Intrudection

Statistics and Data Analysis
for Nursing Research

Second Edition
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Data Analysis in an
Evidence-Based Practice Environment
Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Statistics and Data Analysis for Nursing Research, Second Edition
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Denise F. Polit
All rights reserved.
Research and Evidence-Based
Nursing
• Evidence-based practice (EBP): Use of
best clinical evidence in making patient
care decisions
• Best source of evidence: Systematic

research

Denise F. Polit
What is Research?
• Research is systematic inquiry that uses

orderly, disciplined methods (including
statistics) to answer questions or solve
problems
• The aim of nursing research is to
generate evidence that can contribute to
EBP for nurses

Denise F. Polit
EBP Questions
• How reliable is the evidence?

• What is the magnitude of effects?
• How precise is the estimate of effects?
• Answering these questions requires an

understanding of statistics

Denise F. Polit
What is Statistics?
• Statistics is the term for a collection of

mathematical methods of organizing,
summarizing, analyzing, and interpreting
information gathered in a study

Denise F. Polit
Data and Data Analysis
• In the context of a study, the information

gathered to address research questions is
data
• In quantitative research, data are usually
quantitative (numbers)
• Quantitative data are subjected to
statistical analysis

Denise F. Polit
Where Do Data Come From?
• Example 1: Interviews/questionnaires
– Question: On a scale from 0 to 10, please rate
your level of fatigue
– Answer (Data):
 Person 1: 7
 Person 2: 3
 Person 3: 10
 Etc.

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(cont’d)
• Example 2: Observation
– Observer: What is the patient’s pressure ulcer
stage (1-4)?
– Rating (Data):
 Person 1: 1 (Stage 1)
 Etc.

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(cont’d)
• Example 3: Biophysiologic measurements

– Recorder: Patient’s oxygen saturation
– Measurement via pulse oximeter (Data):
 Person 1: 98%
 Person 2: 95%
 Person 3: 89%
 Etc.

Denise F. Polit
From Problem to Data Analysis
• Research problem identified (e.g., high
stress in hospitalized children) 
• Research question asked: Will a music
intervention reduce stress? 
• Concepts defined/measured 
• Data collected 
• Data analyzed through statistics
– Of course, a lot of things happen in between
each step!
Denise F. Polit
Concepts and Variables
• Concept: An abstraction inferred from

characteristics or behaviors
– Examples: height, sex, respiratory rate
• In quantitative studies, concepts are
called variables
• A variable is something that takes on
different values
– Height, sex, and respiratory rate vary from
one person to the next
Denise F. Polit
Types of Variables
• Important distinction in most studies

(with implications for analysis):
– Independent variable: The hypothesized
cause of, or influence on, an outcome
– Dependent variable: The outcome of
interest, hypothesized to depend on, or be
caused by, the independent variable

Denise F. Polit
Examples of Independent and
Dependent Variables
• Independent variable (IV): Smoking
• Dependent variable (DV): Lung cancer
IV  DV ?

Denise F. Polit
Independent Variables
• Some IVs are existing characteristics (like
people’s smoking behavior)
• Others are created by researchers when
they introduce an intervention to some
people (e.g., a nursing intervention for
smoking cessation)
IV  DV?

Denise F. Polit
Research Questions
• Research questions are the queries
researchers seek to answer through the
collection and analysis of data
• Research questions communicate the
research variables and the population (the
entire group of interest)
– Example: In hospitalized children (population)
does music (IV) reduce stress (DV)?

Denise F. Polit
Variable Definition
• In studies, variables need to be defined

• Conceptual definition: The theoretical
meaning of the underlying concept
• Operational definition: The precise set of
operations and procedures used to
measure the variable

Denise F. Polit
Discrete Versus Continuous
Variables
• Variables have different qualities with
regard to measurement potential
– Discrete variables
– Continuous variables

Denise F. Polit
Discrete Variables
• Discrete variable: Categories are
indivisible, with a finite number of
values between two points
• Examples:
– Number of siblings: 0, 1, 2,
etc. (1.2 is not possible)
– Number of hospital beds
(129.034 beds is not possible)

Denise F. Polit
Continuous Variables
• Continuous variable: Can (in theory)
assume an infinite number of values
between two points
• Examples:
– Time elapsed since birth
(e.g., 55.0359 years)

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Measurement
• Measurement: Involves assigning

numbers to qualities of people or objects
to designate the quantity of the attribute,
according to a set of rules

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Levels of Measurement
• Level of Measurