulkner,
Edgar Alan Poe, Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemmingway, Harper Lee and so on.

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Activity 2.5
In threes assume each one of you a role, one to be the reader of stage directions, and the other two
VLADIMIR and ESTRAGON. Read this extract by Samuel Beckett aloud, attempting to act it out then
discuss the experience.

The light suddenly fails. In a moment it is night. The moon rises at back, mounts in the sky, stands still,
shedding a pale light on the scene.

VLADIMIR: At last! (Estragon gets up and goes towards Vladimir, a boot in each hand. He puts them
down at the edge of the stage, straightens and contemplates the moon.) What are you
doing?
ESTRAGON: Pale for weariness.
VLADIMIR: Eh?
ESTRAGON: Of climbing heaven and gazing on the likes of us.
VLADIMIR: Your boots. What are you doing with your boots?
ESTRAGON: (turning to look at the boots). I’m leaving them there. (Pause.) Another will come, just
as...as...as me, but with smaller feet, and they’ll make him happy.
VLADIMIR: But you can’t go barefoot!
ESTRAGON: Christ did.
VLADIMIR: Christ! What’s Christ got to do with it? You’re not going to compare yourself to Christ!
ESTRAGON: All my life I have compared myself to him.
VLADIMIR: But where he lived it was warm, it was dry!
ESTRAGON: Yes. And they crucified quick.
Silence.
VLADIMIR: We’ve nothing more to do here.
ESTRAGON: Nor anywhere else.
VLADIMIR: Ah Gogo, don’t go on like that. Tomorrow everything will be better.
ESTRAGON: How do you make that out?
VLADIMIR: Did you not hear what the child said?
ESTRAGON: No.
VLADIMIR: He said Godot was sure to come tomorrow.
(Pause.) What do you say to that?
ESTRAGON: Then all we have to do is to wait on here.
VLADIMIR: Are you mad? We must take cover. (He takes Estragon by the arm.) Come on.
He draws Estragon after him. Estragon yields, then resists. They halt.
ESTRAGON: (Looking at the tree). Pity we haven’t got a bit of rope.
VLADIMIR: Come on. It’s cold.
He draws Estragon after him. As before.
ESTRAGON: Remind me to bring a piece of rope tomorrow.
VLADIMIR: Yes. Come on.
He draws him after him. As before.
ESTRAGON: How long have we been together all the time now?
VLADIMIR: I don’t know. Fifty years perhaps.
ESTRAGON: Do you remember the day I threw myself into the Rhone?
VLADIMIR: We were grape-harvesting.
ESTRAGON: You fished me out.
VLADIMIR: That’s all dead and buried.
ESTRAGON: My clothes dried in the sun.
VLADIMIR: There’s no good harking back on that. Come on.
He draws him after him. As before.
31
ESTRAGON: Wait.
VLADIMIR: I’m cold!
ESTRAGON: Wait! (He moves away from Vladimir.) I wonder if we wouldn’t have been better off alone,
each one for himself. (He crosses the stage and sits down on the mound.) We weren’t made
for the same road.
VLADIMIR: (Without anger.) It’s not certain.
ESTRAGON: No, nothing is certain.
Vladimir slowly crosses the stage and sits down beside Estragon.
VLADIMIR: We can still part, if you think it would be better.
ESTRAGON: It’s not worthwhile now.
Silence.
VLADIMIR: No, it’s not worth while now.
Silence.
ESTRAGON: Well, shall we go?
VLADIMIR: Yes, let’s go.
They do not move. CURTAIN

1. What theme comes through?

2. Any comments on the characters?
3. Any comments on the experience?

2.10 Literature in English

Our exploration gets us to a point where the production of different literatures in English begins
to render the term English literature inappropriate, hence Literature in English. We have for
example American, Afro-American, Caribbean, African, Zimbabwean literature written in
English. Questions like are such literatures English literature arise. That is obviously not the case.
The term Literature in English therefore, acknowledges and caters for a wide vista of the
proliferating literatures written in different parts of the world, but in English. It also specifies that
though written in English, the experiences described may not have anything to do with England,
apart perhaps from a shared lingua franca bequeathed to us by British imperialism. The scenario
can be represented in the following diagram, (figure 2.1).

32
Figure 2.1: A Wide Vista of the Proliferating Literatures Written in Different Parts of the
World, but in English(Chinyanganya- Unpublished ZOU Reader; 2010)

It is important to keep interrogating mind boggling considerations like, how do we appreciate/

criticise African, West Indian or Afro-American literature? Do we use the same tools and criteria,
especially given the imperial hegemony that England had/has over the colonies? Is African
literature written in English African Literature? Is literature written by white Africans like Allan
Parton, Nadine Gordimer and Doris Lessing African Literature? These are some of the questions
that have been cropping up over the decades attracting different responses from different people.
It is up to you to interrogate the scenario and come up with suggestions of your own.

Activity 2.6
1. To what extent would you consider The Grass is Singing English Literature?
2. In what ways would one argue that it is also Zimbabwean Literature?
3. Distinguish between English Literature and Literature in English.

2.11 Summary

33
In this unit we have taken you through some of the significant developments in literature that have
led us to where we are at the moment. It can be appreciated that the greater your understanding of
literary traditions, the better your ability to engage and respond to literary texts. However, as you
respond to literary appreciation questions, knowledge of literary background information is not
necessarily mandatory nor is it examined. What examiners are interested in is your interaction with
the excerpt, what it communicates and how it does so. Remember it is mentioned in Unit 1 that
Samuel Johnson’s sociological approach to literature has been supplanted by later models that echo
T.S. Eliot’s view that great literature is classically free from the taint of personality. Be that as it
may, it still stands to reason that students who are aware of texts’ historical contexts are at a greater
advantage over those who do not in doing literary appreciation. This again underscores the
importance of very wide reading for all committed students of literature. The following unit makes
a case for the inclusion of literary theories in the practical analysis and appreciation of literary
works. Literary theories are of crucial importance in guiding us to access and better comprehend
works of literary art. In Unit Three we briefly discuss some of the theories that will help you to
respond to texts set for analysis in this course.

References

Arp, T.R. and Johnson, G. (2002). Perinne’s Literature: Structure, Sound and Sense.
Boston: Harcourt College Publishers.

Daiches, D. (1981). Critical Approaches to Literature. London: Longman Group.

Gill, R. (1978). Mastering English. London: Macmillan.

Moody, H.L.B. (1968). Literary Appreciation. London: Longman.

Shiach, D. (1984). The Critical Eye: Appreciating Prose and Poetry. Surrey: Thomas Nelson
and Sons Limited.

Stephen, M. (1986). English Literature. London: Longman.

World Book Encyclopaedia (1992). Toron: World Book Inc. Scott Fetzer Company.

https://www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art Kathleen Kuiper (Accessed 22/11/2020)

34
Unit Three

The Place of Theories in Literary Appreciation/Criticism

3.0 Introduction

In the previous units we introduced you to literature and the concept of literary
appreciation/criticism. In the first unit we defined literature and discussed its functions with
particular focus on the three main genres that it is divided into. The second unit’s focus was mainly
on reinforcing your understanding of the concept by scanning through the key developments in its
history, from the medieval to contemporary times. We have stated that though the various authors
(whose material we will use for analysis in this module) belong to their historical and social
epochs, knowledge of such history is not necessarily mandatory. We have however demonstrated
to you that the student who is well-read and knows an author’s background will fare better in
literary appreciation/criticism exercises than his counterpart who is less read. This is because
knowledge of historical information unlocks meanings that may not be immediately apparent to
one who has less background knowledge. The same can be said of theories of literature, which we
have not made to be mandatory in this module, yet general knowledge of theories of literature and
criticism is essential in assisting you to access and interact with literary passages. In fact, literary
appreciation should happen in the context of some knowledge of theory. We need literary theories
not only to understand literary texts but also what informs writers as they write their works of
fiction, be they Poetry, Prose or Drama (i.e. interpretation and construction).

3.1 Objectives

By the end of the unit you should be able to

 Define literary theory

35
  Discuss the place of literary theories in literary appreciation/criticism
 Apply the tenets of literary theories in the analysis of narrative passages,
poetry or drama

3.2 Literary Theories

Literary theories inform the ways by which we view and understand literature. They have thus
been characterised as lenses through which we see literary texts. This is so because of the dynamic
relationship that exists between the text and the writer as well as the text and the reader. The writer
brings into the writing experience cultural baggage nourished at the font of their upbringing, their
society, their history, their culture and ideology. The reader likewise brings into the reading their
own experiences that will influence the way they consume the literary product. Your
reaction/appreciation of a book is coloured by your particular view of the world, even though you
might not be immediately cognisant of it, just like the author’s world view can come out without
the author’s conscious effort to display it.

We thus use literary theory to critically appreciate works of art. Literary theory is the centre from
which we perceive and appreciate any work of literary art. It is a systematic body of knowledge
that we use to analyse texts. It gives us the information upon which we create our understanding
of the text and formulate our particular view of the world (worldview).

3.3 Worldview

This is a particular perception or view of the world that is influenced or given lustre by the position
where we stand vis a vis the rest of the world. It is our mental picture of the world. People view
the world differently. Some people view the world as:

 A gay place to enjoy while body and soul are still together

 A cruel place that is unkind to man

 A place where alpha-males rule the roost

 An unjust place where the powerful lord it over the weak

 A confused and meaningless place

 A place that is friendly to some races and not others et cetera.

What is your own view? In what ways do you think your particular perception of the world
influences things like your choice of friends, your reading and understanding of literature, how
you spend your spare time, where you desire to live, your religion, your denomination et cetera?
Your world view is tied up with your ideological up-bringing as well as your culture.

3.4 Ideology

36
Karl Marx described ideology as an instrument of social reproduction. This really means that
ideology is created by the ruling classes so they maintain their grip on power (hegemony) through
controlling the ruled’s collective consciousness. Ideology can be disseminated through ideological
state apparatuses like schools, the church, the justice system, the media, art et cetera (Gramsci,
1972) and, as people assimilate it, it becomes a people’s way of life or their culture. Works of art
that come out of these people be they architecture, sculpture, painting, song or dance will always
reflect the unique qualities peculiar to that cultural grouping. Thus we may be conscious of the
ideology we have been acculturated into, or we may not be consciously aware of it, yet that
ideology shapes the way we view and understand the world around us. It is our culture.

Activity 3.1

1. In what ways do you think aspects of culture can influence the way a writer
perceives and creates their artistic world and vision?
2. In what ways do you think these aspects of culture can influence the way you
understand a literary text?

3.5 Literature as a product of socio-economic and cultural context.

Socio-economic and cultural contexts are crucial in the production of literary texts. These involve
a people’s sources of all systems of ideas, thoughts and practices (ideologies). Such contexts
involve aspects of how life is fashioned out by a people in their collective endeavour to live and
come to terms with their total environment. It also includes the sum of a people’s art, their science,
how they eke out a living, their system of government and all their social institutions, including
their systems of beliefs and rituals. Of importance also are the people’s shared assumptions about
the way the world works, its beliefs, values, symbols, rituals and practices that consciously or
unconsciously drive the thoughts, feelings and actions of the members of a collective group. The
above is the stuff that literature is made of. The writer, dramatist or poet creates a world that is
informed by his/her particular perception of the world, and that perception is shaped by his/her
socio-economic and cultural context. Literary texts project a particular view of this world and
knowledge of this background information is of vital importance in unravelling meaning from
unseen passages of drama, prose or poetry.

3.6 The place of theory in the study of literature.

It goes without saying that our understanding of literary art is grounded in our culture and
perception of the world. This understanding resides in theory which can be perceived as a
methodological tool used to analyse and understand works of literature. The place of theory in
literature can further be explained thus

 Theory establishes the relationship between a text and the reader or critic. Theory is central
to text analysis and interpretation.

 One is guided by theory (whether consciously or unconsciously) to perceive and assign

37
 meaning to a text.

 Theory can also be used to challenge or affirm the ‘truths’ which emerge from texts. It
controls the world views of both the writers and the critics.

 Knowledge of theory is essential in understanding where artists are coming from as they
create their worlds.

Activity 3.2

Now look at the theories discussed in this unit and select the one that best suits
your world-view, the one that best answers the questions that you have about life.
 Say out why you particularly like that theory
 Explain how you would use it to interpret/understand any text that you may
be asked to analyse in the course.

3.7 A brief review of literary theories.

In this section we raise your awareness on some of the theories you may find to be helpful in your
endeavour to study and understand literature and especially to critically analyse texts. Study the
theories carefully and use them to access and critically appreciate texts that you may not have
necessarily seen before, because they are not listed in your reading list. Also remember that the
following are very brief versions of otherwise very complex and shifting theories.

3.7.1 Archetypal criticism

Archetypal criticism interprets texts by focusing on their recurring themes, myths, motifs and
images or archetypes. In literature, archetypes often manifest in narrative techniques, character
presentation, metaphors and imagery with universal recognition. According to Wheelwright
(1962) symbols like "the sky, father and earth mother, light blood, up and down, the axis of a wheel
recur again and again in cultures so remote from one another”(p111). The scholar goes on to
mention other essential images and symbols like water, the mystery of creation, birth-death-
resurrection, with the rising sun symbolizing birth, and the setting one suggesting death. The
journey motif and growth are also characteristic of this criticism. Colours like red, green. blue,
white feature a lot under archetypal theory and criticism and have a somewhat universal
interpretation.

3.7.2 Feminist criticism

Feminist criticism attributes the failure of women socially, culturally, politically, economically
and psychologically to a disabling patriarchal ethos that debars women from attaining their full
creative potential in society. Proponents of this theoretical position see society as viewing women
as subservient to men and having to find their way within narratives created by men wherein their
identity is not autonomous, outside patriarchal tutelage. It challenges the dogmas apparent in male
38
dominant doctrines. Feminist criticism can be described as a quest for equality among sexes and
an attack against the claim that womanhood is a secondary and inferior situation (Guven, 2018:1).
Women’s resistance to patriarchy and the clergy dates back to as early as the Middle Ages which
often portrayed women as Eve, the seductress who caused the fall of humankind and continues to
lead men astray. Most feminist critics see our civilisation as pervasively patriarchal. The purpose
of feminist criticism is to object to patriarchal assumptions about women and to respond to the
masculine determination of what is feminine (ibid.).

Activity 3.3

1. Would you say that your understanding of the feminism theory assists you in
gaining greater insights into the theme and intention of the following poem?

Barbie Doll
This girlchild was born as usual
and presented dolls that did pee-pee
and miniature GE stoves and irons
and wee sticks the color of cherry candy.
Then in the magic of puberty, a classmate said:
You have a great big nose and fat legs.

She was healthy, tested intelligent,

possessed strong arms and back,
abundant sexual drive and manual dexterity.
She went to and fro apologizing.
Everyone saw a fat nose on thick legs.

She was advised to play coy,

exhorted to come on hearty,
exercise, diet, smile and wheedle.
Her good nature wore out
like a fan belt.
So she cut off her nose and her legs
and offered them up.
In the casket displayed on satin she lay
with the undertaker’s cosmetics painted on,
a turned-up putty nose,
dressed in a pink and white nightie.
Doesn’t she look pretty? everyone said.
Consummation at last.
To every woman a happy ending.

Marge Piercy

39
3.7.3 Marxist criticism

Marxist criticism is based on the economic and cultural theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
Marxism views literature or art as the products of historical forces that can be studied by looking
at the material conditions in which they are produced. The theory focuses on the conflict between
the dominant and the repressed classes. It arises from the assumption that literature must be
understood in relation to historical and social realities of a certain society. Literature is a form of
ideology, one that legitimizes the power of the ruling class thus a Marxist critic is interested in
how class interests really operate through cultural forms and the modes of material production
(Lutfi Hamadi, 2017). The above point is further clarified by Tirivangana et al when they say that
human consciousness in any era is constituted by an ideology-that is, a set of concepts, beliefs,
values, and ways of thinking and feeling through which human beings perceive, and by which they
explain, what they take to be reality. A Marxist critic typically undertakes to "explain" the literature
in any era by revealing the economic, class, and ideological determinants of the way an author
writes, and to examine the relation of the text to the social reality of that time and place. Who has
power and money in works of literature? Who calls the shots? Whose voices are heard? (ibid)

3.7.4 New criticism

New Criticism is an effort geared to focus critical literary attention on literature itself; it follows
in the tradition of Russian formalism. New critics followed in the tradition of Boris Eikanbaum
and Victor Shklovsky and developed speculative positions on techniques of reading that provide a
vital complement to the literary and artistic emergence of modernism (Searle, 2005). Their focus
was on PRACTICAL CRITICISM or close reading of texts wherein the text was treated as self-
sufficient verbal artifact and by careful attention to language the text was assumed to be a unique
source of meaning and value complete in itself and sharply distinguished from other texts. The
criticism was directed against the way critics revered the lives and psychological backgrounds and
the literary histories of the authors.

To sum up, New Criticism regards poetry as independent of its authorship and meaning is teased
out of it through clinical analysis/close reading. Literature is seen as using a special kind of
language whose attributes are defined by systematic opposition to the language of science and of
practical and logical discourse. The key concepts of this criticism deal with the meanings and
interactions of words, figures of speech, and symbols (Tirivangana et al).

3.7.5 Psychoanalytic criticism

Psychoanalytic criticism is a theory that deals with literature primarily as an expression of

personality organization. Psychoanalytic theories assume the existence of unconscious internal
states that influence an individual’s overt actions (Hossain 2017). In literary analysis it is the
closest connection there is between literature and psychoanalysis. This critical theory has been one
of the most controversial and at times the least appreciated of literary theories by readers of
literature (Hossain 2017). Yet it is intriguing when analyzing texts to unravel hidden meanings. It
also brings about insights into the writer’s personality as relating to his experiences from birth to
the period of writing the book through examining the interaction between the unconscious and
unconsciousness, i.e. their state of mind, feelings, and desires. To the psychoanalytic critic one
40
cannot sever the link between literature and the artist’s mental state; hence the subconscious of the
author is a useful tool to get to meanings hidden in the work of art as well as the presentation of
character in the artistic work. .

3.7.6 Reader-response criticism

This type of criticism is based on the assumption that a literary work takes place in the mutual
relationship between the reader and the text (Mart, 2019). According to this theory, meaning is
constructed through a transaction between the reader and the text within a particular context.
“Readers assume multiple roles when responding to a variety of forms of literature. The process
of developing responses facilitates active and meaningful reading and increases emotional and
intellectual participation in the text, which ultimately provides learners with better comprehension
and awareness of the text (ibid, p1). This relationship between the text and the reader becomes a
mind game and is perhaps more important than features of the work itself-including narrator, plot,
characters, style and structure.

3.7.7 Deconstruction

Deconstruction is a theory that was developed by the French phenomenologist Jacques Derrida
who was well-known for his obscure, troublesome, difficult language and complex style of
exposition (Gnanasekaran, 2015), Deconstruction is a post-structuralist method for reading which
uncovers the inconsistencies and mysteries in the consistent structures of philosophical and artistic
writings. It is defined as deriving from the French word “deconsture” meaning to undo the
improvement of, to take to pieces (ibid. p212), It is a very difficult critical theory for people to
understand because of its claim that literature has got no meaning because it derives from language,
which also has no meaning. As an academic exercise we encourage you to read more on this
literary theory, but practically this approach does not help us much in analysis of literary texts.

3.7.8 Historical criticism

According to Tirivangana et al use of this theory requires application to a text specific historical
information about the time during which an author wrote. History was taken as referring to the
social, political, economic, cultural, and/or intellectual climate of the time. For example many of
William Faulkner’s novels were written during and after World War II. This historical fact can
account for the gloomy nature of the stories, the feelings of darkness, defeat, and struggle that
pervade much of his work.

3.7.9 Post-colonial theory

Postcolonial theory is a critical approach that deals with literature emerging from countries that
were formerly, or are still colonies of other countries. It may also include literature written in or
by citizens of colonizing countries. There is thus a conflict between the colonizer and the
41
colonialist, hence a sense of otherness and resistance. Postcolonial theory examines the ways by
which writers from oppressed counties articulate and celebrate their cultural identities which they
reclaim from the colonizer. Postcolonial theory also examines the ways by which the literature of
the colonial powers is used to justify colonialism through use of images that portray the colonized
as inferior. It focuses on how literature by the colonizing culture distorts the experiences and
realities of the colonized and inscribes inferiority upon them (Lye, J. (2007).

Activity 3.4

1. Closely examine the following passage from Post-colonial and Marxist theoretical
perspectives.

Now and then a boat from the shore gave one a momentary contact with reality. It was paddled by
black fellows. You could see from afar the white of their eyeballs glistering. They shouted, sang: their
bodies streamed with perspiration: they had faces like grotesque masks – these chaps; but they had
bone, muscle, a wild vitality, an intense energy of movement, that was as natural and true as the surf
along their coast. They wanted no excuse for being there. They were a great comfort to look at. For a
time l would feel l belonged still to a world of straight forward facts; but the feeling would not last long.
Something would turn up to scare it away. Once l remember, we came upon a man-of-war anchored
off the coast. There wasn’t even a shed there, and she was shelling the bush. It appears the French had
one of their wars going thereabouts. Her ensign dropped limp like a rag; the muzzles of the long six-
inch guns stuck out all over the low hull: the greasy, slimy swell swung her up lazily and let her down
swaying her thin masts. In the empty immensity of earth, sky and water, there she was,
incomprehensible, firing into a continent. Pop would go one of the six-inch guns; a small flame would
dart and vanish, a little white smoke would disappear, a tiny projectile would give a feeble screech –
and nothing happened. Nothing could happen. There was a touch of insanity in the proceeding, a sense
of lugubrious droll in the sight; and it was not dissipated by somebody on board assuring me earnestly
there was a camp of natives – he called them enemies! – hidden out of sight somewhere.
We gave her her letters (l heard the men in that lonely ship were dying of fever at the rate of three a-
day) and went on. We called at some more places with farcical names, where the merry dance of death
and trade goes on in a still and earthy atmosphere as of an overheated catacomb; all along the formless
coast bordered by dangerous surf, as if Nature herself had tried to ward off intruders; in and out of
rivers, streams of death in life, whose banks were rotting into mud, whose waters, thickened into slime,
invaded the contorted mangroves, that seemed to writhe at us in the extremity of an important despair.
Nowhere did we stop long enough to get a particularized impression, but the general sense of vague and
oppressive wonder grew upon me. It was like a weary pilgrimage amongst hints for nightmares.
It was upward of thirty days before l saw the mouth of the big river. We anchored off the seat of the
government. But my work would not begin till some two hundred miles farther on. So as soon as l
could l made a start for a place thirty miles higher up.
Conrad, J. The Heart of Darkness

3.7.10 Post-modernism

Post-modernism refers to a shift in perspective in the social disciplines like social sciences, art,
architecture, literature fashion et cetera. It is said to be associated with the deracination of humanity
42
in the post Second World War and the onset of capitalism and consumerism. Like modernism
before it, post-modernism rejected ascribing boundaries between high and low art, the past and the
future, or one genre with another (Mambrol 2016). Post-modernism uses parody and pastiche or
imitation to remind the reader that works of art are not real but fictional. Post-modern works are
often fragmented and not immediately yielding of meaning (which is often ambiguous, fragmented
and diverse). Characters are often insecure and de-centred with no meaningful roles in the plot.

3.7.11 Russian formalism

Russian formalists following in the tradition of Ferdinand de Saussure’s study of language

separated parole (speech events) and focused almost entirely on langue (the system or codes
governing those events) hence the division between the poem/text from its historical context of
production and content on the one hand, and the language in which these were couched in on the
other. They put across the position that the literariness or artfulness of a work of literature, or that
which constitutes its aesthetics resides entirely in its devices (style/form). It is also this style or
form that should be the sole object of literary studies. For them form was more important than
content. Literary texts are only analysed structurally as autonomous entities. One can make an
objective/scientific analysis of the formal devices of a literary text without much attention to social,
cultural historical and contextual issues. Any innovations in the literary production are not due to
the content but new literary forms that replace the out-dated ones. In other words old familiar
forms are given new life, made strange, or defamiliarised (Eagleton, 1983).

3.7.12 Afrocentricity

The origins of this theory seem to be tied to the mid 1900’s with Marcus Garvey as among the
earliest proponents in America. The era of the civil rights movement gave it some initial impetus.
However the institutionalization of Afrocentricity came with Molefe Asante at Temple University
during the 1980’s. Afrocentricity was a theory devoted to studying African concepts, issues and
behaviour from a strictly African viewpoint as opposed to the erstwhile Eurocentric perspective.
It was engendered as a counter-discourse to Eurocentricity with a quest to delineate African
sensibility as the basis of analyzing concepts that are African. The way an African artist or critic
sees, thinks, and feels, should therefore be conditioned by Africa-centred values if he or she is
truly African. The philosophy puts African values at the centre; everything else radiates from it,
thus moving the centre from Europe to Africa.

3.7.13 Africana womanism

Like Africentricity Africana womanism sets out to liberate the African (woman in this case) by
enabling her to be self-defining. It empowers the African woman to break free of defining herself
by using European standards of feminism. According to Hudson-Weems (1993) cited in
Tirivangana et al one cannot stress enough the need for Africana scholars throughout the world to
create our own paradigms and theoretical frameworks for assessing our works and realities. Often
times our works of art, our discursive practices are judged using criteria and theories that are
foreign and alien to us. Like Afrocentricity, Africana womanism is grounded in African culture
and insists on African-centered perspectives in Africana women's lives--their historical, current,
and future interaction with their community, which includes their complementarity to their male
43
counterparts.

3.8 Summary

The first and second units introduced you to literature and the major landmarks in its historical
development. In this Unit we have endeavoured to demonstrate the importance of having
background understanding of theories of literature as you go about appreciating and critiquing
works of art. Although the module focuses on analysis of texts we found it important to introduce
you to some theories on which you can ground your analyses of texts in complementarity to their
historical context of production . The combination should buttress whatever you glean from
literary texts that you encounter with a solid knowledge base, hence improve on the quality of your
essays

References
44
Cagri Tugrul Mart (2019) Reader-Response Theory and Literature Discussions: a Springboard for
Exploring Literary Texts. in The New Educational Review 56(2)

Eagleton, T. 1983

Gnanasekara, R (2015) An Introduction to Derrida Deconstruction and Post-Structuralism. Inter.

J. Eng. Lit. Cult. 3(7): 211-214

Guven, F. (2018) Niqantaqi University. “Feminist Criticism and Analysis of Nina Baym’s The
Madwoman and Her Languages.

Lutfi Hamadi (2017) “The Concept of Ideology in Marxist Literary Criticism” European Scientific
Journal, July 2017, Vol 13.

Md. Mahroof Hossain 2017 “Psychoanalytic Theory used in English Literature: A Descriptive
Study, in Global Journal of Human Social Science. Vol 17.

Lye, J. (2007) ENGL 4F70, Contemporary Literary Theory, Brock University.

Mambrol, N. (2016) Literary Theory and Criticism, Ebook.

Searle L, (2005). Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press.

Tirivangana et al (2013). Theories of Literature and Criticism. ZOU Press.

UNIT 4

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 THE BASICS OF LITERARY APPRECIATION

4.0 Introduction
In this unit we discuss in very basic terms what literary appreciation/criticism is, what it involves
and give you basic tools to approach any literary genre be it poetry, prose or drama. You should
note that the genres are given separate and fuller treatment in units subsequent to this one.

4.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define literary appreciation/criticism
 distinguish different literary genres
 use a suggested methodology in the practice of literary criticism

4.2 Literary Appreciation/Criticism

Literary Appreciation/criticism is the analysis and judgement of works of art. It tries to interpret
and to evaluate such works and to examine the principles by which they may be understood. It
attempts to promote high standards among artists and encourage the appreciation of art. Criticism
needs not assume the negative dimension of hunting for faults. On the contrary it is positive in that
we look at the artist’s intention and then see how (s)he goes about achieving it (World Book
Encyclopaedia, 1992).

The term literary appreciation is often used to mean the same as literary criticism. Some scholars
however want to emphasise the subtle distinction between the two, while for the majority the
concepts imply the same, i.e. closely examining how effective artists are in presenting their literary
experiences. The pejorative sense of the term ‘criticise’ often nudges the student into adopting the
role of the reviewer or even worse still, judge and jury. This quickly gets related to the notion of
‘good’ and ‘bad’ literature and becomes particularly misleading when students are confronted with
two poems for comparison and feel the examiner is asking them to select and praise the better
poem of the two. Such a misconception is misleading and often mars true appreciation and
analysis. It would be productive to assume the view that there is always some merit to be found in
whatever literature is given.

Appreciation is often, and mistakenly so, associated with the liking or having a preference for
something. Such an association is possible but not essential. The question is what is there, in its
own right as a literary work that may be deemed of value. Appreciation is often applied to poetry
and prose. In the words of Wordsworth, this seems reasonable because, “There neither is, nor can
be any essential difference between the language of poetry and the language of prose”.
Before 1929 literature had been very much based on what we could call comprehension work,
memory, exact translation and paraphrase, a certain amount of analysis of character and motive, a
certain amount of rather clumsy literary theorising and exchanging of literary opinions. In 1929,
I.A. Richards published a book Practical Criticism which reported on some experiments he carried
out with students of poetry and led to the approaches to criticism and appreciation as we have it
46
today. Read Unit 6 for Richards’ theory on practical criticism. From Richards’ experiments a basis
of practical criticism has gradually spread to asking students of literature to pit themselves unaided
against anonymous passages of verse and prose. The approach sees literature as a process of
communication between the writer or the artist and his public. This theory of communication has
been found very useful by writers and critics.

We are in a position to judge or appreciate any piece of literature, great or small. The test we apply
is two pronged as follows:

1. Do we receive the impression that the particular poem or prose passage effectively
communicates what it sets out to do?
2. Is the idea (picture, character, situation or theme) communicated itself of any value to us?

Neither of these questions can be answered easily or automatically; each of them requires us to
read critically, reflect and compare the impression received from one thing with those received
from others. Some pieces of writing will seem skilful but trivial; others serious but clumsy; others
very effective and penetrating, and so on.

Activity 4.1

1. Come up with your own definition of literary appreciation and apply it to any literary piece
cited in this module.
2. Discuss your definition with your partner and compare notes.
3. Discuss some of the misconceptions associated with literary appreciation.

4.3 The Basics in Appreciating Poetry

Poetry has often been seen (and rightly so) as a difficult genre to deal with. Unit 2 has described
poetry as relying on the power of words and their manifold suggestiveness. The possibility for
words to have different meanings to different people and the concentrated form of writing and
other techniques (like lines, imagery, stanzas, sound effects and so on) that poets employ make
poetry quite demanding. This apparent complexity makes some students avoid the genre and
agonise when required to critique poems. There are however general guidelines that students can
follow in a preliminary reading of a poem so as to gain entry, as it were, into it. Below are some
tips suggested by Gill (1981) on how to study poetry.
1. Read the poem aloud, or alternatively, if there are recorded readings of it, listen carefully to
them. Read or listen to it as many times as possible.
2. Think about the words, how they are organised in lines. Check for anything unusual in the use
of words, their arrangement, the sounds they make and so on. Stanzas have shapes, look at

47
 them. Ask yourself about your reactions to the words, their arrangement in lines, and the
arrangement of lines in stanzas. Any feelings/thoughts they evoke in you?
3. Ask yourself what the poem is generally about. Some poems are narrative, some present an
argument; some are meditations or reflections about life. Ask yourself questions, for example,
what is interesting about a word, an arrangement of words, a stanza, and so forth. (See also
Types of poems below)
4. Puzzlement, interest and pleasure. Something will be strange to you therefore causing
puzzlement. Maybe it is an image that is stunning, maybe it is a word that captures what you
feel, it rouses your interest and hence pleasure. Follow up on it. It might be the clue that opens
up the poem to you.
5. Tone. It reflects on the poise, mood, voice, manner, attitude or outlook of a poet, hence some
poems come through as bitter, cold, cynical, troubled, uncertain, gleeful etc. As you read the
poem check for this. What tone comes through and what does it say about the author’s attitude
to the subject?

4.4 Types of Poems

Another way that can unlock a poem to you is to try and establish what type it is. Gill, ibid. says
that poems come in different types and give the following examples:

4.4.1 Poems that tell stories

Some poems tell a story. Try and get to what this story is about, look at how the poet links up
events and to what effect, what voice tells the story? Poets usually create a persona whose voice
is the one that comes through in the poem. What attitude comes through about the poet, persona
and their subject?

4.4.2 Poems that present an argument

Some poems present an argument. You need to focus on the structure of what is being said, check
for the stages that the argument is going through. How does the poem start- from a widely held
idea? Does it start with a question? Does it present a problem needing resolution as it unfolds?
What stages does the argument go through? The conclusion of the argument- is it logical? Is it
effective, are you convinced as a reader?

4.4.3 Poems based on observations

Some poems develop from an observation. The poet may be struck by something seen or heard
which prompts a strain of thought about its meaning and significance. Follow these thoughts and
48
reflections.

4.4.4 Poems based on changes in emotion

These trace the growth and development of an emotion. A poem can start off from a tone of
cheerful playfulness, becomes serious and perhaps ends in a note of great passion. You need to
find out what causes the emotions and follow the changes in moods in these poems.

4.4.5 Poems as games

Sometimes poems are arranged as some kind of game between the poet and the reader. Often the
poet makes the reader believe that the poem is going in one direction then springs a surprise by
going in quite another.

Activity 4.2
Read any two of the following poems and briefly discuss how you would classify them according
to Gill’s typologies above.

1. The Sick Rose

O, Rose thou art sick!
The invisible worm
That flies in the night,
In the howling storm,

Has found out thy bed

Of crimson joy,
And his dark secret love
Does thy life destroy.
William Blake (1757-1827)

2. Digging
49
Between my finger and thumb
The squat pen rests; snug as a gun.

Under my window, a clean rasping sound

When the spade sinks into gravelly ground:
My father, digging. I look down

Till his straining rump among the flowerbeds

Bends low, comes up twenty years away
Stooping in rhythm through potato drills
Where he was digging.

The coarse boot nestled on the lug, the shaft

Against the inside knee was levered firmly.
He rooted out tall tops, buried the bright edge deep
To scatter new potatoes that we picked
Loving their cool hardness in our hands.

By God, the old man could handle a spade.

Just like his old man.

My grandfather cut more turf in a day

Than any other man on Toner’s bog.
Once I carried him milk in a bottle
Corked sloppily with paper. He straitened up
To drink it, then fell to right away
Nicking and slicing neatly, heaving sods
50
 Over his shoulder, going down and down
For the good turf. Digging.

The cold smell of potato mould, the squelch and slap

Of soggy peat, the curt cuts of an edge
Through living roots awaken in my head.
But I’ve no spade to follow men like them.

Between my finger and my thumb

The squat pen rests.
I’ll dig with it.
Seamus Heaney (b. 1939)

3. Strife
Tribal
Knobkerries
Wheeze in the air
With passionate fury-
Bearers of tribal
Difference
Stride and threaten.

Hooves of the
Racist cavalcade
Clatter.
Cold coughs
Blow chilling
Breezes
From the
Smoking
Muzzles of guns
Trained on the
Weak and
Weary.
T.L.Chinyanganya (b. 1964)

4. ArsPoetica
51
A poem should be palpable and mute
As a globed fruit,

Dumb
As old medallions to the thumb,

Silent as the sleeve-worn stone

Of casement ledges where the moss has grown-

A poem should be wordless

As the flight of birds.

A poem should be motionless in time

As the moon climbs,
Leaving, as the moon releases
Twig by twig the night-entangled trees,
Leaving as the moon behind the winter leaves,
Memory by memory the mind-

A poem should be equal to:

Not true.

Foe all the history of grief

An empty doorway and a maple leaf.

For love
The leaning grasses and two lights above the sea-
52
 A poem should not mean
But be.
Archibald Macleish (1892-1982)

5. Refugee Mother and Child

No Madonna and child could touch
that picture of a mother’s tenderness
for a .son she soon would have to forget

The air was heavy with odours

of diarrhoea of unwashed children
with washed-out ribs and dried-up
bottoms struggling in laboured
steps behind blown empty bellies. Most
mothers there had long ceased
to care but not this one; she held
a ghost smile between her teeth
and in her eyes the ghost of a mother’s
pride as she combed the rust-coloured
hair left on his skull and then-
singing in her eyes-began carefully
to part it … In another life this
would have been a little daily
act of no consequence before his
breakfast and school; now she
did it like putting flowers
53
 on a tiny grave. Chinua Achebe (1930)

4.5 The Persona

The persona is the voice that speaks in a poem. It is the voice that narrates, the story, present the
argument, make observations or play games with us. The persona is the ‘I’ in the poem and usually
appears in the 1st person singular. The persona gives unity to a poem; he/she presents his/her point
of view, which may not necessarily be the same as that of the poet. The persona’s is the voice in
the poem while the poet’s voice exists outside it. The poet can also present two or more personas.
What you need to be conscious of is the different voices and what they say in relation to the point
of view of the poet. There will be more discussion on the persona in the coming units of the module.
Suffice it here to say that as you interact with a poem try to discern whose voice it is that is saying
out the poem. That way you will be able to get deeper into aspects like tone, mood, intention and
so forth.

4.6 Methodology for Analysis

While there is no set formula for the analysis of literary texts, there are methodologies that assist
you to remember those salient issues you have to keep in mind as you do the set task. To this end,
you may also want to use the acronym SIFTSEI which has been used over the decades as a
methodology to help students cover all important aspects that need to be examined when
appreciating poetry. The acronym gives you a checklist of what to do thereby helping you to
understand the poem you are reading. Itstands for:
 Sense
 Intention
 Feeling
 Tone
 Symbols
 Emotion
 Impression

S - Sense/subject or the theme, message or meaning of a poem, what is the poem

about?Remember that the theme of a work of literature is the comment that the author makes about
his subject matter. You should seek comprehension through brainstorming (after reading and re-
reading the poem). As already mentioned, the poem should be read out loud over and over again.
All the words, verbs adjectives, nouns should be examined in terms of their arrangement within
sentences, their relationships, meanings. This should not be a search for correct answers like in
Mathematics. Poems can and do have diverse interpretations. Follow your hunch through and see
where it leads to. Also look for meaning by trying to establish what type of poem it is. (See Types
of poems above).

54
Check for unifying trends in poems, for example:
 The use of the persona as a unifying voice, check out the tone of that voice. Is there more
than one persona? Do they present divergent or converging views?
 Any constantly repeated words?
 Any contrasts?
 Any links between the beginnings and the endings of the poems? At times poets make
comparisons to emphasise what was stated at the beginning.
 Any unifying central images?

I - Intention/purpose of writing, whether didactic, to entertain to expose an idea/folly, the poem

explains motives behind certain actions, evokes pity for someone, to share certain feelings and so
on.

F - Feelings/emotions in the poem, sadness, happiness, gloom and so forth. How does this work
make you feel about the content and what specifically makes you feel this way?
How does the author manage to evoke these emotions in the reader? What devices does the author
use to create these feelings in the reader?

T - Tone- What is the poet’s attitude towards subject? Is it sarcastic/ironical, sympathetic,

enthusiastic, satirical, optimistic, or protesting, nostalgic, sentimental, moralising, cynical and so
on? How does the poet place themselves vis-à-vis the subject matter? Choice of words, why certain
words? How have they been used? Is the poet dignified, colloquial, serious, flippant? What are the
reasons? What are the effects?

S – Symbols- What symbols or symbolic concepts are evident in the work and how do they
influence the work? A symbol is something that represents something else, either by association
or by resemblance. It can be a material object or a written sign used to represent something
invisible. Language itself is a system of spoken or written symbols by which we communicate.
Every word is a symbol; the five letters that form the word 'chair' represent a sound as well as a
physical object.

In writing, symbolism is the use of a word, a phrase, or a description, which represents a deeper
meaning than the words themselves. This kind of extension of meaning can transform the written
word into a very powerful instrument.

S in SIFTSEI also stands for Sound effect. This is derived from rhyme, alliteration, assonance,
repetition and so forth these can be used to mirror/symbolise the rhythm of life, breathing,
movement of days and changes in seasons. Certain patterns will make certain words more
prominent than others pointing out to the overall meaning and intention of the poem.

E – Emotion- What mood or emotions are evoked by the author’s usage of language / imagery
and literary / poetic devices? For example alliteration, assonance, emotive language,
colloquialisms, slang, jargon, neologism, cliché, rhetorical questions, metaphors, similes,
proverbs, word order, syntactic structures, use of names, stanza development, ordering of stanzas,
and so on.
Words are used deliberately by artists to create an emotional impact or response. Emotive language
55
is particularly common in poetry, in which language is at its most condensed and evocative.

I - Impression- overall evaluation/judgement/assessment, that is, were you impressed by the poem
basing on the strengths and weaknesses you have highlighted? Here you may need to present a
value judgment on the effectiveness of the poem but you should be tentative in your judgement,
not fully condemning, nor completely falling in love with the poem as to be blinded to some of its
shortcomings.

Use this acronym SIFTSEI to help yourself to remember some of issues you may tackle to interact
meaningfully with poetry. It can also be fully exploited to appreciate works from the other literary
genres because it gives you hints on what to look for in a work of art that will lead you to the
author’s intention, theme stylistic features and the overall effect of the piece. You should be
warned here, however, that there is no formulaic approach to literary criticism, different poems,
genres, and styles may demand different ways of analysis. What we have done is just to give you
the general picture of how you might begin to puzzle out a poem or any other literary pieces.

NB: Knowledge of poetic or literary devices is insufficient on its own; just mentioning them does
not mean much as you respond to essay questions in literature. You need to demonstrate your
understanding of them and the ways by which artists use them to effectively bring across their
views. Train yourself to identify these devices in texts then go ahead and comment on their
effectiveness according to the way that the author has used them. Ultimately a judgement on the
effectiveness of a poem emanates from a discussion of the different devices and the extent to which
an author uses them for effect.

Activity 4.3
1. Use the SIFTSEI approach to make a literary appreciation of any of the poems sited above.
2. You have already observed that the above approach is generalist. How then do you
approach a question that deals with specific aspects of a poem such as tone and symbolism?

4.7 Drama

Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes from a Greek
word meaning "action". The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage before
an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a collective form of reception.
The structure of dramatic texts, unlike other forms of literature, is directly influenced by this
collaborative production and collective reception. This section now deals with analysis of dramatic
texts.

4.7.1 Conventions of drama

A convention can be explained as an agreement between author and audience that an idea will be
presented in a particular way. A convention itself may not directly reflect the real world but it,
nevertheless, stands for something that does, or might, happen in it. An audience is usually so used
to most conventions that it hardly notices them. The first convention is that a play is divided into
acts and acts are divided into scenes not chapters and paragraphs. The stage itself is a convention;
the audience accept it for a living room, a battlefield, a court of law, a boat and so on. The audience
knows that actors are real people, yet it accepts them as kings, generals, peasants and ministers. It
56
knows that the play is meant to portray the action of weeks, months or even years and it accepts
that a great deal of time has passed even when the performance lasts two to three hours. When a
character dies the audience feels pity and sadness, yet it knows in reality he/she still lives. Scenes
are used to point out to the passage of time. In modern drama a stage direction can actually be used
to mark the passage of time. Shakespeare made use of character references and flashbacks or in
some instances he introduces the figure Time, who announces the passage of time. This is the
technique used in The Winter’s Tale.

4.7.2 Verse and prose and other linguistic conventions

Another important convention relates to the use of verse and prose. In Shakespearean drama, low
characters will always use ordinary prose while the high placed individuals use poetic verse that
reflects emotions and depth. Verse captures the elevated nature of the speakers as compared to
people of lesser consequence. At times a person of higher standing may use prose with ‘lesser
beings’ to pretend that he identifies with them. Conversely, pretentious lesser beings may use verse
to claim a place in higher nobility.

Sometimes characters ascribe to themselves the third person narrative point to further elevate their
status. An analysis of Shakespeare’s tragedies such as Julius Caesar, Othello and Macbeth would
clearly reflect this point. Reference in the third person is usually done to make the occasion and
the character grand and impressive. When Caesar refuses to listen to requests he talks about his
firmness in the third person:

Be not fond,
To think that Caesar bears such rebel blood
That will be thawed from the true quality
With that which melteth fools …
(From Shakespeare Julius Caesar)

Caesar is saying with grandeur and admiration at such a determined decision, that he would not be
persuaded to change his mind like fools do.

There is also the use of ‘you’ and ‘thou’ in Shakespeare. The distinction between ‘you’ and ‘thou’
does not usually raise problems. The difference is that ‘you’ is used when the occasion is formal
and a speaker wants to remind listeners of the social difference, but ‘thou’ is normally used when
speakers are equal and the mood is friendly and intimate. In the second scene of Hamlet Claudius
wants to be friendly to Laertes, the son of his chief minister, he says:
Take thy fair hour, Laertes, time be thine,
And thy best graces spend it at thy will.
(Hamlet)
With the use of ‘Thy fair’, time be thine’, thy best graces’ and ‘thy will’; we can feel that
Claudius is going out of his way to be friendly. When, however, he turns to Hamlet, the tone
changes:
How is it that the clouds still hang on you?
(ibid)
57
That is chilly and a recipe for tension. Changes from one form of address to the other, reflect
attitudes of characters to each other.

4.7.3 The soliloquy

The soliloquy happens when a character speaks their thoughts aloud to the audience and the rest
of the characters, should they be on stage, are supposed not to be hearing him. There are two types
of soliloquy, the public and the private. In a public one, the character openly addresses the
audience. In one of his soliloquies Richard, who is charmingly honest about what he wants to do,
reveals:
Plots have I laid, inductions dangerous,
By drunken prophecies, libels and dreams,
To set my brother Clarence and the King
In deadly hate the one against the other:
And I am subtle, false, and treacherous,
This day shall Clarence closely be mewed up
(King Richard 1)

Richard reveals everything: the plots he has laid, the goodness of King Edward, and his gleeful
expectation that Clarence will soon be jailed. It is that glee, that relish that audiences find
charming.
In a private one the audience is not addressed but listens in to, or overhears the innermost thoughts
of a character. The private soliloquy creates a different effect. The audience does not share the
thoughts but is aware of what is going on in the character’s mind. Public and private soliloquies
create different effects and are appropriate to different dramatic situations (Gill, ibid).

4.7.4 The aside

Linked to the soliloquy is the aside. With this one the character momentarily turns away from the
character they are talking to and addresses the audience directly. This is to establish a relationship
between the character and the audience.

4.7.5 Other conventions

Other conventions you have to be aware of are those relating to disguise, song and dance, all of
which are important in drama because they are used by dramatists as vehicles for conveying
meaning. Overall, remember when writing about drama that you are sitting in a theatre as it were,
and witnessing events as they unfold on a stage, that the stage is treated as a world, boat, room,
battleground etc, that actors assume roles and audiences accept them as kings, thieves and so on,
that audiences become emotionally involved- even deaths affect audiences but this is not real.
Always remember that plays are constructed in acts, scenes and lines rather than chapters and
paragraphs, actors enter and exit the stage, in Shakespearean plays the opening scene provides the
exposition and so forth. As much as possible polish up your genre knowledge so that you avoid
errors like referring to plays as if they were novels and vice versa.

58
4.7.6 Stage directions
Stage directions are important. To what purpose are they used? Is it to illuminate on character? to
give information to the audience? to mark the passage of time? to create a certain atmosphere? to
show the spatial arrangement of props and characters on stage? Stage directions are a very useful
tool and the majority of playwrights use them to communicate messages to their audiences. You
will derive a lot of benefit from a realisation of the importance of stage directions and writing
intelligently about them.

4.7.7 Character
Consider also the character in drama. How is character delineated? Are there any apparent
strengths/weaknesses, desires, and mannerisms? Is there anything of note among the characters?
Are they round, flat, or types? Do they grow/ change? Does the dramatist use them to raise certain
themes? Or are they used to create mood, feelings or to show the dramatic action/ conflict?
Thoughts and feelings/mental and emotional states of characters are important. They give you an
overall picture as to the attitude of the author to what they are writing about.

Other things to be sensitive about are the same as what has been listed for poetry above. We have
inter alia mood/tone of the passage: the overriding emotion of a passage derived from the thematic
concerns, presentation of action, language use, sudden twists leading to crises and resolutions.
There are also conflicts- which are clashes between and among personalities. These can be
physical, ideological, emotional, psychological and so on.

4.7.8 Appreciating narratives/prose

As a student of literature you need to appreciate the point that narrative pieces are slices of literary
experience- stories told to present a viewpoint, explore human emotions or to describe a situation.
When responding to questions on narratives, ask yourself the following: What is the text about?
How is the message put across and how successful is the writer in putting it across? What type of
prose passage is it? Some pieces are informative, some tell stories, some are poetic- they tell stories
using beautiful and sensuous images to achieve a heightened effect. Some prose is persuasive,
while other prose is descriptive.

4.7.9 Author’s craft

Interrogate the author’s craft. How does (s)he arrange events in the book? Usually they (authors)
do this by controlling the view point of the reader. They can reveal information abruptly, or they
might give it slowly through tantalising hints that keep the reader in suspense. An author can use
letters, rely on conversation of characters, or they can write about the characters’ thoughts and so
on. They can also concentrate on the expressions on characters’ faces. They can have many
characters tell the story from their view points or they can invite the reader to doubt the reliability
of the one who is telling the story. Ask yourself always why the author is doing what they are
doing, to what effect? They will always do it for a purpose.

4.7.10 Narrative technique

You also need to be sensitive to the author’s narrative technique, why does the author choose one
and not another? The most frequently occurring narrative techniques are The First Person and the
Third Person Narrative techniques. Gill (1973) explains narrative techniques in the following:
When you study a novel you should ask this question: in what person is this novel written?
59
 ‘Person’ is a grammatical term; verbs can be used in three persons. Take for instance the
verb to write:
First person: I write
Second person: you write
Third person: he, she, it writes.
When a novel is written, the relation between the novelist and events is conveyed in two
of these persons- the first and the third. (The second is not used because the novelist could
only address one person. (p80)

4.7.11 First person narrative

When a novel is written in the 1st person narrative, it is as if the novelist is the character telling the
story or perhaps a character or persona that the author uses to tell it. In this way the author can
remove himself from the story so that the reader can judge the character telling the story alongside
the rest of the characters. This technique has the advantage of taking the reader into the events,
thus they feel them with the persona. This closeness helps the reader to understand the events
better. Charles Dickens exploits this technique excellently in Great Expectations.

Within the 1st person narrative there is another technique, stream of consciousness. This one is an
attempt to reproduce the actual train of thoughts of a character. “As our thought processes are not
always orderly and logical’ and certainly not grammatical, the stream of consciousness technique
usually involves the use of prose that breaks normal rules of construction, syntax and form”
(Shiach, 1984:15).

4.7.12 The third person narration

The 3rd person narrative involves the limited point of view (where the author uses one of the
characters to tell the story) and the omnipotent and ubiquitous author who knows and reports on
all that is happening among all his characters across their geographical locations. They do not
necessarily take any part in the unfolding of their story rather than tell it. Earlier authors were
visible in their stories in that they would directly address their reader, but more and more the third
person narrator is withdrawing from the story to a point that in the majority of modern novels that
we read today, the author is completely invisible. The omniscient narrator, like a god, has the
power to enter into the minds of his characters and tell the audience what goes on there. He thus
has the advantage that he can get into the minds of his characters sometimes simultaneously and
report on events happening in different geographical areas. The reader can thus get the story from
a holistic perspective unlike with the 1st person narrative that tends to limit the reader to one trend
(that of the persona).

Ask yourself why authors choose one narrative technique and not the other? How visible is the
author in his/her writing? Some authors are obtrusive while others are completely removed, why?
What influences the choice of author presence or author evacuatedness in a text?

It is important to remind you once again that when writing anything on narrative technique, it is
not enough just to mention that Hardy uses the 3rd person narrative technique in The Mayor of
Casterbridge. You have to go on and comment on the effectiveness of using the particular
technique, maybe its strengths and/or weaknesses and why maybe the author made the conscious
choice of using it over the other. This goes for all the other choices that the author makes in terms
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of style, diction, imagery, rhyme, rhythm- all the techniques that students tend to be so good at
identifying.

4.8 Characters

Characters people the world of the novel. You need to find out how successfully the author
delineates them. Ask yourself such questions- how are the characters created? What do you feel
about them? What is the range of characters created? How do they function in the novel? Though
characters are an author’s creation you may want to examine how they strike you. Some want
characters that are as real or as approximating real people as much as possible. Other people do
not mind, they are more interested in what the characters typify in human life. This leads to the
aspect of flat and round characters.

Flat characters are types, one dimensional and seldom develop in the course of the novel. Some
Dickensian characters have been criticised for being flat. Dickens tends to emphasise in these
characters certain traits, for example their goodness, humility, evil, dishonesty, cunningness and
so on at the expense of their being real people. Round characters are fuller, learning from their
experience as the novel unfolds and, as we get to the end, they are different individuals compared
to when it started. Usually such characters are more satisfying but this is not to say that flat
characters are bad. Much depends upon the author’s intention in inventing them. Note that E.M.
Forster has written quite a bit on flat and round characters.

4.8.1 Study of character

How do we study character? Check how they speak. They repeat certain words or expressions, talk
too much or they are taciturn. Some use very complicated wordy sentences while others give
content with a few words.

How does a character appear? What does the author tell us about the character? Is there detail on
appearance, thoughts feelings? Does the author want us to love, hate, like, dislike a character?
How do the characters dress? How do you react to their style of dress? Is it used to tell you
something? The stiff starched get up of a lot of Victorian gentlemen was exploited by a number of
authors to show such characters’ rigidness and little toleration for what they conceived as deviating
from what they held holy.

Also find out where the character is placed in his/her social strata. Do they influence others, if so
how? How do they relate with other classes of people?

Another important aspect to look at about a character is their name. Some names are telling, for
example the name Loman in Death of a Salesman seems to relegate the character to the lower
echelons of the social strata.

Find out also what sort of company a character keeps, what they do or what actions do they perform
as the story unfolds? Some characters’ actions create the plot of the story. Check for example the
actions of Pip’s convict in the cemetery scene that opens Great Expectations.

You will also get insight into characters by examining what sort of settings they are associated
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with. Setting, according to Gill (op. cit.,) covers “the places in which characters are presented; the
social context of characters, such as their families, friends and class; the customs, beliefs and rule
behaviour of their society; the scenes that are the background or the situation of the events of the
novel; and the total atmosphere, mood or feel that is created by these.” Often the mood of a novel
is created by the setting and also the personality of characters can be projected by the settings that
they are associated with. The setting is also used by authors to create theme and present their view
of what they are dealing with in their stories.

Activity 4.4
1. With your partner discuss the narrative techniques employed by the authors of any three novels
you have read on this course.
2. With what effect has the narrative techniques been used?

4.9 Summary

In this unit we have taken you through the basics of literary appreciation. We have given you some
hints on what to expect from each of the genres and some of the conventions that you ought to
remember when confronted by literary pieces for analysis. We have emphasised the need for you
to be conversant with the rudiments of all three genres and have also introduced the SIFTSEI
methodology for literary analysis, which, as has been seen, is very useful in all analysis
of the different genres. The methodology is particularly important as a check list of what to look
for and do as you analyse poetry. In the following units we will take you through analyses of the
different genres one by one, and in greater detail.

References

Chinyanganya, T.L.(2009). in Poetry International, e-journal.

Daiches, D. (1981). Critical Approaches to Literature. UK: Longman Group, Ltd.

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Gill, R. (1978). Mastering English. UK: Macmillan.

Moody, H.L.B. (1968). Literary Appreciation. UK: Longman.

Shiach, D. (1984). The Critical Eye. Appreciating Prose and Poetry, Surrey, UK:
Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd.

Stephen, M. (1986). English Literature. London: Longman.

World Book Encyclopaedia (1992). Toronto: Scott Fetzer Company. World Book Inc.

UNIT 5

POETRY APPRECIATION

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5.0 Introduction

In this unit we revisit the genre of poetry. An attempt to define poetry brings out differences
between people, depending on past experiences, location and other stereotypes. The African
conception of poetry and that of other parts of the world, particularly Europe, is analysed. We also
take a critical analysis of the language of poetry as distinct from that of prose and drama, as well
as the form and styles it takes. A set of poems is provided for the practice of poetry appreciation.
A clear understanding of poetry appreciation often opens up the appreciation of all other genres of
literature. We advise that you study this unit carefully and ruminate over it several times for a
firmer foundation in literary studies.

5.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 evaluate the significance of poetry in literary studies
 critique the role of the poet in society
 analyse poetry in terms of the content, form, style, intention, feelings and any other relevant
import of poetry
 compare any two or more poems from a critical and analytical standpoint

5.2 What is Poetry?

There seems to be a problem with the definition of poetry. It seems easier to say what poetry is not
rather than what it is, just as we all know light but may have problems with its definition. Defining
poetry seems difficult because the genre includes such an astonishing variety of forms and
approaches – from lengthy Greek epics to three line haikus; from complex metrical schemes, to
the apparent formlessness of some free verse. The definitions offered by poets themselves tend to
reflect their own work. In spite of all this variation, however, there are some characteristics shared
by poets of all ages. The Oxford Dictionary defines it as “the elevated expression of elevated
thought or feeling in metrical form”. On the other hand, Coleridge in Daiches (1981) in the process
of comparing prose and poetry opines that prose is words in their best order, whereas poetry is the
best words in the best order (our emphasis). The definition by Coleridge seems to suggest that any
good arrangement of the best words constitutes poetry. This definition, though summative, may
not suffice as it lacks content and depth in description and factual base.

There are generally four distinguishing characteristics of poetry that set it apart from prose and
drama. These are: concern for the line as opposed to the sentence; greater attention to the sound
of the language; development of rhythms, and a tendency to create density by compressing both
meaning and motion (Minot, 1993; and Barber 1983; www.flickr.com/photos/ch-
labeaune/7309239342/). A clear distinction between prose and poetry would assist in setting the
context for proper definition of poetry.

Poetry is a kind of literature quite different from novels and plays. Poetry is different from prose
because poets organise their language in a different way from writers of prose. It has its own special
organisation, its own form, which is the stanza or verse. Other characteristics are rhyme,

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alliteration, rhythm, unusual syntax and the falsification of normal punctuation rules. Its content
is often different, as it may not handle everyday topics. Its subject matter may be highly individual.
These characteristics may be a challenge to students of poetry and their effect on students’ attitudes
to poetry teaching and learning need to be carefully understood.

There are different ways of expressing meaning in poetry. With some poems, understanding this
meaning may be very hard and a great deal of careful thought is required before one can fully
appreciate what the poet is actually saying. Furthermore, there may be different levels of meaning
in a poem. Minot (1993) argues that while readers may identify poetry through its form, for the
poet, the content of his work, its meaning and interpretation, are the most important. In
concurrence, Dawson (1998: 5) asserts that the best way to understand poetry is to experience it.

The question of what poetry is, therefore, and what kind of value it possesses can be answerable
by the examination of the poet’s activities or by an inquiry into how a poet operates. Instead of
asking, “what is poetry?” we may ask ‘what is a poet?’ This means that we can approach poetry
from the point of view of the author. In that instance, we may need to analyse the biography of the
author as a way of leading to the meaning that he/she communicates. Such an approach would
acknowledge the fact that the author is a product of his past and time, and hence can hardly escape
the influence of his/her background and society in which he lived and wrote. In other words, such
a biographical approach would allow the literary critic to import issues from outside the written
text and use these to access the poet’s message. On the other end, there is New Criticism,
championed by the work of I.A. Richards and others, which would advocate for the use of what is
given on paper in order to share meaning with the poet. The poem is here conceived as complete
in itself and hence, no knowledge of the author’s background and other extraneous nuances are
necessary for the total analysis, understanding and criticism of a poem.

The latter question on what a poet is, will often lead us to the former, on what poetry is. It is,
therefore, possible to approach a poem from the point of the poet and that of the poem as presented
on paper. Wordsworth gives his own view of what he thinks poetry is and therein its value lies. He
sees poetry as an activity as well as a species of art object, and argues that looking at the activity
as well as examining the product can approach the basic critical questions.

Aristotle in Daiches (1981) says poetry is the most philosophical of all writings. Wordsworth
concurs with this when he asserts that “its object is truth, not individual and local, but general and
operative, not standing upon external testimony but carried alive into the heart by passion, truth
which is its own testimony, which gives competence and confidence to the tribunal to which it
appeals, and receives them from the same tribunal. Poetry is the image of man and nature”.

Poetic truth, for Wordsworth, is operative as it works on us and carries its own conviction with it.
Individual and local truth does not carry its own conviction. The poet’s truth is general in the sense
that it needs no authentication to be recognised as true. It does not stand upon external testimony
but is carried alive into the heart by passion and is, thus, its own testimony. Our hearts recognise
it as true, not necessarily because we have known it before, but because the psychological structure
of our minds assents to it. To Wordsworth, poetry then, is the breath and finer spirit of all
knowledge. To him the focus is on poetry and not the poet. So there is reason to dispense with the
concept of poet-poetry at that point.
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Wordsworth goes further to assert that the poet looks before and after his time and binds together
by passion and knowledge the vast empire of human experience. He further asserts that, “poetry is
the first and last of all knowledge – it is as immortal as the heart of man” (in Daiches, 1981: 93).
Poetry generates a peculiar pleasure that Wordsworth seems to share with Sidney, Dryden, Shelly
and Johnson. The poet is a man and/or woman speaking to men and/or women (See Phythian,
1985: 1). The word ‘man’ here is used generically and in the old fashion to imply both sexes.

Another attempt at defining poetry is made by Winters (1957: 26) who says, “I believe that a poem
(or other work of artistic literature) is a statement in words about a human experience.” A more
interesting and creative definition is given by Hughes (1999) who, says “Poetry is the human soul
entire, squeezed like a lemon or a lime, drop by drop, into atomic words”. We may also define it
as any linguistically rich piece of literary art that uses verse and compressed language as its major
forms of expressing meaning, with an effect on one’s emotions. This definition is in line with that
given by Hopkins (in Rodgers 1990: 383) who sees poetry as:
… speech framed for contemplation of the mind by way of hearing or speech framed to be
heard for its own sake and interest even over and above its interest of meaning. Some
matter and meaning is essential it is but only as an element necessary to support and employ
the shape which is contemplated for its own sake cited by Daiches (1981: 7).

Plato writes:
For the poet is a light and holly thing and there is no invention in him until he has been
inspired and is out of his senses, and the mind is no longer in him; when he has not attained
to this state, he is powerless and is unable to utter his oracle…. and when inspired, one of
them will make dithyrambs, another hymns of praise, another choral strains, another epic
or iambic verse: for not by art does the poet sing but by power divine.

The poet does not deal calmly, wisely and equably with essential truth of things but excitedly with
their changing surfaces. Poetry is verse, but more important it is intention, the telling of a story
that is not literally true. It is the record of imaginary events, but it is more. The events must be
described in a lively and persuasive style. Poetry is a superior means of communication, and its
value depends on what is communicated. Sidney argues for the poet as a maker and this
distinguishes him/her from other practitioners of other arts and sciences. The poet does not imitate,
represent, express or discuss things that already exist. She/he invents new things. To Sidney verse
is

but an ornament and no cause to poetry and it is not riming and versing that maketh a poet,
no more than a long gown maketh an advocate … but it is that fayning notable images of
virtues, vices or what else, with that delightful teaching which must be the right describing
note to know a poet by.

More than 200 years later Wordsworth was to argue that the poet binds together, by passion and
knowledge, the vast empire of human society. Poetry, thus, should teach and delight, he believed.
The business of the poet is to examine, not the individual but the species, to remark general
properties and large appearances. Poetry usually has multiple meanings. T.S. Eliot (in Hounsell,
Unpublished) sums this up as follows:

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 A poem may appear to mean very different things to different readers, and all of
these meanings may be different from what the author thought he meant. For
instance, the author may have been writing some peculiar personal experience,
which he saw quite unrelated to anything outside; yet for the reader the poem may
become the expression of the general situation, as well as some private experience
of his own. The reader’s interpretation may differ from the author’s and be equally
valid… it may even be better. There may be much more in a poem than the author
was aware of. The different interpretations may all be partial formulations of one
thing: the ambiguities may be due to the fact that the poem means more, not less,
than ordinary speech can communicate.

Coleridge sees a legitimate poem as a composition in which the rhyme and the meter bear an
organic relation to the total work. In it the parts mutually support and explain each other, all in
their proportion harmonising with, and supporting the purpose and know influences of metrical
arrangement. He sees a true poem as neither a striking series of lines and verse, each complete in
itself and bearing no necessary relation to the rest of the work, nor the kind of loosely knit work,
but its kind of form which provides both its function and its justification.

In “On poetry or Art” Coleridge (1967:491), argues that art “…is the power of humanising nature,
of infusing the thoughts and passions of man into everything which is the object of his
contemplation; colour, form, motion, and sound, are the elements which it combines, and it stamps
them into unity in the mould of a moral idea.” In other words, poetry draws upon both sight and
sound; it puts what it portrays in such a way as to strike home to man’s feelings, and also give it
meaning to the mind by presenting it in the light of thought and ideals.

To Coleridge poetry is a wider category than that of poem. Poetry is a kind of activity not confined
to those who employ metrical language, but the exercise of imagination. It may be defined as the
expression of the imagination. The immediate object of a poem is pleasure, not truth; while the
immediate object of poetry in the larger sense may be truth (as in the case with the first chapter of
the Book of Isaiah) or it may be pleasure. This fact points to the indispensable position the poet
occupies in society. According to Shell (in Perkins 1967: 1072) the poet, like the novelist, “not
only beholds intensely the present as it is, and discovers those laws according to which present
things ought to be ordered, but he beholds the future in the present, and his thoughts are the germs
of the flower and the fruit of latest time”. Shelly goes on to define poetry as the record of the best
and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds, and that poets are the acknowledged
legislators of the world. These are grand – perhaps grandiose – claims for poetry. They are
justifiable, but in a sense that needs more particularising than Shelly gives us.
Activity 5.1

1. Discuss the value of poetry in Society.

2. List all possible definitions of poetry given in this section. Identify one of them and defend
why you think it is more encompassing than all others.
3. Examine the assertion that poetry is a product of inspiration.

5.3 Classification of Poetry

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In classifying poetry one has to specify the criterion they use. It is possible to classify poems by
the milieu in which they were composed (such as Victorian, Elizabethan, Romantic, Modernist
and so on); by their subject matter (didactic, romantic, epic and so on); by their authors (poems
written by Wordsworth, Wilfred Owen, Geoffrey Chancer, Keats and others); by their form (such
as sonnets, odes, ballads, villanelle, lyric, and narrative); by their themes (such as love, death,
nature, war, religion, education, celebration and so forth) or even by chronological classification
(old-English, middle-English and modern-English poetry). Poetry can also be classified by type as
we have seen in the previous unit. These are merely different ways by which the mind tries to
categorise the thousands of individual pieces of literary creation by seizing upon common traits or
other, such as language, age of composition, authorship, similarity of content or mode of
expression, similarity of form, and so on and viewing similar works together as a distinctive body
of poetry and giving it a descriptive name.

In this section we deliberately focus on classification by form and era. Since the days Aristotle at
least, certain kinds of literature –lyric, drama, epic –have enjoyed popular acceptance as
recognisable ‘literary forms’. Mutations of these forms, or altogether new forms, have evolved
from time to time in response to the challenge of the new circumstances. The Platonic dialogue,
the set oration, the formal ode, the philosophical poem, the jewelled sonnet, the scintillating
epigram, the allegory, the vivid historical biography, the medieval romance, the robust blank verse,
the personal essay, the political satire, the utopian fancy, the mock epic, the parody – endless
indeed are forms that poetry takes.

The epic, like the modern novel, could be viewed as a mixture of narrative and dialogue. The
three ultimate or primary modes would then be lyric, narrative and drama (Iyengar and
Nandakumar, 1990). In his lecture on “The Three Voices of Poetry” (1953) T.S. Eliot (cited by
Iyengar and Nandakumar, 1990:119) particularises the three voices as follows:

The first is the voice of the poet talking to himself or nobody. The second is the voice of
the poet addressing his audience, whether large or small. The third is the voice of the poet
when he attempts to create a dramatic character speaking in verse; when he is saying, not
what he would say in his own person, but what he can say within the limit of one imaginary
character addressing another imaginary character.

These correspond to the lyric, epic and dramatic modes: the lyric with its overwhelmingly
subjective impulsion, the epic (or narrative) which aims at direct communication and is inspired
by social purpose and the dramatic which aims at the convincing projection of an imaginary group
of characters who speak and act as if wholly independent of the author. If the lyric is the most
subjective, the epic the most objective or the most inclusive, then the dramatic may be described
as the most creative of the three modes.

Originally the lyric was a poem that was set to music for performance as a solo song. The term is
now the most commonly used of poems with similar characteristics, even if they have never been
set to music. It is usually confined to short poems, which have no narrative element. A lyric
therefore, tends to be an extension of mood or an emotion such as brief expression of love, joy or
the beauties of nature, and is usually written in the first person. The subject matter of the poem is
simple. It begins as if it was going to be a narrative poem, but in fact there is no story. The poems
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simply evoke a mood of carefree gaiety: it is a celebration of youth and love and spring. The
intellectual content is slight, a fact that is reinforced by the extensiveness of the refrain, with its
repetitions and nonsense phrases.

In the general lyric category falls the ode, a form widely practiced by English poets from the time
of Spenser and Tennyson. An ode is a fairly long lyric poem, and signified in style and serious in
subject (Iyengar and Nandakumar, 1983). It is normally stanzaic, and usually stanzas are long and
complex (though some odes are in simple quatrains). Each section of the ode is in three parts: the
trophies, a long and complicated stanza; the antistrophe, with an identical pattern; and the epode,
with a different and often simpler stanza. An ode could consist of a number of three part groups,
in which case the epodes all had to have the same pattern, whereas the strophe – anti-strophe
stanzas were different in each group. The strict Pindaric pattern is found in two of Gray’s odes The
Bard and The Progress of Poesy.

With the Romantic poets, the ode is given a more personal flavour. Often, like the traditional ode,
it handles a public theme, but with some personal problem or experience of the poet implicated; in
other cases it might be entirely personal. Wordsworth’s Intimations of Immortality advances views
about the soul, and about the way in which children, as they become adults, lose the ‘celestial
light,’ which had once glorified everything they saw: but above all it sounds to be about
Wordsworth’s own experience of nature in childhood and later.
The sonnet is a fourteen line-rhyming poem, often written in iambic pentameters. The sonnet often
has a clearly marked development of theme in the ninth line that divides the poem into an octave
and a sestet. Poets have used various rhyming schemes. The Shakespearean sonnet consists of
three quatrains followed by a closing rhyming couplet. The Shakespearean sonnet rhymes
ababcdcdefef gg. The Petrarchan sonnet (also called the Italian sonnet) consists of an octave
rhyming abbaabba and a sestet that may employ any one of several different patterns, with the
original scheme being cdecde.

Drabble (1985) argues that the sonnet was introduced to England by Wyatt and developed by
Surrey and thereafter widely used, notably in the sonnet sequence of Shakespeare, Sidney, Spencer
and other poets of the “golden period”. Later sonnets on the theme of love include those by D.G.
Rossetti and E.B. Browning. Milton, Donnie, Keats and Yeats have all used the form to great and
varied effect, and it continues to flourish even today. (See the poem Ozymandias and Mario Sonnet
in the practice section) Shakespeare is recorded to have written 154 sonnets and 5 poems over and
above his plays. Sidney’s sequence Astrophel and Stella contains 108 sonnets. Shakespeare is
renowned for having popularised the sonnet.

Activity 5.2
1. Explain the various criteria used to classify poetry.
2. State the characteristics of an ode and a sonnet.
3. State the types of poems mentioned in this section and briefly explain each one.

5.4 Appreciation of a Poem

The aim in reading poetry is not to produce poets but to increase communicative competence.
Tomlinson (1986) observes that most students find poems difficult to understand, even for native
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speakers, as their meaning is rarely overt and their language idiosyncratic. The use of stylistic
devices (metaphor, hyperbole, alliteration, rhyme, assonance and so on) not common in everyday
speech affects some readers. However, using poetry as the basis for intelligent communicative
activities may contribute far more to the acquisition of language and development of language
skills than a total concentration on the presentation and practice of language items.

Poetry can enrich and open the content of language lessons, provide useful opportunities for
gaining experience of the world, and can contribute to the development of “the whole person” as
well as the “learner of a language”. When emotions, feelings and attitudes are engaged, people are
more receptive to language. Poetry more than anything else can give opportunities for deduction
of meaning from linguistic and structural context, prediction, reading creatively, and the
recognition and interpretation of assumptions and inferences.

When we read poetry, it is poetry we are concerned with not anything else; reading it to find facts,
imparting information, whether factual or narrative-it must be an experience of poetry. The content
of a poem –what it is about – is of importance only in relation to other qualities – qualities of form
and language, of the poet’s attitude to his subject. The reading of poetry calls for appreciation and
stylistic analysis.
Critical appreciation involves giving one’s own opinion about the worth of the writing, but it also
involves the analysis of the theme, treatment, diction, imagery and form. This analysis should lead
to critical evaluation. Shiach (1984) suggests guidelines to follow in writing critical essays on
poetry as follows:

1. Do not waffle. Do not write an open paragraph that says nothing at all. If you are writing a
general critical appreciation, start by saying what you think the theme of the poem is and
commenting on its tone. Then proceed to discuss the treatment the poet gives to the theme
in the content of the poem. Analyse the content, not line-by-line or even stanza-by-stanza,
but by tracing the development of the theme throughout the poem.

2. Next, discuss the way theme and subject matter are realised in the poem. Meaning and
form, diction, imagery and tone – these can hardly be separated from one another. Yet it is
possible to discuss form, imagery and diction separately, as component parts of the poem,
as long as they are analysed in terms of their contribution to the meaning and impact of the
poem. If you are tracing the imagery of a poem, try to show how the imagery creates the
emotional tone of the verse and, therefore, crucially affect meaning. Similarly, an analysis
of the form, versification or any other features of the poem is only useful if it is shown how
they affect the meaning of the poem.

3. Only after working your way through the poem this way will you be in a position to
comment on the writing as a whole. In the end give a value judgment of the whole work.
Avoid sweeping generalisations that totally dismiss or wildly over-praise, for instance,
‘This is the most boring poem I have ever, read’, or ‘This poem is the best I have ever
read,’ should be avoided. A much more fruitful approach is to state your response in a clear
unvarnished way and then explain your reasons.

Iyengar and Nandakumar (1990: 91) summarise appreciation and criticism as follows:
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 In literary appreciation and criticism, reason (comprising digested scholarship,
acquaintance with different branches of knowledge, a ‘scientific’ temper and discipline
with ‘logic’) is both necessary and not enough; so too, sensibility is both necessary and not
quite enough. A continuous exposure to the influence of masterpieces is part of the training
that the profession of literary criticism needs: and it is through practice, armed with
humility as well as knowledge, that one’s sensibility is quickened and one’s ratiocinative
capacity is sharpened.

It needs to be borne is mind that there is no simple right method of handling literary problems, no
single approach to works of literary art that will yield all significant truths about them, but
however, tentative, partial, oblique’ all criticism may be, it should progressively help us to, as
David Daiches (1981: 390) puts it, ‘enjoy with discrimination, to discern value, to recognise and
reject the spurious, to respond maturely to the genuine, never to be fooled by the shabby and the
second hand,’ The business of the literary critic is to attain a peculiar completeness of response
and to observe a peculiarly strict relevance in developing his response into commentary; he must
be on his guard against abstracting improperly from what is in front of him and against any
premature or irrelevant generalising of it or from it. This serves as justification to the business of
literary criticism.

It is only by looking at a poem in detail that we do justice to the considerable creative effort that
went into its crafting. Every poem requires a different treatment. Always study the poem at leisure,
and determine what its nature is, its intention, its unique character. In poetry there are no wrong or
right answers. As you approach a poem be prepared to live with it for a while, avoiding hasty
observation or ill-considered judgments. There may be need to read the poem several times, make
notes, mark lines, underline words and practically read it aloud.

Below are some poems selected for your practice, following the hints and guidelines prescribed
above.

When Shouting Isn’t Talking

Cartons dozen scores and sheaves
They gather crowd and rowd
Hustling tussling rustling rumbling and wrestling
Basics to seek; strategies to conjure
Its crowds, crowds, crowds everywhere 5

Gangs squads teams congregations boards and platoons

All for some specified cause and aspiration
Animate it may, humane to save
Often floods wash away reason, blinkers they think
Flirt they pon, outstanding they compete, show off 10
And brass only clouds for silver dollar
Men serve and money use
So it is meant but not
When shouting isn’t talking 15

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 By JunnielMatavire

The reader would realise that the poem is a villanelle from the pentane (line 5) and the decane (line
10) that constitute the two stanzas. However, in terms of its content the poem bears the qualities
of an ode. Also notable is the ironic title that purports that shouting out does not communicate,
probably attempting to advocate for calm, composure and calculated and evaluated, carefully
thought out and purposeful action. The word ‘when’ in the title could also be viewed to imply a
moment or situation. That, then, implies that there are times when shouting may be talking or may
pass a message and make a statement, and others as is the case captured in this poem, when it does
not.

The first line of the poem captures a situation of grouping in which people are influenced by mob
psychology to act in the way they would probably not elect if singled out of the crowds. The term
‘rowd’ in line two clearly indicates negative behaviour, uncharacteristic of individual demeanour.
Further analysis shows that these crowds are a result of the pursuit for basic needs that should be
in short supply. Given this predicament the reader would easily realise that the poem captures a
scene in the period 2002-2003 and later in 2007 in Zimbabwe when basic commodities such as
bread, cooking oil, mealie-meal, rice, margarine, fuel and even money, to mention but a few, were
in short supply, leaving people to form long and winding queues for them whenever they could be
availed for sale. Whenever these commodities could be suspected to be delivered it was not unusual
to see people waiting in large numbers for the supplier to come resulting in crowding and tussling
to buy. That situation of shortages is captured by the poem. By merely capturing the moment the
poet opens our eyes to the larger story of that moment. An analysis of the moment provides the
larger scenario and the milieu in which the poem is set.

A situation of political change is equally alluded to when the poet mentions strategies to be
conjured. During the same period stated above there was political upheaval in Zimbabwe with
West- driven opposition parties emerging to take advantage of the economic turmoil the country
was finding itself in. Many blindly followed the bandwagon and were soon gallivanting from one
political group to the other, with mass demonstrations, stay-aways and strikes being the order of
the day. Such rowdy and rather uncivilised conflict resolution strategies were used but yielded
nothing. This could be the shouting that never spoke. Even though both foreign and local media
joined in the onslaught of the economic and political institutions their loud and rather
melodramatic enchantments could not brook mass support for the government of the day, receiving
reasonably few sympathisers.

Careful reading would reveal the motive behind such action that appears to have assumed a large
scale, both in terms of space and numbers. Repetition of “crowds” in line 5 would reveal this. The
various social spheres of life are also implied in the second stanza with social, military, religious
and professional allusions being made, each having vested interests in the turmoil and aspired
change that looked eminent at the time. Thieves, solders, guards, players, the clergy and the
aristocrats all appear to have a stake in the premeditated confusion and the resultant transition;
hence all aspire to earn a slice from the dog fight. Such is the calculation and competitive advantage
that characterised the order of the day. A situation of a game without rules is captured, leading
humans to act like animals. The sense of brotherhood is lost and human life is not valued. It
72
becomes a jungle in which every man thinks for means to save oneself, often at the expense of
others.

Businessmen would increase prices mercilessly, thereby making super profits without regard for
the poor. A hyper-inflationary environment thereby results. In such pandemonium the human
element falls aside and the rich become richer, often out of nothing and over night.

The poet switches to make an analysis of the state of life from the point of view of the poor, the
masses, those that crowd and flood. Such shortage of basic commodities or wanton politicking
may blind the masses making them fail to see reason, cause and effect. They may not see reason
to the extent of employing dirty tactics in order to survive. Immoral activities, crime and other
uncouth practices become rampant. It becomes a case of survival of the fittest and dirtiest. Those
who own wealth become fatter and fitter, boasting, showing off and often using their material,
economic and political superiority to further subjugate the poor whom the poet draws parallels
with ‘brass’. He who owns capital begins to dictate the course. An image of wealth drawn by silver
is further substantiated by the metaphorical ‘silver dollar’ in line 12. Instead of saving man and
using money, the opposite becomes the norm in this kind of scenario. Money becomes ‘served’
as man (the poor) is ‘used’ (by the rich) to make more money.

An analysis of the form of the poem would reveal the poet’s deliberate avoidance of routine
punctuation conventions, probably to align this to the masses’ denial to respond in conventional
ways to unfamiliar situations. The lack of punctuation should be noted to be synchronised with the
issue of shortage and resilience.

The heroic couplet at the end of the poem summarily captures the import of the poem, literally
retorting that while the above could be so, it may not be the case to an informed people. While this
may succeed elsewhere in the world, there are situations where it may be shouting into the wind
where no one would listen or barge, as the case was in Zimbabwe in 2002-2003 and thereafter.

Activity 5.3
For the purpose of practice, a few poems by the same poet and others have been given below for
your appreciation. You are encouraged to take note of the devices the poet uses, how these assist
the poet in bringing out meaning and effect as well as the sense, tone and feelings portrayed in
each poem. The content of the poem should always remain the central concern of the reader of
poetry.

Black Rays
When the worm inflicts it ravages the victim
The cotyledons vanish when weevils churn
The green wilts when the heat scotches
Righteousness eludes when sin takes toll
The outsider is the worm, the native the victim

It causes restlessness, instability, rebellion, insubordinate

It influences the native to surge against himself
It implants selfishness, not self-sacrifice
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 It redefines patriotism, unity, development, growth
Naira power works, the poor sells away conscience
When they went for Chimurenga they were sons of the soil
Down the years they went for the land, again
Today the terms have revolved, invaders not occupiers
Colonialism, no rule of law, freedom no rule of law, strange
Today’s terrorist was yesterday’s freedom fighters, guerrilla

The wealthy control us, use us, force us, enslave us

The mediocre sound most, laugh most, know most, hate most
The rational is the peasant, the idiot the upper class, the imbecile the urban
The media gets polarized, colonized, unethical, a fuss
Men know thyself, defend your heritage, your land

Colonialism affects the fabric of being

Poverty a case that enslaves its master
Ignorance a spout that empties the can
Ambition a sheath that fixes the barren
Tread your ground with care, check history

Droughts ravage, breadbasket warps

Economy falls, youth employment vanishes
Instability befalls, parties brandish swords
Corruption rife, dealers reap millions
Brain drain strikes, treason, crime, instability

This is our land, we were born here

We grew up on this land, we die here
We are buried on this land, we resurrect here
Our judgment is here, our eternal life here
This is our land, our soil, our earth, here

Black land, black sunlight

Africa light your sun, nus, usn, uns.
By JunnielMatavire

Activity 5.4
Read the poems below paying special attention to alliteration, assonance, rhyme, rhythm, meter
and compression. Please note that the first one is a marriage sonnet and, therefore characteristics
of a sonnet apply fully. You may find it necessary to revisit the section on sonnets to remind
yourself of the characteristics of a sonnet.

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 Mario Sonneto
Marriage stifles it cripples
Marriage dimples it ripples
Loneliness is a bore it sickens
Loneliness dampens it mickens
Divorce damns it stupefies
Divorces bums it mystifies

Two diverse minds meet

Two devious ideas smite
One devours one wallows
One vomits one swallows
The other sweats one leisures
The one mourns other seizures

When great minds unite marriage delights

When feeble minds meet marriage ignites
By JunnielMatavire

Mourning Chance
…Come once it does
For good if goes
Cry we do often than not
Weep we pour but solution not
What we do in plenty
Mourn we do in empty

Perchance survive, live once

Fortune revive, don’t trounce
Support seek, invention hold
Ideas borrow, skills ding, gold
Greatness achieve, self reference
Labour favour, leisure difference

Be mourn tomorrow, not yesterday

Resist, desist, persist all yesterday ….
ByJunnielMatavire

Activity 5.5
In pairs, read and try to make sense of the following poem ‘Hawk Roosting’ by Ted Hughes.
Discuss and make notes on what the poem is about and how these issues raised are developed by
the poet. Compare your answer to the one provided for you at the end of the poem.

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 Hawk Roosting
I sit in the top of the wood, my eyes closed.
Inaction, no falsifying dream
Between my hooked head and hooked feet:
Or in sleep rehearse perfect kills and eat.

The convenience of the high trees! 5

The air’s buoyancy and the sun’s ray
Are of advantage to me;
And the earth’s face upward for my inspection.

My feet are locked upon the rough bark.

It took the whole of Creation 10
To produce my foot, my each feather:
Now I hold Creation in my foot.
Or fly up, and resolve it all slowly-
I kill where I please because it is all mine.
There is no sophistry in my body: 15
My manners are tearing off heads-

The allotment of death.

For the one path of my flight is direct
Through the bones of the living.
No arguments assert my right: 20

The sun is behind me.

Nothing has changed since I began.
My eye has permitted no change.
I am going to keep things like this.

Response
Our first reading of this poem leaves us with a slight sense of bewilderment, in that it presents us
with something not immediately and completely coherent, something different from anything we
have met before. The title guides us a little at first. “Hawk Roosting” – hawk, a bird of prey, we
think: roosting (related to resting): the taking up of a position on a tree or other high object by a
bird during the night, or when not otherwise engaged. Composed of short, abrupt statements, the
poem uses ‘first person’ forms (I, my, me, mine). The words of the poem appear to represent the
thought, in a kind of internal monologue, which the poet supposes to be running through the mind
of the hawk. We are reminded by the poem that the hawk always gives an impression of being a
fierce, cruel arrogant creature.

The poem conveys to us an unmistakable picture of the hawk through a few characteristic details-
hooked head… hooked feet, and goes further to give us a vivid impression of the spirit, or character
of the hawk – of particular manifestation of the life force that is seen in it. In the back of our minds
now arise all the animal fables we have come across in our lives in which animals are given
individual characteristics, are able to speak like humans, often used to convey some kind of moral
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lesson. In this poem we observe no inverted commas or speech marks, and there is no narrative
introduction. Our attention is concentrated on the hawk itself, characteristically perched on the
highest tree in the wood or forest; and we are asked to follow a sequence of thoughts and opinions
which, according to the writer’s imagination, are passing through its mind.

There is an underlying meaning that arises as we investigate the intention and development of the
poem. The poem certainly begins with the perspective presentation of just a “hawk roosting,” but
it goes beyond that and we soon understand that, as in so many birds in literature, the hawk is
offered as a symbol. Nowhere has the writer stated his intention openly. Certainly, he affixes no
obvious moral or proverb, from which we can grasp his intention without the need for any real
thought. He is obviously writing for fairly sophisticated readers, and the significance gradually
grows as we read the poem over thoughtfully, until it becomes something of a certainty by the final
line.
From the very first line we have an impression of the economical, sparing nature of language used:
I sit in the top of the wood, my eyes closed

This is followed bluntly by a single word, ‘inaction’ which starkly, without the aid of a completed
sentence, tells us of the absolute immobility of the hawk, as though deeply involved in inward
thoughts. Then we follow the hawk’s reflection that although it is motionless, it is certainly not
dreaming: no fantasies, visions, speculations or ideals occur in its mind to interrupt the complete
co-ordination between its ‘hooked head’ and its ‘hooked feet’, between the brain which thinks and
the feet that act. If anything takes place at all, it is the ‘rehearsal,’ the mental repetition of the
‘perfect skills’. This suggests, rather gloatingly, the swift, sudden, unerring way in which a hawk
downs on its prey and carries it off to eat it on its lofty perch.

The hawk’s pride seems to expand in the second stanza: it is obviously pleased with itself,
unaffected by doubts, hesitations or fear, and expresses itself in an almost arrogant way. The high
trees seem to be there for its own, exclusive convenience; the air, with its supporting buoyancy,
on which it rides and soars, the warmth and light of the sun, similarly seem to exist solely for its
‘advantage’. The whole earth that spreads out below as the hawk flies or sits on his lofty perch,
seems to him to be offering itself submissively for ‘inspection,’ as a slave or soldier might submit
to inspection by his master or commander. His hooked feet, which are tightly ‘locked’ upon the
branch, seem in his thoughts to signify complete power, the absolute power he feels over the whole
Creation – as he understands it. And in his mind arises the idea that the whole Creation, the whole
universe with its long painstaking process of evolution, has had no other purpose than to produce
him – that he is the final culmination or triumph of the whole of existence. Now that Creation has
evolved him, he in his turn has asserted his power, and assumed control of the processes that have
produced him. The passing attention given to the details –‘my foot’, ‘my each feather’ – conveys
the vivid intensity with which the hawk seems conscious of every single element in its make up.

If he chooses to ‘fly up’ he goes on to think, the whole world seems to revolve according to his
own movements. As he flies along, he remembers how he looks for a chance to kill whenever he
sees a suitable opportunity; and this, in his self-centred mind, makes him feel like a tyrant with
unrestricted power over his subjects, who can act as he pleases without permission, remorse or pity
‘because it is all mine.’ His nature is entirely physical and natural; in his body, he thinks, ‘there is
no sophistry’, no discussion, no deliberation, no ‘dispute of what is fit and not’, no questioning of
77
the truth or the justice of any action. His ‘manners’, his habits go no further than the ruthless
‘tearing off heads,’ the ‘allotment’ – the dealing out of death. His existence flourishes upon ‘the
bones of the living.’ His right to act as he pleases is not based on any argument, or any form of
legality, which could be discussed and, therefore, perhaps challenged – it is absolute. At this point
we see the extension of the symbolism from the hawk into human affairs, whether in history or in
the contemporary world. We find ourselves thinking of the phenomenon of powerful, ruthless,
deadly physical force, unsupported by any kind of legality or morality, and devoid of any mercy,
humanity or humility. Of such power the hawk is a perfect symbol – and we recall how many of
the mighty rulers, the great tyrants of history, have adopted birds of prey (the eagle, the falcon)
and beasts of prey (lion, Leopard, tiger, wolf) as their personal emblems.

Each additional line thereon, confirms this interpretation. The sun is ‘behind’ the hawk and helps
to maintain and guarantee his power. His eye, severe, unflinching – ‘permits’, as he supposes, ‘no
change’: no evolution of institutions, no reforms, no improvement; no challenge to his authority.
The last line confirms his satisfaction with the status quo, with the existing system, and his
determination to keep things like this.’ We see a social critique where kings, leaders, dictators and
others with similar attitudes are neatly and sharply condemned. Perhaps too, on a smaller scale,
every lesser human community will provide examples of the same autocratic tendency.

At a deeper level, the poem is attacking more than individual tyrants but Man himself. The human
race has some tendencies typical of those of the hawk. Man sees himself as the highest creature in
the scale of evolution, serving himself for creation on the 6th day and assuming the image of the
creator Himself. All facts of history and science support this, as modern man forges ahead,
extending his scientific and technological power, eliminating diseases, synthesising new forms of
life, restoring fertility to deserts, throwing satellites out ever deeper into space: there is a greater
tendency for men to adopt the view that they do in fact ‘hold Creation’ in their grasp. Such
excessive pride or hubris, has seen God meting out punishment or misfortune on those with such
tendencies, at least in folktales, legends, tragedies and indeed contemporary religious and literary
fiction. Certainly a sober look around the world with its problem of cynicism, superstition,
intolerance, war, racism, mental disease, suicide and trivial aimless living should be a salutary
check on human tendencies.

We can say, therefore, that this poem, by presenting a grimly horrifying picture of insensitive and
arrogant power, makes an urgent plea for the preservation of civilised values in human affairs.

‘Hawk Roosting’ interweaves meaning and technique in a manner that makes matters for
comment and appreciation difficult to apply (Moody 1994:97). There is no regular meter, no
rhyme, and few unusual words suggesting a simple vocabulary: no ingenious simile or metaphors.
Yet the poem certainly gives us a great impression of compactness, organisation and force.

The poem has an irregular line-by-line structure; each containing a significant new slab of meaning
to add to what has gone before, giving it a slow, weighty movement. Crafted in successive
quatrains, the poem has a remorseless rhythmic effect, which is the dramatic counterpart of the
heavy, resistant mind of the hawk and what the hawk symbolises.

Every single word in the poem requires careful evaluation in its context, inviting us to evaluate the
78
poem at two levels of significance. Imagine how much a reader would miss by not responding to
the double meaning in the poem!

Activity 5.6

1. Write a poem of your own and critically outline the features, feeling and tone in your poem.
2. Practice poetry appreciation through the following poems:

The Vulture
She feeds of
The flesh of broken marriages,
Torn to shreds
By her sharpened talons,
Decaying carcasses of
Holy matrimony
Lie in her wake.

She is the gorgon

In every wife’s nightmare,
The scavenging bird
That survives on
Reaping where it did not sow,
The parasitic rodent
That continues to chew
Gaping holes of transgressions
In the Sodom and Gomorrah
Of today’s world.
By Theodora Chirapa

Lollipop Man
Learing, lecherous lollipop man,
Pimping pedophine’
Seller of the candy
Of carnal pleasure,
And fudge of fornation,
Every little girl
Wants your wares.

They don’t know it,

But soon, soon, soon.
The Knell of doom will sound
And there will be
Crying and moaning
As the tooth decay sets in.
By Theodora Chirapa

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5.5 Summary

In this unit we have attempted to outline the significance of poetry as a genre of literary studies.
To this end a poet occupies a very important role in society as both the waterman and spokesperson
in every community. The value of his/her work needs to be appreciated in terms of its form and
content. Several poems in this unit have been included to help you practice writing appreciation
essays in line with demonstrations provided. The recommended method for appreciating poetry
criticism is to engage oneself in the writing of poetry.

References

Burgess, A. (1971). English Literature. London: Longman.

Burton, S.H. (1974). The Criticism of poetry (2nded). New York: Longman.

Cadden, J. (1984). Poetry Appreciation for A’ Level. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Chirapa, T. (2006). The Frontline Anthology of Poems (Unpublished)

Collins, S. (1992). Literary Criticism: An Introduction. London: Hodder and Stonghton.

Daiches, D. (1981). Critical Approaches to Literature (2nded) New York: Longman.

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Dawson MRW (1998), Understanding Cognitive Science
http://kantoor.piozum.com/martijn/Universiteit/ICWxOVx17_11_2004.pdf
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Phythian%2C1985&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5
&as_vis=1.

Iyengar, R.S. and Nandakumar, P. (1990). Introduction to the Study of English

Literature. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers.
Minot, N.D. and Barber, S. (1983). www.flickr.com/photos/ch-labeaune/7309239342/.

Moody, L.B. (1994). Literary Appreciation:A Practical Guide. Hong Kong: Longman.
refuge.wikispaces.com/Philip+Sydney+Verse - Cached
tp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1427e/a1427e00.pdf
uk.linkedin.com/pub/brian-shiach/22/64a/a44 - Cached
Wordsworth - Lyrical Ballads, 1904 - jananolsen.webs.com
www.ebay.com/ctg/Travels-Doctor...Perkins-1967...-/116016 - Cached
www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Margaret_Drabble.aspx - Cached
www.poemhunter.com/percy-bysshe-shelley/ - Cached
www.unz.org/Pub/CoburnKathleen-1967 - Cached

UNIT 6

APPRECIATION OF UNSEEN POEMS

6.0 Introduction

In the previous unit we exposed you to several elements of poetry and general comments about
poetry appreciation. In this Unit we take you a step further. You are now being walked through
the actual practice of interpreting and appreciating poetry.

6.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 demonstrate the synergy between form and content
 discuss the different components of style in poetry in general
81
 explain the different components of style in poetry in given contexts
 explore how various components of style contribute towards meaning

6.2 Questions as Guides to Literary Criticism

Literary appreciation is an exercise in inquiry. Alongside what has been mentioned in the
introductory unit to literary appreciation, you may also guide yourself through this maze by asking
yourself a number of critical questions, among which are the following:

1. Who is the speaker/persona?

Age?
Sex?
Sensibility?
Level of consciousness?
Values?
Other striking features?

2. Is the persona addressing anyone in particular? If so

Who?
Are there any special circumstances that inform what the persona says?

3. What is your reaction to the persona?

Favourable?
Negative?
Why?

4. Is the setting of any significance?

Time?
Place?
What is the symbolic significance?
5. What is the significance of the title?
Literal?
Symbolic?
Ironic?

6. Diction: Is it Formal? Informal? Sophisticated? Elitist? Local? (native?)

Is the language intense or concentrated to warrant two or more readings?
Any special or striking words which naturally invite attention?
Any words repeated- with what effect?
Any evocative or connotative meanings?
Any figures of speech? – How do they contribute to the poem’s vividness and
meaning? Are there any Similes? Metaphors?
Pun? (Play on words with more than one meaning or sounding the same to bring about
pleasant/interesting surprises)
Synecdoche? (A figure of speech in which a part of something is used to signify the
whole)
82
 Metonymy? (Where something closely related to the subject is substituted for it)
NB. The two overlap and may be difficult to distinguish: for example, a hand may be
both a synecdoche and metonymy for a powerful ruler.

7. Personification?
Paradox?
Oxymoron? (condensed paradox)
NB. Both paradox and oxymoron arrest the reader’s attention by their seemingly stubborn
refusal to make sense until the reader has penetrated the underbelly of the figure of
speech.
Symbol? – (object, person, event or action) – Conventional? (recognised by many people
e.g. roses), Contextual? (goes beyond traditional public meanings)
Allegory? (Narration or depiction usually restricted to a sing meaning because its events,
actions, characters, setting and objects represent specific ideas – allegory lends itself to
didactic poetry designed to teach an ethical, moral or religious lesson e.g. parable)
Any irony: Verbal/sarcasm? Situational? (when what happens is not what is expected)
Dramatic? (allows the reader to know more than the character) Cosmic? Satirical?
(ridicules a folly or vice in order to correct it) (NB: All irony reveals the discrepancy
between appearance and reality)
Hyperbole/Overstatement?
Euphemism/Understatement?

8. Imagery: (NB. Poetry speaks through images): Imagery derives largely from religion, the
cosmos and nature, as well as from daily life.
Audio-visual?
Gustatory?
Nasal?
Tactile?
Metaphysical poetry? – (17th Century) poetry characterised by: no trace of line of argument
and extraordinary imagery – usually sets the disorder of experience against the redeeming
quality of love – stresses how difficult it is to make sense of experience, for example,
William Wordsworth and William Black (and MusaemuraZimunya)
Pastoral? (dealing with the peaceful rural world far removed from the corruption of
contemporary [industrial] life).

9. Does reading aloud (sound) enhance appreciation?

Any use of onomatopoeia?
Assonance?/rhyme (initial? Internal? End rhyming?)
Alliteration?
How do these sounds affect you? Euphony (harmony)? Cacophony (dissonance)?
How do they contribute to the tone?
Ballad? (traditionally a song that tells a story with often a tragic theme – oral form dating
back to the middle ages – ballads are an attempt to come to terms with the catastrophes).
Lyrical? – where the poet’s feelings come through a song mode – also an attempt to come
to terms with some aspect of our complex experience of life.
Elegy? (poem about/on the death of a friend).
83
 Epic? (chronicles/describes the great deeds of a heroic figure).

10. Any repetition?

Of words/lines?
Stanzas?
Ideas?
With what effect?
How does this contribute to rhythm?

11. Do any objects, persons, places, events and actions have any allegorical or symbolic
meaning/interpretation? Are there any allusions (brief reference to a person, place, thing, event or
idea in history/literature which poets use to conjure up some meaning [by association?])

12. What is overall tone of the poem? (The writer’s attitude to the subject – the mood created by
all the elements in the poem)
Is it serious or light? Sad or happy? Private or public? Angry or affectionate? Bitter?
Nostalgic?
NB. Think of all the different feelings evocable in man.

13. What is the poem’s form? (Overall structure)

Does it follow any established structure? For example, sonnet?
Blank verse? (unrhymed poetry) – less formally contrived – frees poets from the limiting
demands of formalism
Epistolary? (written in letter form).
Effect (is it suitable for the poem’s meaning)?
14. Theme – is it presented directly or implicitly?
Is it restricted or universal?

15. Overall evaluation/conclusion?

Did you enjoy or were you displeased by the poem?
Why?

6.3 Golden Rule

In writing essays in response to questions involving literary appreciation, note that all good
answers begin with an observation followed by evidence then critical analysis, in that order. This,
however, does not mean that the order is rigid. In essence any of these three components can start
depending on the style of the critic. The point is that the three should be accounted for in every
paragraph.

A
Observation

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 B Evidence Critical Analysis C

Figure 6.1: Components Involving Literary Appreciation

Activity 6.1
1. Discuss the full scope of the ABC golden rule.
2. Read the following poem and give a general appraisal of it’.

A River (A.K. Ramanujan)

In Madurai,
city of temples and poets,
who sang of cities and temples,
every summer
a river dries to a trickle
in the sand,
baring the sand ribs,
straw and women's hair
clogging the watergates
at the rusty bars
under the bridges with patches
of repair all over them
the wet stones glistening like sleepy
crocodiles, the dry ones
shaven water-buffaloes lounging in the sun
The poets only sang of the floods.

He was there for a day

when they had the floods.
People everywhere talked
of the inches rising,
of the precise number of cobbled steps
run over by the water, rising
on the bathing places,
and the way it carried off three village houses,
one pregnant woman
and a couple of cows
named Gopi and Brinda as usual.

The new poets still quoted

the old poets, but no one spoke
in verse
85
 of the pregnant woman
drowned, with perhaps twins in her,
kicking at blank walls
even before birth.

He said:
the river has water enough
to be poetic
about only once a year
and then
it carries away
in the first half-hour
three village houses,
a couple of cows
named Gopi and Brinda
and one pregnant woman
expecting identical twins
with no moles on their bodies,
with different coloured diapers
to tell them apart.
(http://allpoetry.com/poem/8613977-A_River-by-A.K._Ramanujan: 13/2/12)

A critical appreciation: sample answer

With your partner discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the following sample answer.

In the poem ‘A River’, the poet has compared and contrasted the attitudes of the old poets and
those of the new poets to human suffering. He has come to the conclusion that both the groups of
the poets are indifferent to human sorrow and suffering. Their poetry does not reflect the miseries
of the human beings. He has proved this point in the present poem.

The river Vaikai, on whose bank the historic city of Madurai stands, has been mentioned in poems
by many poets, both past and present. The river is intimately associated with the life and culture
of the Tamil people. The peculiar thing, which appeals to the poets, is that the river presents two
different spectacles in two different seasons. It is completely dry in summer and in full flood during
the rainy season.

The river flows through the city of Madurai. The name Madurai is a Tamil word meaning a “sweet
city”. As a matter of fact, this city is the centre of Tamil culture and learning. It is also a holy city
full of temples including the famous Minakshee temple. Poets have written many poems on the
temples and the river. In the present poem, A.K. Ramanujan deals with the river.

In the poem we get two pictures based upon two different kinds of description. In the summer, the
river is almost empty. Only a very thin stream of water flows. So the sand ribs on the bed of the
river are visible. The stones that lie on the bed of the river are also exposed to view. The portion
of the river under the bridge has also been described. We get a vivid picture of the river in the
summer season.
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During the rainy season when the floods come people observe the river very anxiously. They
remember the rising of the river inch by inch from time to time. They remember how the stone
steps of the bathing place are submerged one by one. They see three houses being damaged and
carried off by the floods. They know how two cows named Brinda and Gopi were carried away.
They also know how a pregnant woman was drowned in the river during the flood. Both old and
new poets have mentioned these things in their poems. But the way they have described them in
their poems shows that they were not much alive to or sympathetic with human suffering.

They did not mention the name of the woman who was carrying twins that drown in the river
before their birth. At the time of drowning, most probably the twins would have kicked the sides
of her womb. She must have got much pain out of this. But both the new poets and old poets did
not refer to all these miseries of the woman in their poetic creations.

This becomes ultimately clear that they are not sympathetic with suffering human beings. They
are totally callous and indifferent. This kind of attitude makes their poetry weak and unappealing,
dry and cheerless.

The tone of the poem derives from sarcasm and irony. The structure of the poem has been in
paragraphs and single lines. There are four long verse paragraphs and a shorter one in the
beginning. There are only two single isolated lines. This kind of structural arrangement contributes
to the effect of irony. It also helps the reader to grasp the main points clearly. Secondly, a word
can be said about the language used in the poem. It is very simple on account of which the thought
sequence of the poem is presented unmistakably and clearly.

(http://allpoetry.com/poem/8613977-A_River-by-A.K._Ramanujan: 13/2/12)

Activity 6.3
Read the following poem and critically examine how tone impacts on the overall meaning of the
poem.

Lights Out
I have come to the borders of sleep,
The unfathomable deep
Forest where all must lose
Their way, however straight,
Or winding, soon or late; 5
They cannot choose.
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Many a road and track
That since the dawn’s first crack,
Up to the forest brink,
Deceived the travellers, 10
Suddenly now blurs,
And in they sink.

Here love ends,

Despair, ambition ends;
All pleasure and all trouble, 15
Although most sweet or bitter,
Here ends in sleep that is sweeter
Than tasks most noble.
There is not any book
Or face of dearest look 20
That I would not turn from now
To go into the unknown
I must enter, and leave, alone,
I know not how.

The tall forest towers; 25

Its cloudy foliage lowers
Ahead, shelf above shelf;
Its silence I hear and obey
That I may lose my way
And myself. 30
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6.4 Summary

In this unit we set out to demonstrate the synergy between form and content. We have shown you
how meaning is derived from an examination of how poets exploit form to put across their ideas.
We have also discussed the different components of style in poetry in general and how effective
they are in given contexts. Finally we have given examples of approaches to the criticism of poetry.
You should use other poems from your set texts for practice. Remember like any skill, literary
appreciation gets better with practice.

References

Burton, S.H. (1974). The Criticism of Poetry (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.

Cadden, J. (1984). Poetry Appreciation for A’ Level. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Collins, S. (1992). Literary Criticism: An Introduction. London: Hodder and Stonghton.

Daiches, D. (1981). Critical Approaches to Literature (2nd ed.).New York: Longman.

Moody, L.B. (1994). Literary Appreciation:A Practical Guide. Hong Kong: Longman.

[http://allpoetry.com/poem/8613977-A_River-by-A.K._Ramanujan: 13/2/12

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 UNIT 7

DRAMA APPRECIATION

7.0 Introduction

Time and again we find ourselves at the cinema, theatre hall or some central point to watch a
performance in the form of a play, movie, soap, or drama. Too often we find ourselves reading
plays as if they were novels which somehow got written in dialogue form. We somehow forget
that it was written to be acted out and not read. The literature of the theatre is always theatre first
and literature second. If it is not dramatic it loses its significance, Collins (1995: 165) observes
that if we fail to experience it in its own right as a complete spectacle, with spatial and visual other
non-verbal meanings, “we are allowing ourselves to be sensitive to less than half of what it really
gives us”.

Today drama can be presented in different ways. Radio and television, as well as the novel, can
also present plays without the need for an actual, physical stage. We hear the voices and the sound
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effects but the rest we are left to see in our mind’s eye, as we would the places described to us in
a piece of fiction. Drama, therefore, is a microcosm of reality. It should present men and woman
better or less than they are in real life situations. Drama is necessarily manipulative. The audience
follows the play with the dramatist pulling us through pain and hilarity. If a play ceases to engage
us, it may still be literature in some sense, but it is no longer drama and we are no longer able to
look at it as such.

7.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define drama
 explain the differences between the three types of drama in tragedy, comedy and tragicomedy
 critically analyse the language of drama
 critique a drama extract

7.2 What is Drama?

Dryden cited in Daiches (1981:74) defines drama or a play as “A just and lively image of human
nature, representing its passions and humours, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject,
for the delight and instruction of mankind.” Note four key terms in this definition which are ‘just’,
‘lively’, ‘image’ and ‘human nature’. They are all important and each one contributes materially
to the definition. As we go on we shall meet other definitions that relate to the various types of
drama.

Activity 7.1
1. Critically examine the definition of drama propounded by Dryden. To what extent is it
inclusive?
2. Explain the significance of each of the key terms in the definition.

Activity 7.2
1. Study the following extract from Twelfth Night and answer the questions that follow:

A room in the Duke’s palace

(Enter Valentine and Viola in man’s attire)

Valentine: If the Duke continues these favours towards you, Cesario, you are like to be much
advanced. He hath known you but three days, and already you are no stranger.
Viola: You either fear his humour or my intelligence, that you call in question the
continuance of his love. Is he inconstant, sir, in his favours?
Valentine: No, believe me.
Viola: I thank you. Here comes the Count.
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 (Enter Duke, Curio and attendants)
Duke: Who saw Cesario, ho!
Vilola: On your attendance, my lord, here,
Duke: Stand you a while aloof … (Curio and attendants withdrawal)
Cesario,
Thou knowest no less but all: I have unclasped
To thee the book even of my secret soul.
Therefore, good youth, address thy gait unto her,
Be not denied access, stand at her doors
And tell them, there thy fixed foot shall grow
Till thou have audience.
Viola: Sure, my noble lord,
If she be so abandoned to her sorrow
As it is spoke, she never will admit me.
Duke: Be clamorous and leap all civil bounds
Rather than make unprofited return.
Viola: Say I do speak to her, my lord, what then?
Duke: O, then unfold the passion of my love,
Surprise her with discourse of my dear-faith:
It shall become thee well to act my woes;
She will attend it better in thy youth
Than in a nuncio’s of more grave aspect
Viola: I think not so, my lord
… I’ll do my best,
To woo your lady. (Aside) Yet, a barful strife!
Whoever I woo, myself would be his wife.

a) Why is the scene up to the entrance of the Duke in prose

b) Account for the use of ‘you’ and ‘thou’ in some characters in the extract
c) What is the effect of the stage directions and the aside at the end?
d) Write about any conventions of action such as a chorus, disguise, or music in any play you
have read before.

7.3 Types of Drama

There are basically three types of drama: tragedy, comedy and tragicomedy. We now treat each
type individually.

7.3.1 Tragedy
A tragedy is the imitation of an action that is serious and also, as having magnitude, complete in
itself; in language with pleasurable accessories, each kind brought in separately in the parts of the
work; in a dramatic, not in a narrative form; with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to
accomplish its catharsis of such emotions (Aristotle in Daiches, 1981: 26). Cited in Iyengar and
Nandakumar (1990: 141) Aristotle in his Poetic (translation by S.H. Butcher) has the following
definition:

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 Tragedy is the imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude;
in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found
in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear
effecting the proper purgation (Katharsis) of these emotions.

Tragic plots offer a bleak vision of life. They concentrate on failure, conflict and disaster, arousing
pity and fear in the audience. In most tragedies there is chaos and death: chaos being both personal
and communal, with the protagonist (central character) going to pieces. In other tragedies society
disintegrates while in many both fall apart. In Othello the hero becomes a psychological wreck, in
Macbeth the nation is thrown in disorder, pain, fear and becomes accustomed to death. In King
Leah the chaos is both personal and communal. Lear gradually loses control of himself and, as he
descends into madness, first his family, then the nation and finally nature plunge into chaos. The
chaos usually ends in death – the great shadow that hangs over all tragedy.

Tragedies usually centre on highly placed individuals; Coriolanus was the greatest soldier of
Rome, Hamlet a prince, Macbeth a thane and warrior. These men inspire wonder and awe in others,
so whatever happens to them has grandeur and significance. Because of these high offices their
tragedy assumes a national effect. A hero is larger than life, almost god-like, and is at the Centre
of myths and legends.

The main action of tragedy is the fall of the hero, from power and respect, or from peace of mind
and riches to rags, from sanity to madness. The fall of the hero is often inevitable. Often the hero
has a tragic flaw (harmatia) that leads to his or her downfall. Such flaws may range from unbridled
ambition, excessive pride (hubris), ignorance and unnecessary adventure; often fate may be the
flaw for the hero’s fall. In some cases the hero may elect to go against the moral laws of the
Universe (Oedipus Rex). In tragedy the individual’s spiritual health is on trial. Good and evil
wrangle in tragedy, with poetry and the imagination being the sovereign powers. In his The Death
of Tragedy. George Steiner writes:

… the Iliad is the primer of tragic art. In it are set forth the motifs and images around which
the sense of the tragic has crystallized during nearly three thousand years of Western
poetry: the shortness of heroic life, the exposure of man to the murderous and caprice of
the inhuman, the fall of the city… the burning of Troy is final because it is brought about
by the fierce sport of human hatreds and the wanton, mysterious choice of destiny.

Greek tragedy was passion-hued by four petals: it was religious in impulsion, rhetorical in style,
serene in the presentation of the action, and ironical in the plotting and even in the verbal by-play.

Traditional tragedies followed a usual five act construction in which the first act served as the
exposition, the second rising action, the third the climax, the fourth the falling action and also
bearing a complication, and finally the resolution. Such a formation or pattern of construction was
sustained by three important links, which Aristotle called hamartia (fateful move, vicious mole, a
flaw, an obsession,) peripeteia (reversal) and anagnorisis (recognition or discovery). There is a
move, which in the particular context proves a fateful one: a series of manoeuvrings which work
at cross-purposes and result in the exact opposite of what had been planned: the fact of this
peripeteia is at last accepted and recognised. The dramatic beginning is the harmatia, the dramatic
middle is the peripeteia, and the dramatic end is the anagnorisis.
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Tragedy gives us not the experience of fear and terror, but the purgation or purification of such
emotions. As we watch a tragedy we are affected by pity and fear, but are cleansed of the same
emotions in a therapeutic and homeopathic manner by watching such action. The feeling is both
therapeutic and tonic. We attain something of this capacity for variable yet universal delight in the
aesthetic reception of things as represented by Art and Poetry, so that we enjoy the taste of the
sorrowful, the terrible, even the horrible or repellent. And the reason is because we are detached,
disinterested, not thinking of ourselves or of self defence but only of the thing and its essence. The
elimination of suffering must first proceed by the substitution of the facing, enduring and conquest
of all shocks of existence.

7.3.2 Elements of tragedy

Aristotle states six elements of tragedy as plot, characters, diction, thought, spectacle and melody.
Two of these rise from the means, one from the manner and three from the objects of the dramatic
imitation. Aristotle sees plot as the fundamental thing, the soul of tragedy. Whereas character is
secondary for plot is the deployment of characters in action. Plot here refers to the combination of
incidents in a story. The peripeties and discoveries are part of the plot. Thought, on the other hand,
is shown in all what characters say when proving or disproving some particular point, or
enunciating some universal proposition. Diction refers to the expression of their thoughts in words,
which is similar to verse in poetry. Of the two remaining parts melody is the greatest of the
pleasurable accessories of tragedy. It refers to the sound accompaniment in a tragic performance
and often has the effect of great emotional arousal. The spectacle remains the least artistic as it
refers to the costumes and ornaments of the actors.

Tragedy is deeply affecting because it projects the glory and the good in man and not because it
represents a case of jurisprudence or makes a therapeutic demonstration. In modern drama it is
seldom easy to locate the flaw or error in the hero.

Activity 7.3
1. If tragedy elicits pity and fear, portraying horror and pain in good men, why do people go to
watch tragic plays or enjoy reading them?
2. Outline the key aspects of tragic plot.
3. Analyse the statement that “Plot is the Soul of Tragedy.”

7.4 Comedy

For purposes of analysis and symmetry we refer to Aristotle who defines comedy thus;
Comedy is an imitation of characters of a lower type- not, however, in the full sense
of the word bad, the indecorous being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists
of some defect or ugliness which is not painful and not distractive (In Iyengar and
Nandakumar, 1990:142).

A later writer seems to have added the cathartic clause to the definition, “through amusement and
laughter effecting the purgation of the like emotions.” Logically, then, the antithetical terms are
serous and ludicrous, a complete action of a certain magnitude against an imperfect action of
everyday experience; characters highly placed in life though flawed by hamartia against low
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characters with tell-tale oddities or foibles; poetic language appropriate to each situation and
character against language evocative of wit, humour, drollery and absurdity; deliberate action
extended usually in time against unpredictable action extended in space; the catharsis of pity and
fear against the catharsis of amusement and laughter.

In tragedy the individual’s spiritual health is on trial, in comedy our concern is with the well being
of the social aggregate; good and evil wrangle for mastery in tragedy, decorum and good sense
give battle to oddity and folly in comedy. Poetry and imagination are the sovereign powers in
tragedy, wit and humour somehow keep the world of comedy together. In every respect in subject
matter (like style, characterisation and structure) tragedy parallels and contrasts with comedy.

Comedy ends happily. If the tragic vision of the world is bleak, the comic one is bright and
celebratory (Gill 1986). This is not to say every aspect of comedy is a happy one. In many plays
there is anxiety, anger, and misunderstanding but these dark elements give way to joy, love and
harmony. It is always short sightedness to write of comedies as if they were tragedies in disguise.
They are not; the comic vision recognises the stuff out of which tragedy grows but shows that there
can be harmony instead of chaos, and life instead of death. Two very symbolic elements of a comic
ending are the idea of the lost being found and the reunion. In Twelfth Night Viola and Sebastian
meet and recognise each other. In the Comedy of Errors a husband and his wife are reunited and
the sets of twins are brought together. In A Midsummer Night’s Dream finding is more a case of
coming out of a delusion and discovering whom one really loves. In most cases of reunion theme
is more important than action that prompts laughter. A comedy usually has a happy ending.

Most characters in comedy are stock figures. Stock characters are often amusing because of their
conformity to convention. The stuff of comedy is mistaken identity, deception and disguise, and
those things are amusing in themselves. No wonder why Shakespeare used more female characters
in his comedies. Men are regarded tongue-tied or over-romantic, but the girls are witty, sensible
and enterprising.

Activity 7.4
1. What features distinguish comedy from tragedy?
2. Apply the 6 elements of tragedy to comedy and show each would appear.
3. Justify the tendency to use stock characters and women in comedy.

7.5 Tragicomedy

If we look deeply we might see the borderline between tears and laughter, hence tragedy and
comedy may quite disappear. Often good and evil exist side by side, mingled together. Literature
is bound to confuse the categories and make the worlds of tragedy and comedy the undemarcated
two hemispheres of the single world of man, Nature and God.

Tragicomedy recognises this axiom and thus treads on the borderline, maximising on the
characteristics of tragedy while at the same time exploiting the humour and oddities of comedy.
Heroic and stock characters are interplayed, with the theme and actions both serious and amusing.
Tragicomedy attempts to balance the two worlds and hence recognises the fact that while some
enjoy and celebrate, others mourn and go into hiding. Not everyone can join in a celebration. In
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any event one man’s terrorist is the other’s freedom fighter.

7.6 The Language of Drama

All literary works make meanings with words. Drama employs language in both prose and verse.
Drama is not something just read or heard, it is acted out before an audience. The language of
drama should, therefore, suggest or invite action. The words of a play should suggest embodiment
in action. Sometimes the words of a play invite a specific gesture. In Twelfth Night Viola, disguised
as Cesario, goes to see Olivia. Olivia is wearing a veil, but the bold Viola asks: “Good Madam, let
me see your face.” Olivia is a little shocked, but she agrees “…but we will draw the curtain, and
show you the picture. Look you, sir, such a one I was this present: isn’t not well done?”

The words invite the actress to lift the veil. At the word ‘draw’ she could take hold of the veil, start
to lift it at ‘show’, and by the time she says ‘look you’ her face must be visible. This is a simple
example but there are other speeches that call for actions which are significant for the whole
meaning of a play. Look at the following extract from Macbeth:

Is this a dagger, which I see before me,

The handle towards my hand? Come, let me clutch thee-
I have thee not, and yet I se thee still.

The words invite the actor to reach out for the dagger that Macbeth thinks is before him. It is a
dramatic moment; Macbeth either grasps the air, or if the directors wish, he can place his hand
firmly on the table to find nothing but its hard surface. The dramatic gesture of reaching out reveals
the very nature of the man the central theme of the play- Macbeth’s bold, ambitions and ruthless
man who clutches at those things he wants.

Stage directions often help to reflect on the manner in which a particular section of a play should
be acted out and hence the mood and emphasis to be captured in the words. Remember that theatre
offers a variety of pleasures – big actions and clever dialogue – bearing in mind that unless
dramatic language is in some way distinctive it fails to be dramatic at all.

The language of a character should match the role they play. Professionals, royalty, aristocrats and
heroes are often accorded formal, poetic and rather rich language for deep thought. Conversely,
stock characters with feeble roles are accorded prosaic language, often reflect narrow thought. In
other words the language of Macbeth, Banquo and Duncan cannot be expected to be similar to that
of Ross, Angus or Lady Mcduff. There is need for a match between one’s language or register and
the character one plays. Similarly, hard action needs to be tailored in strong language whereas light
action is couched in soft language. Only through the language employed are readers of plays able
to visualise the action that must accompany such language.

In Much About Nothing Claudio, who is about to marry Hero, has been deceived into believing
that she is unfaithful to him before marriage. Claudio decides to denounce her at the wedding. This
is from the speech he delivers before he leaves the church:

O Hero, what a hero hadst thou been,

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 If half thy outward graces has been placed
About thy thoughts and counsels of thy heart!
But fare thee well, most foul, most fair! Farewell,
Thou pure impiety and impious purity!

Leonato, who is heartbroken, speaks of how the lines were delivered:

Speaking of her foulness

Washed it with tears.

That indicates both how the lines should be delivered and how distressed Claudio is. The reader
and actor should, therefore, remember that though the words are harsh; they come from a man who
weeps as he speaks. The emotional mood is one of distress and regret, as well as outrage.

A very important character of dramatic language is its ability to indicate how actors should be
grouped on the stage. The language employed in a play may have very few stage directions and
the directors and actors have to take cues from the words of the play. These may specify or imply
where actors might stand and bring out the significance of the action. The grouping suggested by
the words is expressive of the mood and meaning of the scene or even the play as a whole.

Activity 7.5
Read the following extract from Act 2 Scene 3 Twelfth Night and answer the questions that follow:

Sir Toby: Art any more than a Steward? Dost though think thou art virtuous, there shall be no
more cakes and ale?
Clown: Yes, by Saint Anne, and ginger shall be hot I’th’ mouth too.
Sir Tobby: Th’arti’th right. Go, Sir, rub your chain with crumb. A stoup of wine, Maria.
Malvolio: Mistress Mary, if you prized my lady’s favour at any thing more than contempt,
you would not give means for this uncivil rule; she shall know of it, by this hand.
(Exit)
Maria: Go shake your ears.

a) What actions and groupings do these actions suggest?

b) In what way is the language of drama similar to that of prose and poetry?

7.7 Drama Appreciation

Appreciation of a drama extract, like that of a poem or prose passage, involves an attempt to
analyse and understand the building blocks of the extract and the functions each unit block saves
in the attempt to communicate its theme or message. It is also important to analyse how close to
reality the action, reactions, utterances, setting, costume, diction, melody and peripheries are. Such
a wholesome analysis often brings about a balanced appreciation. A close analysis of the stage
directions, soliloquies, asides and other dramatic devices and techniques assists one in deciding on
the type of play the extract or play might be. Once one establishes whether it is a tragedy, comedy
or tragicomedy it becomes easy for one to analyse and appreciate the attributes in line with the
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nature elected.

The elements of a play need to be analysed so as to locate the place of the extract in line with
known attributes that go hand in glove with the chosen type of drama. You are reminded to remain
alert to the nature of language allotted to each character and the action that goes with such
language. This makes it easy for you to visualise the action that is supposed to be taking place and
hence the significance of the section to the whole plot.

In analysing a dramatic extract it is important to take note of what the stage directions and the
characters say in line with them. These help us to have a basic understanding of the setup at the
stage and the costumes actors would be wearing. These, it must be borne in mind, have a significant
effect on our conception of the play. Several questions may help you in your appreciation of a
drama text.

a) What type of play is this?

b) What is the nature of the relationship between the characters in the plays?
c) Does the language synchronise with the type of characters in the play?
d) What type of character is each role portraying (round versus stock characters)?
e) How close to reality are the events in the play?
f) How do stage directions, soliloquies, asides, theatricals and other techniques assist in
bringing out the theme of the play?
g) What role can the audience play in the performance of the play?
h) To what extant is the dramatist successful in achieving his goal?

An attempt to answer these questions usually brings about a balanced analysis. You are reminded
not to be judgmental in your appreciation. The exercise is not an attempt to determine whether the
extract is a good or bad art form; rather it is an effort to acknowledge the work of the artist and the
ingenuity rested in it. The manner in which the dramatist exploits dramatic conversations often
opens way to our appreciation of his or her works.

Activity 6.6
Read the following extract carefully and write an appreciation of it. How do you think the audience
would react seeing it performed on stage?

OLD WOMAN: Oh! You are, my dear, oh you are really, you are so… so… you could have
been something in life, much more than a Quartermaster- General.
OLD MAN: Don’t let us be boastful… we should be satisfied with the little we have…
OLD WOMAN: Perhaps you have wrecked your career?
OLD MAN: (Suddenly starts crying): Wrecked it? Dashed it to pieces? Broken it? Oh!
Where are you, mummy? Mummy, where are you?
…hee, hee, hee, I am an orphan (Groaning)
… an orphan, a norphan…
OLD WOMAN: Mummy’s with you, what are you afraid of?
OLD MAN: No, Semiramis, my pet. You’re not my mummy… an orphan, a norphan,
who will look after me?
OLD WOMAN: But I’m still here, my love!
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OLD MAN: that’s not the same…I want my mummy, so there! You are not my mummy.
OLD WOMAN: [stroking him]: you are breaking my heart. Don’t cry, little one.
OLD MAN: Hee, hee! Leave me alone; hee, hee! I feel all crackerd and smashed, I’ve a
pain, my career is hurting me, it’s all in pieces.
OLD WOMAN: There, there!
OLD MAN: [sobbing, with his mouth wide open, like a baby]: I’m an orphan… a
norphan.
OLD WOMAN: [trying to coax him into being quiet]: My little orphan boy, you are breaking
mummy’s heart, my pet. [she has already started rocking the disillusioned
old man backwards and forwards on her knees]
OLD MAN: [sobbing]: Hee, hee, hee! Mummy! Where’s my mummy? I’ve lost my
mummy.
OLD WOMAN: I’m your wife, so now I’m your mummy, too.
OLD MAN: [giving in a little]: it’s not true, I’m an orphan, hee, hee.
OLD WOMAN: [Still rocking him]: My little sweetheart, my little orphan, norphan,
porphan, borphan, morphan.
OLD MAN: [still sulky, but coming round slowly]: No… I don’t want to, I wo-o –on’t!
anorphan-lo, anorphan-lah, anorphan-lu, anorphan-lay.
OLD MAN: NO-o-o-o-o.
(Eugene Lonesco, The Chairs)

7.8 Summary

Drama as an art form has developed tremendously with the invention of the radio and television.
The two gadgets have taken the place of the cinema as people can relax at home and listen to or
watch a performance behind their sets. However, a live performance at the stage would always
remain better and more exciting than an electronic presentation. In any case a television feature
film is always a product of a live presentation; hence the former remains subordinate to the latter.
The stage, therefore, remains superior to the set. The set, however, enables a wider audience and
hence greater publicity of artistic works.

When reading and analysing drama extracts, students of literature are reminded to bear in mind
that drama is action, and thus it is important to visualise the action as one either reads or listens to
a drama extract. On the whole, drama is the most interesting and most entertaining of the three
genres of literature. It is much easier to follow and hence often attracts large audiences. Through
drama a critique of society is easily appreciated by its members. It is the role of every member of
society to promote it for the purpose it serves in human life.

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References

Collins, S. (1999). Literary Criticism, an Introduction. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Cook, P. (1983). How to Enjoy Theatre. Piatkus.

Daiches, D. (1981). Critical Approaches to Literature (2nd ed.). New York: Longman Inc.

Gill, R. (1986). Mastering English Literature, London: MacMillan.

Goldberg, N. (1986). Writing Down the Bones, London: Shambhala.

Iyengar, K.R.S. and Nandakumar, P. (1990) Introduction to the Study of English Literature.
New Delhi: Sterling.

Moody, H.L.B. (1994). Literary Appreciation. Hong Kong: Longman.

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 UNIT 8

CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF DRAMA: TOOLS OF ANALYSIS

8.0 Introduction

In this unit we discuss that drama is “literature equipped with arms, legs, tears, laughs, whispers,
shouts and gestures that are alive and immediate” (Michael Meyer). The word ‘drama’ derives
from the Greek word ‘dram’ meaning “to do or to perform”. As such the script can only fully come
to life by transforming it through performance. In the studying of drama (plays), reading is only a
poor substitute for seeing it acted on stage.

8.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 discuss essential elements in reading drama
 explain the different terms used in the criticism of drama
 critically analyse a drama extract

8.2 Reading Drama

Reading a play, however, demands a more creative imagining than watching it given that it entails
construction of meaning and interpretation based on the use of language, development of

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character, plot, setting and stage directions. In the process the reader may experience suspense,
fear, horror, sympathy or humour. Whatever emotional reaction one experiences, the point is the
reader should ask oneself why he/she feels that way.

8.3 Elements of Drama

- Acts – the main division of a full-length play. Playwrights normally use acts to
accommodate changes in time, setting, characters or mood on the stage.
- Scenes – further sub-divisions within any one Act. Traditionally a scene changes when the
location of the action changes or when a new character is introduced. Unlike full-length
plays one-act plays create their effects through strongly budgeted conventions.
- Setting – establishes atmosphere. It refers to time, place or epoch. A suspenseful setting
causes anxiety about what will happen next. Suspense is an important element of drama- it
keeps the audience anticipating and therefore continuously captivates their attention.
- Exposition – setting can also be further developed through the use of exposition – a device
that provides the necessary background information about the characters and their
circumstances. It can be in the form of authorial narration or soliloquy or verbal exchanges
between the characters. Exposition is a useful source of character delineation
(characterisation).
- Plot – shapes the action – it is the author’s arrangement of incidents in the play that gives
the story a particular form. Conflict is an integral part of the plot, being the locus around
which events unfold. It is the tension experienced by the characters which justifies the
action of the play.
- Sub-plot – a secondary action that reinforces or contrasts the main plot.
- Protagonist – the central character with whom the audience are meant to identify.
Protagonists of Classical tragedies such as Shakespeare’s are too often rulers or people of
noble birth representing monarchical values of their time; but modern tragedies represent
democratic values that make it possible for anyone to become a suitable subject of heroism.
- Antagonist/foil-refers to a character whose behaviour and values are in contrast to the
protagonist’s. A setting or object may be presented as a foil to the plot or central character.
- ‘Harmatia’ is the Aristotelian term for ‘tragic flaw’ – some error or frailty that brings
about the protagonist’s misfortune, for example, excessive pride, ambition, passion or some
other character trait that leads directly to disaster. ‘Harmatia’ can also be interpreted to
refer to a mistake based not on personal failure but on circumstances out of the
protagonist’s control. However, whatever the causes of tragic disaster, the protagonist
accepts responsibility for it and comes to terms with it by displaying a greatness of
character. It is this greatness and ability to transcend limitations, say of fear that make the
audience feel relief rather than hopelessness at the end of tragedy. Aristotle describes this
response (sense of relief) as catharsis or purgation of the emotions. We are relieved of the
protagonist’s misfortune which seems out of proportion and the fear which would arise out
of the frightening reminder of our own vulnerability.
- Tragedy is also full of ironies. These include verbal irony (sarcasm), situational irony,
dramatic irony, and cosmic irony. Sarcasm is a strong form of verbal irony that is calculated
to hurt by false praise. Situational irony exists when there is an inconsistency between what
is expected and what actually happens. Cosmic irony refers to forces beyond human
comprehension or control. It occurs when a writer uses God, destiny or fate to dash the
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 hopes of a protagonist.
- Some plays are histories, comedies or romances
- Comic relief- a human intervention or incident that alleviates tension in an otherwise
serious work.
- Romantic comedies involve lovers whose hearts are set on each other but whose lives are
complicated by disapproving parents, deceptions, jealousies, illusions, confused identities,
disguises or other misunderstandings.
- High quality comedy consists of verbal wit. On the other hand farce is a form of humour
based on exaggerated, improbable incongruities.
- Stage directions – the playwright’s instructions about how the actors are to move/behave.
- Pyramidal pattern – essential parts usually associated with Classical tragedies and
comedies. The essential parts are: conflict, complication, crisis/climax and denouement.
Conflict is the initial and driving force of any play. Rising action takes the action up. It
involves complication which creates conflict for the protagonist. The resulting tension
builds towards the climax where the action reaches the final crisis, a turning point that has
a powerful effect on the protagonist. It is the making or breaking point; and the way it is
resolved determines whether a play is comic, tragic and tragic-comic. The denouement is
the anti-climax or falling action where the tensions are unwound leading to the resolution
of the plot’s conflict. (denouement = unknotting). These parts are useful for identifying
various moments and movements within the plot, but they are less useful if seen as a means
of reducing dramatic art to a formula.
- Theme(s) – central ideas/meaning of the play.

8.4 Questions for Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the past 2500 years. The
term "critical thinking" has its roots in the mid-late 20th Century. Michael Scriven and Richard
Paul (in a statement presented at the 8th Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and
Education Reform, Summer 1987) define critical thinking as:
the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully conceptualising,
applying, analysing, synthesising, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or
generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as
a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal
intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy,
precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth,
and fairness.

Below are questions a critic asks oneself in analysing dramatic texts:

- What is the setting? Its atmosphere? In what way is it important? What is the contribution
of setting to meaning? Would the play be altered significantly if setting changes?
- Did you enjoy the play? What really did you enjoy?
- What is the significance of the title of the play?
- What information do the stage directions provide? Are they (stage directions) descriptive
or interpretive?
- What role does the exposition play? Any foreshadowing? Any flashbacks?
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 - What is the major conflict the protagonist faces? What complications affect the rising
action? Where is the climax? Is the conflict resolved?
- Any subplots qualifying the main plot?
- Does the plot have particular effects? Which? How does it reflect the author’s way of life?
- Who is the protagonist? Antagonist? (NB: setting can be a protagonist or antagonist).
- Who are the main characters? What do the names, physical qualities, actions and words
convey about them? What is the role played by minor characters? Are they individualists
or they represent ideas and attitudes? Any foils? Does your perception of each change
during the course of the play? Why?
- Is the language of characters differentiated, formal or informal? Are words and images
repeated so as to suggest special meanings? Which speeches seem particularly important?
How does language contribute to tone – light, humorous, relaxed, sentimental, sad, angry,
intense or violent?
- Any symbolic actions, characters, settings, objects or words?
- Is the theme direct/implicit? Does it challenge or conform to your values? How does the
play reflect values of the society in which it is set?
- How might biographical and/or historical information about the author’s background
enhance interpretation?

Critique the following passage from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, paying particular attention to the sub-
questions that follow under.

Queen: O, speak to me no more!

These words like daggers enter in my ears;
No more, sweet Hamlet.
Hamlet: A murderer and a villain!
A slave that is not twentieth part the tithe
Of your precedent lord; a vice of kings;
A cutpurse of the empire and the rule,
That from a shelf the precious diadem stole
And put it in his own pocket!
Queen: No more!
Enter Ghost.
Hamlet: A king of shreds and patches-
Save me, and hover o’er me with your wings,
You heavenly guards! What would your gracious figure?
Queen: Alas, he’s mad!
Hamlet: Do you not come your tardy son to chide,
That, laps’d in time and passion, lets go by
Th’ important acting of your dread command?
O, say!
Ghost: Do not forget; this visitation
Is but to whet thy almost blunted purpose.
But look, amazement on thy mother sits.
O, step between her and her fighting soul!
Conceit in weakest bodies strongest works.
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 Speak to her Hamlet.
Hamlet: How is it with you, lady?
Queen: Alas, how is it with you,
That you do bend your eye on vacancy,
And with th’ incorporal air do hold discourse?
Hamlet, Act III, scene 4.

Activity 8.1
1. As this passage unfolds, what thoughts and feelings are created in the audience and by what
means?
2. What dramatic purposes are served by the Ghost’s entrance at this point in this play?

Sample Answer A (For Activity 7.1)

1. This passage reveals bitter conflict between a mother and a son following the death of the boy’s
father, King Hamlet, the husband to Queen Hamlet. The background to the altercation is
difficult to outline in plain terms but it seems in between the Queen and her son there is a third
party who is apparently the bone of contention between them. On one hand this third party
seems favourable to the queen while at the same time detestable to her son, Hamlet. It would
appear the son is virtually addressing his mother about this third party who apparently seems
to be occupying an unenviable position in the Queen’s heart, displacing the late King Hamlet,
Hamlet’s father, thereby sparking venomous outburst from the obviously jealous son.

Several feelings are invoked in the audience. These range from sympathy, empathy to pity.
And these go to both the mother and son at different times for different reasons. The Queen’s
opening exclamation, “O, speak to me no more!” shows that she has been bombarded with
“unkind” words for quite a while during their conversation, and she can no longer bear the
situation for several plausible reasons: First, perhaps because she does not understand the basis
of her son’s charges. Second, perhaps because she does not approve of her son’s
confrontational actions and words which may be deemed unbefitting of a child. And third,
because she can no longer bear the painful truths from her son as shown by the statement of
her admission: ‘These words like daggers enter in my ears”

All the above reasons are possible explanations for the Queen’s “enough-of-that” shriek.
However, what makes the audience sympathise with her is the fact that in spite of the Queen’s
reprehension, she loves her son all the same. This is shown by the endearing phrase: “Sweet
Hamlet”. So full of motherly love is the Queen that the audience cannot but feel sympathy, if
not empathy. Her confusion underlines the fact that she is torn between her love for her son
and her failure to understand the basis of her culpability and yet at the same time she cannot
believe that her son could be off his mind, something she cannot bear. The audience is certainly
invited to share this bundle of confusion with sympathy and pity.

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 Similarly, sympathy also goes to the son for obvious reasons, building up progressively as the
passage unfolds. Initially, the reaction of the audience is one of puzzlement. We wonder why
a son should speak to his mother thus, don’t we? One is then invited to share the degree of
bitterness in him through the diction he uses to describe the object of his moral revulsion, the
anonymous third party, who stands between his mother’s love for his late father. Hamlet
describes this apparent usurper as a “murderer” and a “villain”, a “vice of kings” and a “cut
purse”, the latter signifying that he (the third party) has stolen his mother’s love from his late
father, making it clear why Hamlet reprimands his mother. According to him, she has abdicated
her moral responsibility by falling for a person who is “not twentieth part the tithe / of [her]
precedent lord”, in the process allowing the “thief” to steal both her heart and the empire simply
by acceding to his father’s romantic and royal throne by his marriage of convenience to the
Queen.

Of course there remains a dominant sense of suspense and wonderment in the audience as to
who this third party is as the circumstances surrounding this mother-son altercation remain
shrouded in mystery. Nonetheless, is it not poignant that a son’s loyalty to his late father is
mocked by his mother’s subservience to an infidel? When the audience come to this realisation,
their sympathy is immediately focused on the son. One realises that, after all, the son is right.
He achieves his point by use of contrastive juxtaposition: his mother has allowed herself,
beautiful as she is (“precious diadem”) to be stolen by a “cutpurse” who is not one twentieth
of her late husband’s worth. The audience marvels at this reversal of roles where the son proves
to be the more mature and wiser one than his childish inconsiderate mother. Like a parent to a
child he offers the mother moral counsel about modesty and common sense.

The Queen’s admission, implicit in her words “no more” further vindicate the son, and
consequently shift the audience’s initial sympathy for the mother to the son, making her an
object of condemnation instead. She comes across as woman of not only loose morals but one
who is also soft in thought, a simpleton of a mother who lacks hindsight and foresight, with
neither conscience nor wisdom. As sympathy evaporates from the Queen, it sways towards the
son whom the audience pity, appreciate and admire for his moral courage to confront his
mother.

Sample Answer B
2. The entrance of the Ghost into the scene brings about several dramatic effects to the passage.
These include introducing situational irony, dramatic suspense and explication/exposition.
First, the entrance of the Ghost confirms Hamlet’s anxieties as well as adds circumstantial
detail about the background to the conflict in the passage. With its arrival, we learn that Hamlet
is actually on a mission communicated to him at his earlier meeting with the ghost of his father.
Although it remains unclear what the Ghost’s command was yet, it is quite apparent that
shouting at his mother is not part of the assignment. This is shown by the sense of guilt in
Hamlet at the Ghost’s reappearance. This is confirmed by the startled question he poses to the
Ghost: “What would your gracious figure?” It also confirmed by the Ghost’s charge: “Do not
forget; this visitation / Is but to whet your blunted purpose”. In short the Ghost is saying Hamlet
is barking up the wrong tree. Put simply, Hamlet is being told to leave his mother alone. In a
sense the Ghost has come to strengthen Hamlet’s purpose and resolve regarding his
assignment, thus stopping him from pursuing irrelevant courses.
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 The fact that the Ghost appears to Hamlet alone heightens dramatic suspense and situational
irony. On one hand, it confirms the Queen’s fears that Hamlet is “mad” while at the same time
increasing anxiety in Hamlet who thinks that the Ghost of his father has come to “chide” him
for delaying to act on his instruction, for lapsing “in time and passion”, that is, delaying because
of lack of intense conviction to act. And yet the audience continue to wonder what the “dread
command” is.

The Ghost’s statement proves Hamlet’s fears right, but for a different reason. Yes, the Ghost
has come, but not to reprimand him for delaying; instead it has come to chide him for his
“blunted purpose”, that is to say, for misdirecting his anger towards his mother, thus pursuing
the wrong mission as it were.

The Ghost proceeds to counsel Hamlet: “But look, amazement on thy mother sits / O, step
between her and her fighting soul / Conceit in weakest bodies strongest works”. He is literally
asking Hamlet to understand that his mother is only a victim of feminine weakness so easily
exploitable and corruptible, and therefore Hamlet should instead help her to see sense rather
than blame her.

True, the Ghost is right to observe that the Queen is “soft in thought”, and literally confused.
She wonders why Hamlet is “bending his eye on vacancy / And with th’ incorporal air . . . hold
discourse.” Situational irony is heightened here, where the audience and Hamlet see the Ghost
while the Queen does not. This ends the passage on a note of great suspense, not knowing
whether Hamlet later fulfils (or not) his father’s command. The intermittent mention of the
anonymous “third party” is also left un-cleared, that is, in terms of the nature of his interference
and what becomes of him after the Ghost’s regenerative visitation to Hamlet in the passage.

Activity 8.3

1. Critically analyse the following piece of drama paying particular attention to the effect of
language.

8.5 Summary

In this unit we introduced you to the dramatic tools of analysis. Note too that special emphasis
was given on the analysis of both seens and unseens.

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References

Gill, R. (1986). Mastering English Literature. London: MacMillan.

Moody, H.L.B. (1994). Literary Appreciation. Hong Kong: Longman

Shakespeare, W. (1623). Hamlet. London: MacMillan.

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 UNIT 9

LITERARY APPRECIATION – UNSEEN PROSE PASSAGES

9.0 Introduction

In this unit we get into deeper discussion of the approaches you may take in puzzling out and
making meaning and sense out of prose passages. We have already exposed you, in quite some
detail, to both poetry and drama. Here we extend the depth of analysis to prose and, by extension,
the novel itself. We mostly focus on how you may tackle questions on practical criticism of prose
in this unit.

9.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define prose
 explain the differences elements of prose that differentiates it from the other genres
 critically analyse the language of prose
 critique a prose extract

9.2 Critical Strategies on Essay Questions

Essay questions usually fall into one of the following categories: explication, analysis and
comparison and contrast.

9.2.1 Explication
An Explication is a detailed intensive examination of a passage in order to establish how a writer
achieves a certain effect as demanded by the question. It pays special attention to language, that
is, the connotations of words, allusion, figures of speech, irony, symbolism and so on. The simplest
way to organise an explication is to move through the passage line-by-line, explaining whatever
seems significant. Imaginative students can begin with the final lines, working back to the

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beginning of the passage. Others can structure their essays by discussing various elements of
literature, bearing in mind that the aim of explication is not simply to summarise but to comment
on the effects and meanings produced by the author’s use of language. An effective explication
displays a text to reveal how it works and what it signifies. As such explication requires patience
and sensibility.

9.2.2 Analytical question

An analytical question focuses on a particular part of the passage e.g. the significance of an aspect
of style such as setting, language, point of view and characterisation in the passage. This requires
you to discuss the specific element of the passage, explaining how the element contributes to the
passage’s overall effect.

9.2.3 Compare and contrast

Comparison and Contrast questions call for a discussion of similarities and differences between
passages or elements within the same passage. You may be asked to compare or contrast the use
of irony or points of view. Be sure to have a thesis that allows you to organise your essay, a central
idea that argues a point about the passage or passages. If you simply draw up a list of similarities
and differences without a thesis, this organising or rallying principle, your essay will just be a
series of observations with no apparent purpose.

9.2.4 Major literary elements of prose

Different authors arrange various elements of literature to demonstrate their craft. These include:
story, plot, characterization, setting, point of view, symbolism, theme, style, tone and irony.

Story means events in their chronological order.

Plot is the author’s rearrangement of incidents in the story. It is the organising principle controlling
the order of events. It can be chronological, it can move back and forth or it can begin in the middle
(in medias res). Flashback is a common strategy of most authors. It is a device that informs us
about events before the opening of the story. This device creates suspense in the reader.
Foreshadowing is another common device which suggests what is yet to come. Good stories
normally have conflict, the tension that is the source of the story. The unravelling of the conflict
reaches its peak at the climax, the moment of the greatest emotional tension. This is usually
followed by the denouement, also known as anti-climax or, simply, the untying of the knot, the
resolution. We need to stress, though, that not all passages follow this structure.

Characters in a story can be convincing if their actions are motivated. A dynamic character
undergoes some kind of change due to the action of the plot. A static character does not change. A
foil is a character that helps to reveal, by contrast, the distinctive qualities of another, especially
the protagonist. A flat character embodies one or two qualities which can easily be summarised.
The opposite is a round character who is more complex, has more depth and therefore requires
greater attention. Other characters are easily recognisable and these are called stock characters.

Setting is a major element. It is the total context in which action takes place. It embraces time,
place and the social environment that frames the characters. Time refers to part of day, for example,
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‘dawn’ or ‘dusk’. It also refers to an epoch, for example, 17th Century. These and other elements
of setting can be used to evoke a mood or an atmosphere that prepares the reader for what is to
come. For instance, a ‘forest’ may not just be woods but can be the backdrop of a moral wilderness
where anything can happen. Similarly, a dilapidated house may stand for a shattered vision of life.

Some settings have traditional associations closely related to the action of the story, for example,
adventure and romance flourish in fertile soils of most exotic settings. Sometimes writers reverse
expectations through irony, for example, when a tranquil garden becomes the scene of a
horrendously bloody murder. In short, time, location and physical features can all be relevant to
the overall purpose of a story.

Point of view answers the question: who tells the story and how is the story told? Never confuse
the narrator with the author. There are three major points of view namely, the first, second and
third person narrators. Each has its implications for the reader.

The third person narrator uses ‘he’, ‘she’ ‘they’ and ‘it’. It can be further categorised into the
‘omniscient’, the ‘limited omniscient’ and ‘the objective’. Omniscient means all–knowing: such
a point of view can move from place to place and pass back and forth through time, slipping into
and out of characters. It can report the characters’ thoughts and feelings through editorial
omniscience, sometimes allowing characters’ actions and thoughts to speak for themselves (neutral
omniscience) thereby allowing readers some space to make their own conclusions.

The limited omniscient narrator is more confined to the single perspective of either a major or
minor character. This is common in short stories. The stream of consciousness (a technique
suggesting a rapid flow of thought in a characters’ mind coming in rapid associations free of
conventional logic) takes the reader inside the character’s mind to reveal his perceptions and
feelings on a conscious or unconscious level.

However, unlike the omniscient and the limited omniscient, the objective point of view does not
see into the mind of any character. This detached and impersonal perspective reports action and
dialogue as in a film, allowing the reader more evaluation space.

The second person narrator uses ‘You’ as the subject of description. It is quite rare and so spares
us space by its omission. The first person narrator uses ‘I’ or ‘’we’. It presents the point of view
of only one character’s consciousness, so the reader is restricted to the feelings and perceptions of
the narrator. For this reason the narrator may not be entirely relied on as he/she may lack self-
knowledge and may also be inexperienced and naïve. Youthful innocence quite often characterizes
the narrator’s lack of sophistication to interpret accurately what they see.

Symbolism can be derived from a person, an object, event or action which suggests more than its
literal meaning. Conventional symbols are widely recognised by a society, for example, the
national flag, the setting sun and the colour green. A literary symbol can also be established
internally by the total context. Some symbols can be restricted to a single meaning but others can
evoke multiple meanings. For instance, ‘walls’ can symbolise restrictive repetitiveness of office
routine, or the materialistic sensibility, or any limitations thwarting human aspirations including
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death.

When a character, an object or event have a single fixed meaning, it becomes allegorical rather
than symbolic. Symbols may sometimes escape you, but that is better than finding symbols where
only literal meaning is intended. Allow the text to help you determine whether a symbolic reading
is appropriate by reading carefully to notice the placement of details that are emphasised, for
example, the recurrence of say “creepers” calls attention to themselves and warrant a symbolic
reading. However, symbols don’t necessarily have to be repeated to be significant. Be sensitive to
meanings that the author associates with people, places, objects and actions.

Theme refers to the central idea or meaning of a story. It is the unifying point around which the
plot, characters, setting, point of view, symbols and other elements are organised. The theme can
be explicitly or implicitly stated. Take note: it is not always easy to express the theme, but the
following guidelines can be handy. Firstly, distinguish between the theme and the subject of the
story. These two are not the same. Many stories share identical subjects such as fate, innocence,
death, youth, loneliness, racism and disillusionment and each story makes its own statement about
the subject yet the meanings are different; that statement is the theme.

When a theme is considered, the possibilities for meaning are expanded and not reduced to
definitive categories. To be valid, the statement of a theme should respond to details of the story.
Remember! Familiarity with the subject matter should not get in the way of seeing the author’s
perspective. Quite often readers too hastily conclude that the story’s theme always consists of a
moral. This tendency to look for a lesson in a story can produce a reductive and inaccurate
formulation of its theme(s). In fact many good stories go beyond traditional moral values to explore
human behaviour and human nature without necessarily condemning or endorsing them. It is
possible to sympathise with characters whose actions you disapprove of.

Yes, the themes in literature may challenge or validate our positions. Determining the theme of a
story may be an uphill task as all elements may contribute to the central idea. There is no formulaic
approach to it but the following practical strategies may be applied during a second or third
reading:
 Assess the title of the passage – it usually provides a lead.
 Carefully consider names, places, objects, main and minor characters and incidents leading
to the central meaning – concentrate especially on elements you did not understand on your
first reading.
 Decide whether the protagonist’s development influences your insight – consider his/her
generalisations about events in the text.
 Attend to the subject first and then make a meaningful point about the subject matter. If for
instance the subject is ‘revenge’, the theme can be “instead of promoting satisfaction,
revenge defeats the best in oneself”.
 Be wary of using clichés as a way of stating the themes; they short-circuit ideas instead of
generating them.
 Remember some short stories/passages emphasise theme less than others. Passages on
adventure, humour and mystery may have no theme at all.

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In the final analysis what is important about articulating a theme is the process by which it is
determined. The theme is expressed by the story itself and is inseparable from the experience of
reading the story. Describing a theme is not a way to consume it but a means of clarifying your
thinking about what you have read and felt intuitively. Themes emerge from the author’s skilful
use of plot, character, setting and symbol.
Style. In life style is everywhere around us: in dresses, cars, buildings, dances, and music and even
in courtship. Style is anything that reflects a distinctive manner of expression or design. You
cannot mistake Alick Macheso Madhuve for System Tazvida we Zaka’s Smoko Moto bang.
Similarly, authors have different styles, typical and idiosyncratic to themselves. Style refers to the
distinctive manner in which a writer arranges words to achieve particular effects. The arrangement
includes word choice (diction), sentence structures, tone and the use of irony. This choice of words
is useful in controlling the reader’s response.
Style reveals tone, the author’s implicit attitude towards the characters, places and events in the
story. In speech tone is conveyed by voice inflections, the wink of an eye or other gestures. As an
example, when the lecturer says, “You’re going to fail the exam”, he may indicate concern or
frustration or sympathy or alarm or humour or indifference depending on the tone of his voice.
Note that our repetitive use of ‘or’ in the latter sentence is stylistic – to highlight emphasis. In
literature texts this spoken voice is not there, so we have to rely on the context in which the
statement is said in order to interpret the tone correctly. If we are sensitive to the tone, we can get
behind a character and see him or her from the author’s perspective.

Irony is one of the enduring techniques in literature. The many unexpected complexities that often
surprise us in life are the fertile ground for the use of irony. Irony is a device that reveals a reality
different from what seems to be true. There is verbal irony which consists of saying one thing but
meaning the opposite. Verbal irony which is calculated to hurt someone by false praise is called
sarcasm. Situational irony, on the other hand, occurs when there is an incongruity between what
is expected and what actually happens. The other form of irony which occurs when the author
allows the reader to know more about a situation than the character knows is dramatic irony. This
can be an effective way for a character to unwittingly expose himself. You should train yourself
to be sensitive to these.

9.3 Questions to Ask for Responsive Reading

Plot
 Is it predictable or does it conform to a formula?
 What is the source of conflict for the protagonist?
 What is the significance of the title?
 What does the exposition reveal?
 Are flashbacks used? Any foreshadowing? With what effect?
 Where is the climax?
 Is the conflict resolved at the end?
 Is the ending happy/unhappy etc.?
 Is the plot unified – is each incident related to other elements?

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Character
 Do you identify with the protagonist?
 Did your response to any character change as you read? Why?
 Do any characters change or develop? How?
 Are round, flat or stock characters used?
 How are characters revealed by the author?
 Are their names used to mean anything?
 What is the purpose of minor characters – individualized or typified?

Setting
 Is it important in shaping your response?
 If changed would it affect response/meaning?
 Is it used symbolically?
 Are time, place, atmosphere related to the theme?
 Is the setting used as an antagonist?

Point of view
 Who tells the story? First, second or third person narrator? Status?
 Major or minor character?
 How much does the narrator know? Does the point of view change in the course of the
story?
 Is the narrator reliable and objective?
 Too innocent emotional or self-decided to be trusted?
 Does the author directly comment on the action (authorial intrusion)?
 If told from another point of view would anything be lost?

Symbolism
 Any symbols?
 Are they actions? Characters? Settings? Objects? Words?
 How do they contribute to the theme?

Theme
 Any theme(s)?
 Is it stated directly or simplicity?
 Is the theme confirming or challenging your values?
 Is it restricted or universal?
 In the case of novels what is the dominant informing ideology? Aesthetic ideology?
Authorial ideology?

Style, Tone, Irony

 Is style consistent and appropriate?
 Do the characters use the same language?
 Is language formal or informal?
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  Is language intense? Relaxed? Sentimental? Nostalgic?
 Humorous? Angry? Sad or remorseful?

9.4 Taking You through the Drills

In the following section we take you through some practical analysis of a prose passage to show
you what you can do confidently on your own. You need to read the passage closely to understand
what steps have been taken and what insights they have thrown into an appreciation of the passage.
There is need of course that you do a lot more practice if at all this skill will be honed to a sufficient
level of proficiency.

Activity 9.1
Write a critical appreciation of the following passage, paying particular attention to how the style
achieves its effect.

Passage
For to this pair of bridges gravitated all the failures of the town; those who had failed in business,
in love, in sobriety, in crime. Why the unhappy hereabout usually chose the bridges for their
meditations in preference to a railing, a gate, or a stile, was not so clear.

There was a marked difference of quality between the personages who haunted the near bridge of
brick, and the personages who haunted the far one of stone. Those of lowest character preferred
the former, adjoining the town; they did not mind the glare of the public eye. They had been of
comparatively no account during their successes; and, though they might feel dispirited, they had
no particular sense of shame in their ruin. Their hands were most kept in their pockets; they wore
a leather strap round their waists, and boots that required a great deal of lacing, but seemed never
to get any. Instead of sighing at their adversities they spat, and instead of saying the iron had
entered into their souls, they said they were down on their luck. Jopp in his times of distress had
often stood here; so had Mother Cuxsom, Christopher Coney, and poor Abel Whittle.

The miserables who were on the remoter bridge were of politer stamp. They included bankrupts,
hypochondriacs, persons who were what is called “out of a situation” from fault or lucklessness,
the inefficient of the professional class- shabby- genteel men, who did not know how to get rid of
the weary time between breakfast and dinner, and the yet more weary time between dinner and
dark. The eyes of these species were mostly directed over the parapet upon the running water
below. A man seen there looking thus fixedly into the river was pretty sure to be one whom the
world did not treat kindly for some reason or other. While one in straits on the town-ward bridge
did not mind who saw him so, and kept his back to the parapet to survey the passers- by, one in
straits on this never faced the road, never turned his head at coming footsteps, but, sensitive to his
own condition, watched the current whenever a stranger approached, as if some strange fish
interested him, though every finned thing had been poached out of the river years before

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(From Thomas Hardy: The Mayor of Casterbridge).

NB: Interpretive Points

The key words in your question are: style (which should remind you of the various elements of
style you were give earlier in the unit which include setting, characterisation, language,
symbolism, irony, point of view, and so on) and effect (which basically refers to how
successfully/effectively the passage communicates the intended message).

Sample response
The passage is written in the third person (omniscient) narrative point of view which permits the
author to move in and out of his/her characters, thus allowing the reader to access the characters’
outer and inner beings. It is a fitting point of view for a passage bent on exposing intangible
attributes of characters such as feelings, inner motivations, fears and attitudes as obtain in this
particular passage. The passage generally paints a gloomy picture of those people we may call the
“scum of society” in their variegated appearances, conditions and stations in society. The author
makes use of highly descriptive and coloured language to distinguish between the “failures of the
town”, giving the overall effect of extreme despondency and hopelessness to that unfortunate
section of an urban society even in their varying circumstances of deprivation.
The spatial setting of the passage is particularly significant as a backdrop of describing the different
attitudes of the two distinct groups of sufferers towards their plight. The two bridges are the
magnetic epicentres that pull together all the “miserables” in a selective fashion, with one carefree
group gravitating towards the brick-layered bridge nearer town and the more brooding group going
to the stone-layered bridge further away from the gaze of potential sympathisers or mockers.
Nonetheless, these ‘miserables’ have undergone all sorts of vicissitudes even as they come from
all walks of life. There are those who have “failed in business, in love, in sobriety, [and] in crime”.
This pithy poetic statement is a mouthful. It captures the various fields where different people’s
efforts have hit snags. In a sense, one could further say that it is metonymic in that it represents all
other areas of misadventures not mentioned by name in the passage.
The same setting is clearly symbolic. Both bridges symbolise the bridges of hope. Is it not in
keeping that all those who are disappointed in life gravitate towards new bridges of hope? Indeed
they do so in search of new hopes and renewal. What may be ironical, however, is that by their
very nature, bridges permit a two-way traffic of those crossing over to greener pastures and those
crossing back into the cul-de-sac of the poverty/misery trap; and the latter seems to be the case for
the ‘unfortunates’ in the passage. None of them from either bridge seems to entertain any hope of
resurrection from their abysses. The singularity and linearity of such symbolic representation
literally cancels any hope for the ‘miserables’, almost sealing their Sisyphean condemnation to
failure. The only redeeming aspect of the otherwise bridgeless bridges (notably the stone bridge)
is that, unlike any other site, they offered the ‘wretcheds’ with a sanctuary for meditation and self-
pitying, being “far from the madding crowd” in a sense.
Characterisation is also used effectively to further distinguish the “stations” of the frequent
‘recluses’ to the bridges. Those who frequented the bridge made of “brick” are described as being
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“of the lowest character [who] did not mind the glare of the public eye”, implying that they have
become so used to their condition that they are not ashamed of it. Why? Because they have
accepted their conditions as sealed by fate; they have become nonchalant about life’s bashes. Their
attitude towards life is therefore final: fatalistic and non-committal. Like typical stoics, they have
become content in their poverty, never attributing their conditions to their own deficiencies, but
firmly accepting their circumstances as God-ordained, believing that “they were down on their
luck”. In other words this lot does not see their failure as a product of their own weaknesses at all;
and in the simplicity of their minds, they have become accustomed to their misery as shown by
their hands in their pockets which symbolise comfort in travail. This is situational irony, is it not;
behaving like religious stoics? Such is the attitude of the ‘miserables’ frequenting the brick-bridge.
On the contrary, the ‘miserables’ frequenting the stone-bridge are a sensitive lot, fully conscious
of their losses in life, acknowledging nature’s and their own contributions to their unenviable
situations. Unlike their fellow sufferers, these ‘God’s bits of wood’, have once had occasion to
taste success and cherish it. These include ‘bankrupts’ who have tested fat purses before. Their
companions include ‘hypochondriacs’; that is, those who suffer mental depressions attributable to
known causes or due to inexplicable anxieties. That is what the author means by ‘persons’ who
feel “out of a situation” from “fault or lucklessness”. Either way, the latter group worry themselves
endlessly to the bone yet they all seem incapable of transcending their worries into self-
regeneration. They remain backward-looking morose cry-babies.
The author further describes this latter lot as a semi-conscious, brooding and sensitive as a ‘species’
who spend most of their time watching the running water below, studying it as it were, yet making
no meaningful sense out of their empty gazes into the running water which seems to be taking
hopes away with it to unknown destinations. Instead of washing their miseries with its cathartic
potential, the flowing currents mock the watchers’ memories of their bygone illustrious lives as
they continuously elude the fixed gazes of the lot, promising nothing, like spring water heading
for the desert. The only comfort the running water gives to the unfortunate frequenters is temporary
refuge from the public. The frequent ‘homagers’ in dire straits on this bridge “never faced the road,
never turned [their] head[s] at coming footsteps, but, sensitive to [their] own condition[s], watched
the current whenever a stranger approached, as if some strange fish interested him, though every
finned thing had been poached out of the river years before”. What sarcasm! And indeed it comes
with such finality – the river cannot yield even a “finned thing”, having been overfished by other
destitutes; thus underlying their sinking into an irredeemable cycle of poverty. The endurance
impression left is that this scum of society has been rebuffed by both society and nature.

The passage achieves its comparative effect through the juxtaposition of these two groups of
failures: the stoics who believe that since life was never better, it will never get better because their
condition is ordained; on one hand, and those who have seen better days and are now ashamed to
meet those companions they left up there when they climbed down, on the other. However, there
seems to be one overriding tone describing the two groups: pessimism and resignation.

9.5 Summary

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In this unit we have given you some detailed hints on what is expected of you as you interact with
prose passages for literary appreciation. We have sensitised you to elements of style that include
setting, characterisation, language, symbolism, irony, point of view, etc. and have shown you in
the demonstration at the end of the unit, how they can be integrated into your essay as you respond
to the passage set from The Mayor of Casterbridgeby Thomas Hardy. As mentioned in our
introduction, one passage is not enough for practice; you are advised to use all your set texts as
practice ground for a fuller and more meaningful appreciation of literature, never mind the genre.

References

Gill, R. (1986). Mastering English Literature. London: MacMillan.

Hardy, T. (1886) The Mayor of Casterbridge. London: Penguin Books.

Moody, H.L.B. (1994). Literary Appreciation. Hong Kong: Longman

Shakespeare, W. (1623). Hamlet. London: MacMillan.

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 UNIT 10

MORE PASSAGES FOR PRACTICE

10.0 Introduction

In this unit we do more of the same, that is, exposing you to more passages for practice. We also
provide you with hints on how to approach these passages in the demonstration sections. The
suggested answer guidelines, however, are no longer fully fledged essays. By now you should have
caught on to the skill so we just provide you with guiding notes on what to look for. You are again
reminded of what we said earlier: there is no formula or model of literary appreciation. What we
want to see is your genuine and heartfelt reaction to a helping of literary experience, how you look
at the nuances of the language, the use of literary tools like images, diction, character, tone mood
and so on. How ultimately you appreciate the artist’s impact in your literary experience.

10.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should have:

 practised with a variety of passages
 sharpened your skills of prose analysis

10.2 Practice Passages with Suggested Answer Guidelines

Activity 10.1
Discuss the techniques of persuasion adopted in the passage that follows stressing their effect.

ARISE my children. Do you not see vultures flying over the corpses that are not yet? See the
clouds which fake the flight of the vultures. Many clouds hiding many vultures with large beaks,
all waiting for many corpses that are not yet. Do you not see corpses when there are vultures in the
sky? Look at the sky and tell me if you can see the sun? The large wings of the vultures are like
shady clouds so that you cannot read the pattern of the sky. The sky, so old and with so many eyes
that you do not see. But it remains silent all the time as if it were a blind puppy which does not
know the colour of sunshine. The sky remains silent all the time as if it doesn’t see anything on
that earth. Look at the many wounds coming from the vultures my children.

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Disease has eaten into the wealth of your soil. Disease has eaten into the wills of your ancestors,
your own fathers and mothers. Disease has sucked the juice of the land you inherited for your
children. Do not sit and drink to the comfort of your hearts because there is no reason for you not
to rise, not to see the clouds of vultures in the sky. Disease crawls on the rocks which you have
known to sit there all the time for your protection. It has eaten into the core of the heart of the hard
mupani and the great baobab. Disease grazes the pastures like the cattle of your wealth. Disease
flies in the sky like the fish eagle that heralds the coming of the season of the rains. Do not let the
eyes of disease inflict its pain on the land while you sit under the shade of the tree without a name
as if all was well. No, you cannot be children without parents to warn that fire burns.
(C. Hove. Bones, pp. 51 – 52)

Guidelines
The following ideas can help you accomplish the task:
The focus of the question is ‘the techniques of persuasion’. So, you can point out the intention of
the speaker and then discuss how that intention is realised. Note that this is a speech made for the
ear / for an authentic audience; the audience is depressed, displaced, deprived and dispossessed.
The speaker makes a passionate appeal through various strategies for an immediate violent
uprising. Appeals tend to be rational and emotional; discuss those used here.

The speaker uses a tone that is highly personal and fiery. The emotional appeal is reasonable,
intelligent, logical and patriotic. He uses the direct address, ‘my children’ which is repeated. This
is an attention arresting technique; it too is a tool to establish solidarity between him and the
audience. Rhetorical questions are also effectively used: ‘Do you not see the vultures……..? Do
you not see the corpses…?’ Their purpose is to prick the conscience of the seemingly dead masses
to revolt. Here, note the repetition of syntactic structures, words and images. For example, vultures
and disease, feelings and the idea that they should revolt. Starving masses are referred to as
‘corpses’ which emphasises the degree of the peoples’ deprivation, and hence, the need for them
to revolt. The imperatives are effectively used for the same effect; they emphasise the fact that the
masses have no option but to revolt. Parallel structures and rhythm, for example, ‘Disease has
eaten into the wealth of your soil. Disease has eaten into the wills of your ancestors, your own
fathers and mothers’. Are aspects of the emotional appeal. Reference to ancestors evokes a patriotic
sentiment which kindles a revolutionary spirit. Note that we do not have fillers, like, ‘you see,
uum’ Such fillers would negatively affect the people addressed. These are some of the ideas that
can be used to address the question.

Activity 10.2
Write a critical appreciation of the following passage showing how theme is realised through
symbolism and imagery.

The Storm
It was dark in my mind. Dawn had hurtled itself into my consciousness, splashing its reds and
yellows on my flyblown window. A cool, hesitant breeze had soughed through the old, grey fence
that sagged under the burden of a dead climbing plant.

I looked out of the window through weary eyes. It was quite a feat to keep my eyes open. My
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whole body ached and itched. The tiny bursts of morning wind fanned the embers in my body into
a flame that engulfed my senses. I was a ball of fire. Self-devouring. And the smoke of it thickly
spiralled into every corner and crack in the room.

Outside, the twitter of the small, mindless birds made me wince. It dawned pain. The senseless
ball of white fire rolled quietly in the blue sky. Senseless sun. Nothing save pain moved in me.
The dark jelly in my head stirred thickly, making my head reel. There was the crater in me left by
the quiet bomb-blast. I felt a hallowed man, floating in the room like a termite-eaten straw,
spinning rootless.
There was this morbid feeling: I was a man who stood beside his own bowels, watching them
steaming weakly, and I was trying to walk away from them, leaving mangy dogs growling over
my entrails. Then I was talking to Langston Hughes. He asked me: “What happens to a dream
deferred?” He did not wait for me to answer him. We sadly chorused our worry: “Maybe it just
sags like a heavy load.” Then I asked him: “What happens to a dream torpedoed?” He wondered:
“Or does it explode?”

It dawned difficult questions. So many things happened, I am not responsible for their happening
much as I am not responsible for the darkness of any night. Why does darkness fall on me? Cried
night one night.
(Muponde, R and Chihota, C. No More Plastic Balls, 2000: 194)

Guidelines
Here are a few ideas that you may find useful.
 The storm is a lot more than the physical storm; it is the spiritual storm; a mind tormented,
so the theme is mental turmoil.
 This mental state is realised through a variety of images.
 Images of confusion; the speaker talks about darkness in his mind, darkness falling on him,
‘dark jelly… stirred… making my body reel’; the speaker feels ‘spinning rootless’; he feels
that he is talking to Langston Hughes. The splashing colours of red and yellow symbolise
confusion / uncertainty; ‘the senseless ball of fire rolled in the sky’ -- in actual fact, it was
rolling in him; the smoke that filled the room stands for the confusion he suffers from.
 Images of fatigue: the speaker refers to his ‘weary eyes’; it was a ‘feat to keep his eyes
open’.
 Images of pain: the speaker’s body ‘ached and itched’, ‘only pain moved in me’.
 Images of heat: the speaker talks about, ‘embers in my body into a flame that engulfed my
senses’; he felt he was a ‘ball of fire’; his body ‘was self- devouring’; he talks about the
‘crater’ left in the speaker’s mind by a ‘quiet bomb blast’.
 Images of disease: the speaker suffers from ‘a morbid disease.’

Activity 10.3
Study the following dialogue and then discuss how the human situation and relations are
dramatised.

I am making ready, my brother. They stand and look at each other, he anxious, she afraid. She
turns and looks back into the room. A door closes, and she says, come in, my brother. Only then

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does she reach her hand to him. It is cold and wet, there is no life in it. They sit down, she is silent
upon her chair.

 I have come, he said.

 It is good
 You did not write.
 No, I did not write.
 Where is your husband?
 I have not found him my brother.
 But you did not write.
 That is true indeed.
 Did you not know we were anxious?
 I had no money to write.

She does not answer him, she does not look at him.

 But I hear you are rich.

 I am not rich
 I hear you have been in prison.
 That is true indeed.
 Was it for liquor?

A spark of life comes into her. She must do something, she cannot keep so silent. She tells him
she was not guilty. There was some other woman.

 You stayed with this woman?

 Yes.
 Why did you stay with such a woman?
 I had no other place.
 And you helped her with her trade?
 I had to have money for the child.
 Where is the child?
(A. Parton.Cry the Beloved Country, pp. 28 – 29)

Guidelines
Here are some ideas that can help you do the exercise.

There are differences between spoken and written language and the concept implicature /
pragmatic force. Irony, implicature and the authorial comment or tone are used to dramatise the
human situation and relations. The communication here involves a brother and a sister: it is
abundantly clear that the relationship between the two is hostile. The atmosphere created is very
tense.

Irony is used to dramatise the situation and the unwholesome relationship between brother and

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sister. The sister repeats, ‘my brother’ twice. This is a term of endearment; the social function of
language; language of intimacy; yet the rest of the text is not coloured by intimacy but hostility.
The sister goes on to say that it is ‘good’ that he has come, yet she does not appreciate the presence
of her brother; her brother is an outsider or intruder.
The authorial comments or tone also dramatise the situation and the tense relationship. The sister
extends a hand that is ‘cold and wet’; a contradiction to ‘my brother’, ‘they sit silent’; that silence
is communicative; the tense relations are dramatised. The writer says, ‘A spark of life comes into
her…’ This spark is one of confrontation, animosity or aggression. She feels she cannot be skinned
alive quietly.
Implicature dramatises the situation and human relations. The statement ‘You did not write.’ is not
just referential or factual; it is a subtle accusation or rebuke; she is rebuked for being irresponsible;
for not writing. The rebuke is apparent in the repetition of the idea, ‘But you did not write.’ In
response to this, she said, ‘That is true, indeed.’ Notice the comma after ‘true’; it puts ‘indeed’ in
an emphatic position. It suggests, ‘So what? Go to hell.’ ‘Did you not know we were anxious?
‘This is not an ordinary question seeking information but another form of reproach for
irresponsible behaviour. The brother’s feeling that she is rich is designed to mortify her spirits
since she could only be rich by selling her body. The question about her being in prison has the
same effect; it is designed to hurt her. In her response, ‘That is true indeed’ again, the use of this
adverb signifies her attempt to save face; to fight back. The reference to the selling of liquor is
another form of accusation.

Activity 10.4
Write an appreciation of the following extract with specific reference to context, content and
language.

I remember one day when women came to share the secrets of their husbands behind the ant-hill
where I was helping myself. They were so full of stories in their hearts they could not wait to see
if there was anybody behind the bushes. I just sat there long after I had finished what I went to do.
How could I stand up in the middle of their secret? So I just sat there, behind their backs, with the
smelly thing under my buttocks. Yes, the men are strange, very strange. They are like children.
How could Mungai’s husband be caught with such a slim, ugly woman despised by everybody in
the village? As for me, if I am caught with another man, it must be a real man whose thing satisfies
me. But Mungai’s husband is something else… You never know, mother of my mother, that
woman might have something to her more than we see. Can’t you see he is even more determined
to keep with her than before?

He really wants to keep her like a mother baboon keeping its little one. They are now like pot and
fireplace, always together like a tree and a leaf. Do you know that some women know how to
please husbands more than anything else? Never mind their bad cooking and all that, but when
night comes, they know the language of the night. They make a man swear by his ancestors never
to leave her. Maybe she is not like that, hot blood and other things….
(C. Hove. Bones, p. 8)

Guidelines
Some ideas that may help you.
Halliday’s (1978) concepts of field, mode and tenor can be brought in here. Field simply means
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the subject matter, the topic, the ‘what’ and ‘why’ of communication; it entails the setting, purpose,
semantic domain and the participants; all these elements make up the context. Mode, refers to the
form of language, written or spoken and tenor refers to the style of discourse; the relations among
the speakers and the degree of formality or informality.

 The text is one of gossip involving two women in a bush where the narrator is relieving
himself. The subject matter or topic is the rumour doing the rounds about an illicit love
affair involving a married man and a woman. The tone is quite intimate; it suits the situation
very well. The language is quite ordinary, conversational and everyday. The context,
content and language are interrelated. These are the ideas to be developed.
 The tendency to agree is characteristic of the discourse of gossip. ‘Yes, the men are
strange….. like children.’ This is followed by the rhetorical question, ‘How could
Mungai’s husband……?’ This question is evidence that men are strange; they are like
children, a view accepted unquestioningly by her partner. The woman is said to be slim,
ugly and is despised by all in the village... She has forgotten the age old adage. ‘Beauty is
in the eyes of the beholder.’ The other woman does not question this assessment of the
supposed whore.
 Next, they talk about a man’s sexual organ euphemised as the ‘thing.’ The speaker points
out that she prefers a man’s thing that satisfies her;
 ‘… that woman might have something to her more than what we can see.’ The insinuation
is clear here; typical of gossip; witchery and the use of charms are implied here; that is why
the speaker feels the man is more determined ‘to keep with her than before.’ He wants to
keep her in the way a mother baboon keeps its young; the determination to fend for her,
protect her and defend her is apparent here; the homely simile is effectively used here.
Because he has been charmed, the two are inseparable. This inseparability is expressed
through the fire – pot and tree – leaf imagery.
 They go on to talk about the ‘greatest women’s virtue’ - women’s skill in pleasing men in
bed. This view is expressed through a rhetorical question to which she does not expect any
contradiction but the affirmation that a woman’s greatest virtue is her ability to please a
man in bed; which is referred to as the , ‘… the language of the night.’
 Lastly, the whoring woman is suspected to have ‘hot blood and other things.’ The hot blood
suggests her insatiable sexual desire and ‘other things’ suggests the use of charms and
witchery.

Activity 10.5
Write an appreciation of the following extract paying attention to content, diction, syntax and tone.

Unit Trusts
A man with £1 000 to invest in equities would almost certainly not put it all into shares in any
company, but would consider spreading the risk. Alternatively he could aim at even greater safety
by buying units in a Unit Trust. In effect this means that he, and many others like him, would be
handing over money to a group of experts who would invest it jointly in a large number of
companies. If the investment is spread over say 200 companies, then any bad results from some of
the companies would probably be offset by the more profitable ones.

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There are many Unit Trusts, each with its own particular aims, to meet the needs of all kinds of
investor. Save and Prosper have, among others, Income Units and Capital Units. With Income
Units the money is invested mainly in companies which are likely to produce a good annual yield,
with only moderate prospects of capital growth, giving a return (1970) of about six and half percent
(gross, subject to income tax). On the other hand, with Capital Units the annual yield is of
secondary importance (less than 2%), and the money is invested in companies whose shares are
most likely to rise in value. A man with a high income who pays income tax and surtax would not
be particularly enthusiastic about increasing his income, knowing that perhaps three quarters of
the increase would go to the Inland Revenue. He would prefer to invest in Capital Units, whose
value would probably have risen considerably by the time he needed the money on retirement ten
or twenty years later.

Guidelines
Some of the ideas you can use:
 The extract is a good example of expository writing; it is informative; it reveals
information.
 An exposition can be a definition, objective description, an illustration or example.
 The tone is impersonal or a matter of fact.
 It adopts a specific register, that is, language that suits a subject matter.
 Words, phrases, clauses and sentences are logically linked to convey ideas and facts. The
language is formal.

These ideas apply to the passage above; the text is expository. It belongs to the field of economics
and hence the lexis or jargon is economics oriented. Some of the economics jargon is as follows:
invest, equity, the unit, unit trust, Save and Prosper, Income Units, Capital Units, annual yield,
capital growth, a return, shares, income tax and surtax.

The present tense is used to draw the distinction between Income Units and Capital Units and to
highlight the types and aims of unit trusts. It is used to state a general truth. The subjunctive
(would) is used to give advice about investing some money and to express the benefits to be gained.
It is also used to express preferences and probabilities.

The tone is detached or impersonal. Not the slightest effort is made to colour the information; the
tone suits the speaker’s intention.

Activity 10.6

Creole
Using the text provided, discuss Creole as a means of effective communication.

So me, I was perched on my easy chair doing zero after a night’s hollering, woozing, goozing and
waltzing at the nearest night club. In a bang, from nowhere, there in front of me was my best dude
with a new Cuckoo – Bird:- horse hair, blue eye lashes, crimson red lips, v-neck liberally exposing
her chest assets, hip grabbing jeans and mountain heeled shoes.
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What’s ap?
What’s ap, man, what’s ap?
Hey man! Doodling in broad day light! What’s up man?
Ye-e-e-e, too much hollering, woozing, goozing and waltzing, that chick, that one from Danga ,
oh man, oh man, aah…. Can breathe fire. Ek-ce-le-ntgi-rl. Ce-lent woozer, ce-le-nt goozer, worse
– bed charms, oh… Now, I am dead and hungry.
So lets go for a graze
Where?
Your choice.

Sam’s place, yes Sam’s place. Wonderful soul food. Best zondo, guru, my man, lets go. So we
pushed to Sam’s place. Was full of dudes and cuckoos with eyes popped out coz of previous night’s
woozing and goozing. Above all aah –a – ah. God! So before we could fodder, the cuckoo rapped
up the longest prayer I ever heard – so long I hollered her to cut the shit. So we stuffed our goggling
bellies with lottazondo and guru till the goggling stopped. So we woozed back to the cuckoo’s
next and woozed, goosed and waltzed till we collapsed dead.
(Jambaya. Unpublished short story)

Guidelines
Some of the ideas you may find useful:

 Creole is a ‘fully developed language capable of expressing anything its users want to say.
It originates from the Fifteenth Century Portuguese pidgin used in Africa, Asia and the
Americas (Russell, 1993). It has its own grammatical features, lexis and phonology.
 The text is exemplary of communication in a specific situation; it highlights a slice of life
of a specific social group.
 Its tone is chatty or friendly.
 The vocabulary suits the situation and characters: they perch on chairs, do zero, holler at
night, wooze, goose and waltz (forms of dance), doodle (do nothing), push (go), fodder
(eat), wrap (pray), and graze (eat); the modifiers used are: perched, doing zero, my best
dude, hip grabbing jeans, mountain heeled shoes, horse hair, blue eye lashes and crimson
red lips. Nouns used; dude, chest assets, Cuckoo bird, chik, woozer (dancer), goozer
(drinker).
 The syntax is a mixture of standard and non- standard features. Examples of standard
features are: ‘I am dead and hungry. So let’s go for a graze. Where?’ As for non – standard
features, notice the tendency to start sentences with ‘so’.
 Its phonology; notice the pronunciation of “excellent” and so on.

The major idea is that Creole has its own grammatical features, lexis and phonology: it can be used
effectively to communicate the experience of a social group as illustrated above.

Activity 10.7
The following extract comes from an unpublished short story titled, ‘The good mother.’ Compare
the use of language in this extract with the language in the extract for Activity 9.6.

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“You! You! You want to spoil my son. I told you speak to him in English; the passport to
everything. Didn’t I?
Yesimami – yes mum.
Mami, mami, say madam as I instructed you!
Yesimedemu.
Always speak in English with my son.
Yesii, yesiimedemu
Learn to pronounce the word “madam.”
Yes, medemu.
Look at these plates, they are not clean, why?
Medemu, the gi-i-za, the giza not work, so not hot water.
The meat was full of oil, too much oil.
Its fat, not oil.
Beg pardon me-ede-em, wanted to say fat. Alrisomedemu, the lemon likwid is finished yesterday.
Why didn’t you boil the water?
Faya wood, faya wood mede-em, not one pis around. Wanted to tell you, you not around, Baba
not around.
What did you say? Hii, what did you say? You talk to Baba? Do you talk to Baba?

O-o- no – no –otmedem. S-o-r-r-y

Sorry for what?
(silence)
So, you talk to baba in my absence.
N—o—o—oo-o
(Jambaya, The Good Mother. Unpublished short story)

10.3 Passages without Guidelines

We believe you have now had lots of practice in literary appreciation. From this point we give you
passages for practice but without any guidelines. It is up to you and your study group to puzzle
over and make sense of the rest of the passages given.

Activity 10.8
Analyse the following passage paying particular attention to speech and thought presentation.

Is there anyone else in here? No, you stupid. You heard Freeman tell George that if there was
anyone else they should be moved out to another cell. Not even a window! Thought prison cells
had high barred small windows! This darkness! It makes you lose your sense of balance. Just can’t
walk straight. Does this mean my crime is so serious? What crime? Well, what crime? You are a
very strange creature. You ought to be angry. You know very well you haven’t committed any
crime. Shit, what kind of person are you? They killed Sam for nothing – nothing. They killed him
free of charge. Maybe Sam wasn’t the only one. In fact Sam hasn’t been the only one. They can
just kill you. Maybe they will. That is not funny. But what’s the point of putting me here? Maybe
to frighten you. May be they want you to go mad! That would be terrible. No let’s think about this
situation. How can they really believe something you have absolutely nothing to do with! So you
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think you are being clever! The next thing you will be telling me is how unfair it all is. Do you
think if you were a white boy – if you were everything you are but black, would you be here? Well,
that’s not a subject for discussion either. How can you separate what’s happening to you from
what’s happening to everybody else? Wait. There must be something in here. Can’t just be black
and bare cell. Best thing is to crawl – systematically. Maybe they are watching. In this darkness?
They can’t see a thing. Never know. Special gadgets. Let’s sit down.

You are scared. Only five minutes! You are a real coward! That’s true. Who? Nobody knows I am
here. Oh, God. I need a cigarette. Look, keep cool. It’s bad enough to be locked but why do they
have to lock people in a dark room? Do you remember Dr Manette in Charles Dickens’ ‘Tale of
two cities’? The Bastille. Did he have a light in his cell? Well, what does it matter anyway. He
went mad, didn’t he? How long – this whole thing depends on you. Keep your head. You are not
the first on, you know. It wasn’t specially built for you. When you get out of here you will be:
AlexioShonga PG (Prison Graduate). If you get out, that is. So be mature. Oh, no! That’s why all
the smell. Shit and urine. I wouldn’t mind if it was mine, but someone else’s! That’s unfair. Food?
How about if I need help? Let’s say I suffer from epilepsy? You mean they don’t care, even if I
died? Someone has to pay for this one day!. To hell with Rev Cope and turning the other cheek.
Sure, I will get them one day. I mean, this deliberate. Forgive! Forgive! All the way into the grave.
Next thing you will be asked to forgive beyond grave. Look, let’s think something constructive…
Alright. If I don’t get out of here, obviously there is nothing to do. Shall spend all my time thinking
about natural history: ‘Ladies and gentlemen, this is the man, who, while in prison, - in solitary
confinement – first thought out how the universe came into being! He had no paper; he had no pen
or pencil! He was in total darkness!’ It’s nice to have a sense of humour. No. but seriously. Let’s
say you get out of here… Best thing would be to escape. Yeah, dress-up like a girl and cycle to the
border. Don’t talk to anybody! You are hopeless! The story about the airline ticket to Moscow.
Assuming the story is true, who would have sent the ticket? The party? No. Never. It can’t be a
true story anyway because they would have waited until I got the ticket. It’s all fabricated. They
just want to get you, my friend. The idiots!
(W. Katiyo,A Son of the Soil, pp. 133 – 135)

Activity 10.9
Write a critical essay on the following passage with special reference to the writer’s depiction of
action, emotion and atmosphere.

After a while, I heard the silence: dark and unbroken. The night was turning, spinning. I felt the
darkness, saw its jagged figures streaking across the street, and disappearing. The shadow of tall
buildings seemed grotesquely shaped into dinosaurs waiting to snap me into pieces the moment I
ventured out. I shrank from these dreadful creatures.

A metal bin clattered onto the hard pavement nearby. I let out a sharp yelp, and then swallowed
quickly, as if trying to draw the noise back. But it tore through the still air, triggering more sounds
and a sense of shuffling feet. A warm wet trickle coursed down my legs. I listened for the footsteps.
I heard nothing coming. I ran towards 7th Street; fled past 8th. When I was about to cross 9th, a
sound rang out ahead. I stood transfixed. The footsteps also froze. They were trying to confuse
me, make me relax. I changed direction and tried to walk steadily along NyikaYedu Avenue
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towards the wooden bridge. A cat scuttled across the avenue ahead. I trembled but I kept on going,
my damp trousers chafing my crutch.

The foot bridge is an extension of the avenue. It has been there as long as I can remember. We
played on it when we were young. Enjoyable were the endless trains that sneaked below as we
stood on the wooden slats. The iron rails rattled and planks tickled the soles of our feet as the many
carriages thudded past towards the station behind the gum plantation.
I was in grade 6 when a man was found hung on the rails – naked, and stabbed several times. He
roasted in the sun for half the day like the Christ they used to teach us about at Sunday school. The
trains, meantime, went on chugging past the bridge, rattling the rails and, no doubt, tickling his
palms too. The stream of people from Squatterville 13 did not falter on their way to the city. All
day long they poured into Mupedzanhamo area, walking past slowly grilling body. A small crowd
would gather from time to time to observe the dead man.

Since it was our first occasion to come near a dead body, we crept over to the bridge in the
afternoon, just before the police came to collect it, and in defiance of our parents’ advice. The man
hung still, his head limp, dry blood, browned by the sun, caked his face. His eyes had rolled
backwards. A torn shirt clung to his bodied back. If flapped in the wind like a plastic bag trapped
on the fence. The stab wounds, showing crimson flesh, attracted flies. His toes seemed to grope
for the ground far below. We were taking in all these details when a man from Squatterville 13
shooed us away.

The dead man’s identity never established. But long after the body had been removed, stories about
who had murdered him did the rounds. Only one took root. Its theme was that his girlfriend had
hired thugs to deal with him – why, was an ending never told.
A week later, we went to watch the trains steaming along under the bridge. We saw rusty blood
stains on the rails. It was around then that people who use d this route at night spoke about seeing
a man falling from the bridge on to the rails below. It became a kind of folk tale, an urban myth.
Even today, mothers who want to frighten their children tell them about the ghost of the man who
was found hanging on the footbridge.

When I approached the bridge that night, I felt warm. Between me and Squatterville 13 lay the
cemetery. I knew that once I walked past it, I would be free. The houses and the streets would
swallow me. Of course, at night one could not see the settlement: it lay, unreachable, tucked
somewhere under the armpit of night.

My feet echoed on the surface of the bridge as I walked gingerly across it. The old billboard, which
once carried an advertisement of a man eating sadza, was now just a silhouette. We used to throw
stones at it. The picture of the man eating sadza was our target. The competition was to see who
would hit him first.
(Writing still, pp 80 – 81)

Activity 10.10
The first of the following passages comes from Clement Chihota’s story “Shipwreck” and the other
from Shimmer Chinodya’s story “Queues”. Compare and contrast the manner in which the two
writers treat the theme of external interference in the politics of a young nation.
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The government on its mission to lead the nation into the 21st Century was cruising at a very low
altitude. Other senior governments, flying high on the Northern and Western horizons sent urgent
messages to the almost grounded whose captain-president sweated at the controls as he tried to lift
the sinking machine a bit higher before it hit the sharp rocks below.
“Jettison all unnecessary weight from your ship. Dump all garbage and excess baggage. Dump all
waste and obsolete equipment. Dump them before you hit the rocks below.”

The president consulted briefly with his cabinet. Indeed the ship was sinking and there were ingots
of truth in all this verbiage that had crackled out of the radio. Workers were asked to sweep the
decks of the ship clean, remove dirt, old rags, empty cans, cobwebs – everything; collect bit in
dust bins and throw it overboard. The ship rose by a few metres but turbulent winds still threatened
to dash it against the rocks below.

“You have not taken our full advice,” the radio crackled into life again.

“We told you to dump obsolete equipment including that old malfunctioning compass which you
use.”
“But how can we remove the compass?” asked the president in one of his rare replies to the high-
flyers, “How shall we guide the ship without the compass?”
“Remove that old instrument,” came back the terse reply. “We shall offer you guidance. You don’t
have to chart your own course. All you have to do is follow our ship. We know the direction to the
21st Century.”
The president consulted with his cabinet again. Their debate was short and vicious. Harsh voices
zipped and zapped and swished and swashed. Querulous old voices vibrated and thudded into
silence against high walls of resolution which had been erected. In the end, the compass, the radar,
the altimeter and the freedometer and the joystick were prised out of their fastenings and thrown
overboard. The ship rose by a few more metres but because it no longer had a radar, it was shaken
from side to side and it yo- yoed up and down, sometimes missing the ground by just a few inches.

“That’s better!” crackled the garrulous radio. “Your rise is going to be slow and almost
imperceptible, but rise you shall. Now, to give impetus to your upward trend, remove all heavy
thoughts from your brains. We can detect primitive and archaic impulses within your brains. Erase
from your mind all anachronistic and superstitious ideas. Delete African traditionalism and
mysticism. Most importantly, cast down that heavy stone bird which you consider to be the symbol
of your nationhood. It is nothing but a dead weight which tilts the prow of your ship downwards.
And be silent forever about gays and lesbians. An expert psychiatrist is going to be sent over to
your ship to help you unburden your minds.”

Hardly had the radio crackled into silence than an F46 inter-connector docked against the side of
the African ship. A fat, well fed doctor stepped out and immediately went to work unloading his
goods – western books, films, pornography videos, drugs, spirituous drinks, musical tapes and a
bale of condoms. A party that was to last forty days and forty nights immediately began aboard
the ship. At the end of it, the president was the only one who was sober enough to answer the radio,
which crackled a rather strange message:

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 “The doctor has been donated to you. He will stay among you forever. Take good care of him and
– congratulations for dumping that ugly old bird. You have gained ten metres of valuable altitude.”
(No More Plastic Balls, pp. 144 – 145)

Our probation with the world was interminable. Night after night we took the world out for dinner
and she ordered a shandy and a tuna sandwich while we knocked back lager after lager and wolfed
down platefuls of cows’ hooves. We would pay the bill and she would give the waiter a tip. At
weekends we would order whiskies then after several glasses we became incomprehensible and
had to order a taxi home. We paid the fare and the world gave the driver a tip. Later on the world
would agree to go upstairs for a cup of coffee. She took off her earrings and slipped out of her
gogo shoes and wiped off her lipstick and eye-shadow and let down her hair and perched on the
edge of the bed and chirped, “Not quite yet, not quite yet.” She counted off on her fingers our
crimes and shortcomings and reproached us but we did not listen. She said, “Stop giving ex-
combatants grants,” but we did not listen. She said, “Stop subsidising commodities,” but we did
not listen. She said, “Stop controlling prices,” but we did not listen. She said, “Devalue your
currency,” but we did not listen. She said, “Stop tampering with the land,” but we did not listen.
She said, “Stop grabbing farms,” but we did not listen. She said, “Ok, you reimburse the farmers
you kicked out,” and we said, “No, you do that. They are your offspring; your kind. Great-
grandchildren of red-necked boys who called themselves policemen and armed themselves with
rifles and rode shamelessly into our villages at dawn and planted the Union Jack and each earned
themselves miles of savanna from some dainty little woman called Queen Victoria. You give us
money to buy them out.” She said, “But we’ve already given you the money for that,” and we said,
“Peanuts!” She said, “You squandered that money. And there already is lots of government land
lying unused,” and we said, “Nonsense.” She said, “But you’ve got to look at things differently.
This is not the Twentieth Century any more. You can’t go on flogging the colonial horse. The
colonial horse is dead. You’ve got to find yourselves new horses and, new mules. You’ve got to
survive. You’ve got to change your ideas. You can’t go on excusing your corruption and
inexperience forever, and persecuting each other. You’ve got to have a rule of law.”

We were confused. We did not speak with one voice. Some of us said, “Leave the white farmers
alone,” and others said, “No way!” Some of us said, “Don’t destroy the soul of this land, the
farming industry, the economy – don’t turn this germ of a country into a land of peasants,” and
others replied, “Better be poor on your own land than be slaves forever.” In towns people clicked
their tongues in disapproval. In the country tottering grandmothers and grandfathers and newly
reformed rustics rejoiced at their pieces of their ancestral land that were restored to them, at the
little seed packs, thrifty bags of fertilisers and itinerant tractors that were availed to them.
(Writing still, pp 50 – 51)

Activity 10.11
Write a critical appreciation of the following passage with reference to form, imagery and rhythm.

Then one afternoon the sun had rings around it. Its light was at once sickly and remote; a sure sign
that the rains were coming. That night – we were at prep; it must have been at about nine – thirty
– a great charge of lightning exploded, striking the humid air with a sinister violence. At once
massive rocks of rain hurled themselves down upon the sleeping earth. The noise was deafening
to the ear, the sight awesome to the eye, and the great torrents almost startled me into premature
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senility. Such a madness of the elements did not seem possible. Rude buckets of water poured over
the school. It rained as though it would flood us out of our minds. It drummed on the asbestos
roofs. It drummed on the window panes. It dinned into our minds. It drummed upon us until we
could not stand it. It poured darkly; plashed; gutted; broke down upon our heads like the smack of
a fist. It roared, splashed, soaked, stuttered stertorously down from the black spaces of the huge
mindless universe, It rose. It swelled. It cracked its sides like a whip. Silver fish seemed to leap in
a frenzy by the bucketful. The mud plash and sucking of it churned round and round in our minds.
It chilled up to the shoulders of one’s soul. The delirium of rain shook the school into a feverish
excitement. The eruption was like a boil that bursts and splatters everything with its black acids.
The angry skies drove boulders of rain against the school until we felt our very sanity was under a
restless siege. The singing fury of it struck little needles into the matter of our brains. It boomed.
It dammed up. It welled. It roared the lions out of voice. It spilled down into our minds, soaked
our words, and left us open-mouthed. Mouth-wet. The air reeked of nothing else. Its evil sweet
tang stuck like glue to our clothes. Things floated in it and they were our former assurance. At the
cemetery the cheaper graves were gutted with it and the little wooden stakes and crosses were
swept away. A drunken teacher who recklessly dared it was never seen again. That rain, it knocked
more than the breath out of you. That rain, it drummed the drum until the drum burst… It was a
great river plunging over a falls and roaring a cerebral rage that can only be broken by the rocks
below. The rain, it broke down the workers’ compound; it felled the huts with its brute knuckle-
duster. It knocked down the mud walls and brought the flimsy roofs crushing down upon the
unlucky occupants. All over the compound men, women and children fought for their homes that
night, building, rebuilding, groaning against its blows until once again the walls of that malice
came crushing down. And still the sky dribbled compulsively upon the earth. That rain; it chattered
its little sharp teeth; it foamed at the mouth against everything.
(D. Marachera.House of Hunger, pp 31 – 32)

Activity 10.12
Compare and contrast the two extracts that follow in terms of the cinematic or documentary
technique adopted in their composition.

They continued to hide in the cave on the side of the mountain for several days surviving on baobab
fruit and drinking water that they had collected from a deep pool at the foot of the mountain, afraid
to venture anywhere because everyday the spotter plane buzzed in the sky, scouring the dry veldt
for victims; and behind in the dark cave, Gondo groaned in pain. This was the only noise that broke
the interminable silence. Munashe spent the long, endless hours watching the animals from the
adjacent Mutusadonha wilderness come to the water hole, and this deferred the pain which was
lingering in the background and marring the landscape.

The animals that came first were the buffalo, just after sunrise. They came to the water hole and
then went to a salt-lick a short distance away. There scabby skins were dust brown, the colours of
the African dry season. They huffed and gruffed, elbowing each other out of the way, swishing
their short tails and tossing their massive heads into the air to chase away the flies that swarmed
around their flared nostrils and their small unpredictable yellow eyes.

Then, during the heat of the day, came the elephants, lumbering monsters that looked as if they
belonged to some pre-historic period. They came in the blazing sun and walked lazily to the water
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hole. Occasionally an old bull, with tusks as long as the tangled branches of the motionless mopani
trees, would let out a sharp cry and then other members of the herd would become alert and raise
their floppy ears which normally looked like wet blankets hung on a washing line to dry. After
quenching their huge thirsts, they played like children, splashing about in the water, spurting it
through their trunks held high like the trumpet he had played in the school band at Kutama Mission.
They left one after the other, as silently as they had come, leaving behind mountains of foliage-
laced dung that his mother had told him was cure for nose-bleeding and a host of other common
ailments.

The packs of howling hyenas came running just before sunset, as if, like Bazooka, they were being
pursued by invisible phantoms. They hurriedly lapped the water and scampered back into the
forest. Unlike the elephant and the buffalo, the hyena was a familiar animal. Munashe remembered
the first time he had seen one- in a trap set by his grandfather after these furtive, ugly animals had
stolen his goats. The trap or chizarira, was a tight rectangular enclosure built of heavy logs into
which once the animal was shut, it could never escape. Munashe and his friends found the trapped
animal, alive and howling, stuck inside it……..

The lions arrived just as the sun was setting; lethal ambushes along the game trail that led to the
water hole. But in all the days he watched them, he never witnessed a killing. So he heard the lions
roar angrily, as they shifted their heavy bodies around the water hole before disappearing into the
night; he shivered as the two of them took turns to guard the mouth of the cave…..
(Echoing Silences, pp. 10 – 11)

The bus came and they climbed silently on board, and after the bus conductor had loaded their
baggage onto the roof and tied it down, the bus pulled away from the terminus and droned up
Christmas Pass. Munashe looked out of the window at the dark night and saw the small town, still
asleep, snuggled in the valley below, its myriad of constellations of yellow, blue, red and green
fluorescent lights flickering like precious stones taken from the country’s womb……..

All the way from Harare, down through the Beatrice commercial farming area, the land on both
sides of the road was occupied by highly mechanised farms whose homesteads with their satellite
dishes showed through the last butterflied bauhinia flowers, flouncing purple bells of profusion of
jacarandas, and the bright red of a few early flamboyants, and swaying blue gums. Across the
Mupfure River, a short distance beyond the small farming town of Beatrice, the rolling landscape
was punctuated by monstrous combine harvesters stream-rolling across a field and a cheese-
making factory on a dairy farm not far away. Here and there, shoulder to shoulder in neat rows,
stood the freshly whitewashed matchbox houses of the farm labourers dappled in the shadows of
the pink-leaved musasa and an occasional flat topped acacia.

And then about twenty kilometres off the Beatrice Road, along the road leading to Mamina Dam,
the strip-tar came to an abrupt end and neglect and deterioration set in. It showed in the road’s
state of disrepair; the corrugated ridges zigzagging across the road, the deep mounds of dangerous
sand at the edges and the narrow, hanging, derelict bridges, Munashe could tell, even with the eyes
closed, that they had left the commercial farming area. But what he might not have realised, had
he known the area, was that farms earmarked for resettlement lay idle in the surrounding land.

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Soon as he sat in the dust-laden bus, he felt the rapid transition of the landscape as they bumped
past those farms that had already been resettled. And when the old bus finally crossed the narrow
bridge slung low across a heavily silted river, his eyes were stung by the sight of familiar grass
thatched huts, overgrazed pastures, and depleted forests whose remains lay in the small heaps of
firewood along the road. Then he knew – and he felt the familiar jolt of painful recognition and
acceptance – that they had entered the Jomupani resettlement area: land occupied by his people.
And then, the Kadhani communal lands.

As they crossed the dry river, Munashe felt an unexpected urge of his old anger as he looked at the
tired communal land, and wondered how anybody – how his people – could be expected to eke a
living out of such denuded and barren earth. And then through the window he saw a dust-devil
spiralling from the naked land, lifting tufts of thatching grass from the huddled huts and tossing it
into the arid sky before being swallowed up by the distance. The huts followed winding paths that
seemed to lead nowhere save to the remnants of another relentless drought. A dry and overcrowded
land. Scattered acacia bushes were the only living things breaking the monotony. The blue Ngezi
Hills to the east stood like bewildered sentinels watching over the ravages of a land without rain.
His sense of pain and loneliness were as familiar as his feelings about the war.

As they crossed the Ngezi River, Munashe prayed silently that the sluggish river, hampered as it
was by weed and sand, would not decide to stop flowing and dry up, tired. A woman with a baby
on her back stood on the bank talking to another woman across the baleful green water. To
Munashe, they appeared to be talking to the river, pleading with it to continue flowing. And in the
dry sky above them, the sun burned fiercely. Nothing spoke of promise. The tired villages stretched
into the distance, limp and motionless, as if they too had given up living a long time ago. Munashe
strained his eyes to have a closer look at a group of people talking to each other by the road side
to see if there was anyone among them whom he knew; he was home.
(Echoing Silences, pp 40 – 41)

Activity 10.13
The following extract comes from George Orwell’s essay “Why I write.” Write a critical appraisal
of the extract paying attention to the author’s motives for writing. You can enrich your appreciation
by referring to the role of an African writer in an African setting.

As for the need to describe things, I knew all about it already. So it is clear what kind of books I
wanted to write, in as far as I could be said to want to write books at that time. I wanted to write
enormous naturalistic novels with unhappy endings, full of detailed descriptions and arresting
similes, and also full of purple passages in which words were used partly for the sake of their
sound. And in fact my first completed novel, “Burmese Days”, which I wrote when I was thirty
but projected much earlier, is rather that kind of book.

I give this background information because I do not think one can assess a writer’s motives without
knowing something of his early development. His subject matter will be determined by the age he
lives in – at least this is true in tumultuous, revolutionary ages like our own – but before he ever
begins to write he will have acquired an emotional attitude from which he will never completely
escape. It is his job, no doubt, to discipline his temperament, and avoid getting stuck at some
immature stage, or in some perverse mood: but if he escapes from his early influences altogether,
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he will have killed his impulse to write. Putting aside the need to earn a living, I think there are
four great motives for writing, at any rate for writing prose. They exist in different degrees in every
writer, and in any one writer the proportions will vary from time to time, according to the
atmosphere in which he is living. They are:

(1) Sheer egoism: Desire to seem clever, to be talked about, to be remembered after death, to get
your own back on grown-ups who snubbed you in childhood, and so forth. It is humbug to
pretend that is not a motive, a strong one. Writers share this characteristic with scientists,
artists, politicians, lawyers, soldiers, successful businessmen- in short, with the whole pot crust
of humanity. The great mass of human beings are not acutely selfish. After about the age thirty
they abandon individual ambition – in many cases, indeed, they almost abandon the sense of
being individuals at all – and live chiefly for others, or are simply smothered under drudgery.
But there is also the minority of gifted, wilful people who are determined to live their own
lives to the end, and writers belong in this class. Serious writers, I should say, are on the whole
more vain and self-centred than journalists, though less interested in money.

(2) Aesthetic enthusiasm: Perception of beauty in the external world, or, on the other hand, in
words and their right arrangement. Pleasure in the impact of one sound on another, in the
firmness of good prose or the rhythm of a good story. Desire to share an experience which one
feels is valuable and ought not to be missed. The aesthetic motive is very feeble in a lot of
writers, or even a pamphleteer or a writer of textbooks will have pet words or phrases which
appeal to him for non-utilitarian reasons; or he may feel strongly about typography, width of
margin, and so on. Above the level of a railway guide, no book is quite free from aesthetic
considerations.

(3) Historical impulse. Desire to see things as they are, to find out true facts and store them up for
the use of posterity.

(4) Political purpose - using the word “political” in its widest possible sense. Desire to push the
world in a certain direction, to alter other people’s idea of the kind of society that they should
strive after. Once again, no book is genuinely free from political bias. The opinion that art
should have nothing to do with politics is itself a political attitude.

10.4 Summary

In this unit we have exposed you to more passages and poems for practice as well as hints on how
to approach these passages. It is our hope that the guiding notes you were given proved useful in
your unlocking of the meanings of the passages set. Later you have been given passages without
any hints for answering. This implies that by now you are now sufficiently armed to deal with any
literary piece. We hope also that we have opened up your mind to the vast vista of what the
literature landscape provides to you. We hope that the ideas raised in this module, used in tandem
with those from the other literature modules on this course will make you a very good student of
literature.

Unit 10, which is the last unit of the module, guides you through the many literary terms that we
have been using, perhaps without fully explaining.
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References

Chihota, C. and Muponde, R. (2000). No More Plastic Balls, Harare: College Press.

Halliday, M. (1978). Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and
Meaning, Michigan: University Park Press.

Jambaya, B. (Unpublished Short Story)

Kanengoni, A. (1997). Echoing Silences. Harare: College Press.

Katiyo, W. (1976). A Son of the Soil. Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House.

Marechera, D. (1978). House of Hunger. London: Heinemann.

Parton, A. (1948). Cry the Beloved Country, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

www.amazon.co.uk/pidgin.../s?...Pidgin%20languages... – Cached.

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 UNIT 11
LITERARY TERMS
11.0 Introduction
The following are some of the literary terms that are generally used when analysing literary texts.
Please note that the list below is not exhaustive of literary terms. You will come across more of
these in your study of literature. In this unit, therefore, we mean to equip you with some of the
literary terms that are quite central to your study of literary works. The terms we selected in this
unit apply to the different genres of literature.

11.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define selected literary terms
 identify literary devices used in a text
 comment on literary techniques used in a literary text
 apply literary terms in textual analysis
 discuss the effectiveness of literary techniques in any given text

11.2 Selected Terms Defined

In this unit we group the selected literary terms in alphabetical order. The first section concentrates
on literary terms starting from A to F. Section two is based on literary terms from G to L. The third
section is from M to R, while section four is from S to the end of the alphabet.

11.2.1 Section 1: A to F
The following are selected literary terms defined in the A to F category:

Act: One of the major divisions of a play. Classical theory is based on five-act plays. This is the
case with Shakespearean plays. They have five acts.
Allegory: The use of people, objects and events in such a way that more than one level of meaning
is conveyed. Sometimes, allegories are used to a moral or a series of moral lessons (Todd 1998:
107). Parables and fables are the most ordinary forms of allegory.
Alliteration: Repetition of initial sounds in a series of words, for example, ‘she sang sweet songs’.
Here, you ought to take note of the repetition of the letter ‘s’ in the example given.
Allusion: A figure of speech that refers to a historical or literary figure.
Ambiguity: A word that may be interpreted in two or more ways, each valid in the immediate
context. An example of ambiguity is illustrated below:
You are driving a relative to her home for the first time. You approach a junction and ask her, “Are
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we turning left?” Your relative replies “right”. In this case, it is not clear whether ‘right’ means
that you are right, it is a left turn, or whether it means you should turn right, not left.
Please note that ambiguity is an acceptable literary technique. It has a strong effect on emotions as
it creates mystery and suspense.
Asides: Brief comments by an actor who addresses the audience but is assumed not to be heard by
the other characters on the stage. This is a technique employed by Shakespeare in most of his plays.
Character: A fictional representation of a person (or animal). Characters may be described as
either flat or round.

 Round characters are usually main characters and are fully developed so that the reader can
understand their personality and motivations.
 Flat characters are usually minor characters that are barely developed or may be
stereotypes. For example, baboon in most folktales is presented as foolish and slow on the
uptake, always outwitted by hare the trickster. Baboon is, thus, a stereotype that embodies
foolishness and ignorance.
Comedy: Any literary work but especially a play, commonly having a happy ending. For example,
William Shakespeare’s play, Twelfth Night (1959) is a comedy.
Diction: The writer’s choice of words. A writer’s selection of words is important in the overall
artistic product, hence, the need to carefully choose the right word at the right time.
Dramatic irony: A situation that depends on the audience's knowing something that a character
has not realized, or on one character's knowing something other characters do not know. This is
also typical of most Shakespearean plays (Holman and Harmony, 1996).
Dramatis personae: These are the characters in a play.
Fable: A story with a moral lesson, often employing animals who talk and act like human beings.
Flashback: A scene inserted into a film, novel, story or play, showing events which happened at
an earlier time. Where flashback is used as a literary technique, the plot does not follow the linear
narrative or simple sequence of events. For example, Westerhorf (2005) makes use of flashback
in Unlucky in Love. The reader meets Rumbi, the main character, when she is struggling to come
to terms with her HIV positive status. The story of her childhood and youth comes later. This
enhances the value of Westerhorf’s literary work.
Foil: A character who serves to contrast with another character. A hypocritical character, for
example, may help emphasise the hero/heroine's honesty.
Form: the structure of a work of art.

Activity 11.1
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1. List at least five plays that are comedies, outlining the qualities that make them comedies.
2. Give three examples of statements that are ambiguous. Explain the possible meanings for each
of the examples you give.
3. Write a paragraph of five lines, making use of alliteration as a literary device.
4. Discuss the difference between a round and a flat character. Use examples to illustrate your
views.
5. Assess the importance of diction in any work of art you have studied.

11.2.2 Section 2: G to L
The following are selected literary terms defined in the G to L category:

Genre: Type of literary work, for example, the short story, the novel, drama, poetry.
Hero/Heroine: The central character in a literary work, also referred to as the protagonist.
Historical criticism: Seeks to explain a literary work in terms of the author’s life and the historical
context and circumstances in which it was written (Pickering and Hoeper, 1981: 299).
Humour: The most general of the terms referring to the laughable, or that which evokes laughter.
Wole Soyinka’s play, The Lion and the Jewel (1963)is an example of a work of art that has
humorous scenes, particularly the scenes when the ‘modern’ Lakunle is made to appear an object
of ridicule.
Hyperbole: Figurative speech that depends on intentional overstatement or exaggeration. ‘l am so
hungry, l could eat an elephant’, is an example of hyperbole.
Image(ry): This refers to the use of language to descriptively represent things, actions, or even
ideas. These are words and phrases that describe the concrete experience of the five senses. For
example, ‘nothing is so beautiful as spring’ is an image that appeals to the sense of sight, while
‘an aroma was coming from the freshly baked bread’ appeals to the sense of smell.

Irony: A device by which a writer expresses a meaning contradictory to the stated one. The reader
is there to perceive the hidden meaning where the sense intended is the opposite of the literal one.
Irony is the stylistic technique of reversal or transformation of the literal meaning. Language can
be used sarcastically to call for the reader to reverse its meaning. Austen often uses irony as a
stylistic device to criticise or poke fun at someone. Aspects such as overstatements,
understatements and high-powered diction form irony. In Emma, Austen uses figurative language
for ironic effect when she writes, Emma “could not be complying, she dreaded being quarrelsome;
her heroism reached only to silence”, (Austen, 1816: 114). The word heroism is too strong to be
used in this context, as it is normally used in situations such as war, which call for a lot of bravery.
Therefore, referring to going out for a party in a bad weather is an overstatement that brings about
irony.
Literal: Accurate, exact, concrete language that is not figurative.
Lyric: A short, songlike poem, expressing a personal thought, mood or feeling.

Activity 11.2
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1. Write five sentences using images that appeal to each of the five senses.
2. Comment on the significance of irony in any literary text that you have studied.
3. Discuss the literary techniques that are employed in the poem below:

A Living Challenge
As if sent by the devil,
To torment me in this poor condition,
The monster swallows up all my offspring.
Under extreme situations of penury,
Care I provided.
Soiled napkins,
The emotional cost of mothering again!
Yet death would not spare.
Grieved I am, to accompany them one after the other,
To those fresh mounds of soil.

Happiness, never have I known,

As wife and mother,
Fulfilled, my life never has been.
Abuse, exposed to I have been,
Neglected, I have suffered.
All fruit borne,
Sour it has gone.

Painful, still it is,

To mourn my departed children,
So believed,
I bewitched.
Stigma, my worst enemy.

Baby sitter, helper in child- raising,

History, now it is,
Second motherhood approaches.
Full time parent, I become,
Sole provider, carer of infants and children,
Circumstances force me to be,
Aged and deprived as I am.

Wounded spirit, poverty- stricken,

To me, still the innocent souls look up,
The straw that breaks the camel's back.
Venture into farming- the idea lures,
Yet a sense of realism strikes,
Resources, energy and strength,
All sucked up, in years so travelled.
Challenges of old age!
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 Food, with the help of well-wishers, I provide
Yet to just look at the young sickly beings,
Emotionally, it drains.
Medical and healthcare backup services,
Still to come my way,
Carer of the terminally ill orphans.

Anxiety gnaws,
Listen to me, they do not.
What will stop their laissez faire attitude?
Am I doing the best,
To equip them with life skills?
A living challenge,
It is!
(Chitando, 2006, Unpublished Poem).

11.2.3 Section 3: M to R
The following are selected literary terms defined in the M to R category:

Metaphor: A figure of speech in which two opposite objects are compared by identification or
substitution of one for the other, for example, ‘that woman is a lion’. This is a metaphor
commenting on the aspect of bravery exhibited by the woman in this example.

Metonym: A figure of speech in which the name of an object or idea is applied to another with
which it is closely related, or of which it is associated. For example, the crown is associated with
kingship and can be made to represent a king.

Mood: The emotion experienced by the author when writing. It is the attitude adopted by the
author towards the subject.

Motif: An idea, theme, character, situation or element that recurs in literature. One example is the
journey motif in most African American literary works where one attains high levels of
consciousness after embarking on a journey. This journey motif is also quite significant in
Caribbean literature in works such as Aime Cesaire’s Notebook of a Return to My Native Land
(1995) and Kamau Brathwaite’s The Arrivants (1967).

Novel: An extended narrative in prose. Typically, the novel relates to a series of events, or it
follows the history of a character or group of characters through a period of time. Examples include
Mungoshi’s Waiting for the Rain (1975), Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958), Dangarembga’s
Nervous Conditions (1861) and Dickens’ Great Expectations. The list is not exhaustive since a lot
of ground has been covered in this area.

Onomatopoeia: A word whose sound resembles what it describes. Examples are words such as
snap, crackle and pop. The sound of the word reverberates the sense/meaning of the word.
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Oxymoron: A phrase combining two seemingly incompatible elements. Examples are ‘visible
darkness’, ‘painful joy’, ‘wise fool’ and ‘sweet pain’.
Parable: Story designed to convey a moral lesson.
Paradox: Self-contradictory statement, but on serious consideration, reveals an unexpected
legitimate meaning, for example, ‘to be cruel in order to be kind’.
Personification: A figure of speech in which inanimate objects or abstract ideas are endowed with
human qualities or actions. Examples are ‘jealousy’s rankling tooth’ and ‘the river was breathing
after the heavy rains’. In other words, we are attributing human qualities to things that are not
human.
Plot: The way in which the narrative events are arranged. Generally, plots have the same basic
elements. Some of these elements are explained below:

 Exposition - the explanation of the story's background material necessary for the reader to
understand the story.
 Complication/rising action- conflict is developed and intensified
 Crisis - the peak in the story's action. It is the moment of highest dramatic tension.
 Climax - the scene which presents the story's decisive action.
 Resolution- the major conflict, issue or problem is resolved.
Poetic justice: The doctrine that good should be rewarded and wickedness punished, reaping of
just rewards.
Point of view/Narrative technique: The angle from which a story is told. The following are
examples of types of the narrator the author can use in a literary text:

 First-person narrator. Here the narrator uses "I" to tell his or her story. The first-person
narrator may be a major character in the story or simply an observer.
 Third-person narrator is not actually a character in the story.
 Omniscient third-person narrator can reveal the thoughts of all the characters. Omniscient
means ‘all-knowing’.
 A limited omniscient narrator only reveals the thoughts and feelings of one or a few
characters.
Protagonist: The chief character in a literary work.
Pun: Word-play, involving words with similar sounds but different meanings.
Resolution/denouement: The outcome of the story. It is the information that ties up all, or most
of the story's loose ends.
Rhetorical question: A question to which no response is expected.

Activity 11.3

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1. Paying attention to the basic elements in a story-line, outline the plot of any literary work that
you have studied.
2. Discuss the mood exhibited by the two characters in the following extract from Journey’s End
(Sherriff, 1929).

Raleigh: Did you play rugger?

Osborne: Yes. But most reffing at school in the last few years.
Raleigh: Are you a schoolmaster, then?
Osborne: Yes. I must apologise.
Raleigh: Oh, I don’t mind schoolmasters. (Hastily). I-I-mean, I never met one outside
a school.

Osborne: They go out sometimes.

Raleigh (laughing): Who did you play for?
Osborne: The Harlequins.
Raleigh: I say, really!
Osborne: I played for the English team on one great occasion.
Raleigh: What! For England!
Osborne: I was awfully lucky to get the chance. It’s a long time ago now.
Raleigh: (with awe): Oh, but, good Lord! That must have been simply topping. Where
did you play?

Osborne: Wing three.

Raleigh: I say, I-I never realized – you’d play for England?

Osborne: Tuppence to talk to me now! Anyhow, don’t breeze it about.

Raleigh: Don’t the others know?
Osborne: We never talk about rugger.
Raleigh: They ought to know. It’d make them feel jolly bucked.
Osborne (laughing): It doesn’t make much difference out here!
(Act II, Scene I, pp. 40-41/37-38).

11.2.4 Section: S to Z
143
This section is meant to stretch from S to Z. However, you will realise that there are no literary
terms that were included from U to Z. Therefore, essentially, the selected terms in this section
range from S to T:

Sarcasm: Bitter expression, frequently involving irony as a device, whereby what is stated is the
opposite of what is actually meant. For example, ‘how clever you were to throw the baby away
together with the bath water!’ Sarcasm is meant to hurt.
Satire: Ridicule of an idea/ poke fun at an idea, person or things in order to correct or bring
desirable change. Wole Soyinka’s Kongi’s Harvest (1967) is an example of satire.
Scene: Usually limited to drama. It refers to the divisions of the action within an act.
Setting: The historical, physical, geographical, and psychological location where a fictional work
takes place. In simpler terms, it is the time and place in which the action of a story or play occurs.
Short story: A short work of narrative prose fiction. It usually develops only a single character in
depth. It is shorter than a novel. No More Plastic Balls (2000) is a collection of short stories.

Simile: An expressed comparison between two unlike objects, usually using like or as, for
example, ‘the man is as ugly as sin’. A simile thus compares two seemingly unlike things using
the words like or as.
Soliloquy: A speech in which a character, alone on the stage, addresses himself or herself. It is a
dramatic way of letting the audience know the character's thoughts and feelings.
Sonnet: A fourteen line poem following a strict rhyming scheme. Study the example below:

Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day (William Shakespeare)

Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate;
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines
And often is his gold complexion dimm’d;
But thy eternal summer shall not fade,
Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st
Nor shall Death brag thou wand’rest in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st.
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
(Quoted in Padayache and Chimbetete, 2007: 75).
Stanza: A group of lines in a poem that forms a metrical or thematic unit. Stanza could be taken
as paragraphs in a poem. Below is a poem written in two stanzas:

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 Lonely
I am a lone star falling, falling
Falling aimlessly through vast skies
Frightened, bone-chilled, shivery
Alone in the great, wide universe
Belonging to no-one, nowhere
A long star falling freely through the emptiness
Burning its way into nothingness
With no-one to call – to protect
I am a lone pebble rolling, rolling
Rolling aimlessly down the riverbed
Flustered, confused, unnerved
Bruising against every stone
Smothered by the thick weight of water
Knowing not where I go
Nor where will end
My soul wealth ripped off by every roll
(Sandi, 2011: 94).

Stream of consciousness: The narrative method of representing the inner workings of a

character’s mind. Virginia Woolf’s To the Lighthouse (1927) extensively uses the stream of
consciousness technique.
Style: The way a writer selects and arranges words to express ideas. Style incorporates aspects
such as the writer’s choice of words, figurative language, imagery, symbolism, and sentence
length.
Sub-plot: A secondary action or complication within a fictional or dramatic that often serves to
reinforce or contrast the main plot.
Suspense: An expectant uncertainty concerning the outcome of the plot, event and so on.
Symbol: A person, object, action, place, or event, that in addition to its literal or denotative
meanings, suggests a more complex meaning or range of meanings.
Symbolism: It is derived from the word symbol. It refers to an object or action that represents
something beyond itself. For instance, the cross represents Christianity.
Theme: The central or dominant idea of a work of fiction. It is that which indicates the subject of
a work of art. It is more frequently employed to designate the central idea of a work. For example,
the main theme of Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958) is that of change of a traditional society that
comes about as a result of its contact and conflict with Western culture.
Tone: The attitude of the speaker or author of a work toward the subject matter.
Tragedy: An imitation of an action that is serious, with a sad ending, Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar
is an example of a tragedy. The play portrays the related events that lead to the downfall of the
145
protagonist, Julius Caesar. Generally, in classic tragedy, the protagonist should be of extraordinary
moral, intellectual, or social stature.
Tragicomedy: A play in which the action, though apparently leading to catastrophe, is reversed
to bring about a happy ending.
Tragic hero: The name given to the protagonist of a tragedy.

Activity 11.4
1. Through the use of examples, state the difference between sarcasm and satire.
2. Analyse the poem below, paying attention to the literary devices that are used to convey the
meaning of the poem:

If We Must Die
If we must die, let it not be like hogs
Hunted and penned in an inglorious spot,
While round us bark the mad and hungry dogs,
Making their mock at our accursed lot
If we must die, Oh let us nobly die,
So that our precious blood may not be shed
In vain; then even the monstrous we defy
Shall be constrained to honour us through dead!
O, kinsmen! We must meet the common foe!
Though far outnumbered let us show us brave
And for their thousand blows deal one death– blow!
What though before us lies the open grave?
Like man we’ll face the murderous, cowardly pack,
Pressed to the wall, dying, but fighting back!
(Claude McKay in Johnson, 1922)

11.3 Summary
In this unit we sought to expose you to the basic literary terms that are useful in analysing literary
text. Selected terms were defined. Examples were used to substantiate some of the definitions
given. We also equipped you with skills of critiquing a literary text. Activities given in the different
sub-headings trained you in commentary and application of literary terms in textual analysis. You
were also tasked to evaluate the helpfulness of literary techniques in any given text. We highlighted
that the list of terms that are dealt with in this unit is not exhaustive. Therefore, you are expected
to identify more literary terms and apply them in the course of your literary studies.

References
Achebe, C. (1958). Things Fall Apart. Oxford: Heinemann.

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Austin, J. (1815). Emma: A Novel in Three Volumes. London: John Murray.
Brathwaite, E.K. (1967). The Arrivants. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cesaire, A. (1995). Notebook of a Return to My Native Land. Newcastle Upon Tyne:
Bloodaxe.

Chihota, C. and Muponde, R. (Eds.). (2000). No More Plastic Balls: New Voices in the
Zimbabwean Short Story. Harare: College Press.

Chitando, A. (2006). ‘A Living Challenge’. Unpublished Poem.

Dangarembga, T. (1988). Nervous Conditions. Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House.
Dickens, C. (1861). Great Expectations. Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson and Sons Limited.
Holman, C.H. and Harmony, W. (1996). A Handbook to Literature. New York: Prentice
Hall.

Johnson, J.W. (Ed). (1922). The Book of American Negro Poetry. New York: Harcourt
Brace.

Mungoshi, C. (1975). Waiting for the Rain. Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House.
Padayache, N. and Chimbetete. S.K. (2007). Poetry Appreciation Guide for ‘A’ Level.
Harare: College Press.
Pickering, J.H. and Hoeper, D. (1981). Concise Companion to Literature.
Pennsylvania: Macmillan.

Sandi, Z. (2011). Lonely, in Mbire, M.Z. Ghetto Diary and Other Poems. Harare:
Zimbabwe Publishing House, pages 86 - 94.

Shakespeare, W. (1959). Julius Caesar. Essex: Longman Group Limited.

Shakespeare, W. (1959). Twelfth Night. Essex: Longman Group Limited.
Sherriff, R.C. (1929). Journey's End, a Play in Three Acts (First edition ed.). New York:
Brentano's.

Soyinka, W. (1967). Kongi's Harvest. London: Oxford University Press.

Soyinka, W. (1963). The Lion and the Jewel. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Todd, L. (1998). York Notes: The Tempest, William Shakespeare. Edinburgh: York
Press.
Westerhof, T. (2005). Unlucky in Love. Harare: Public Personalities Against AIDS Trust.
Woolf, V. (1927). To the Lighthouse. London: Horgath Press.

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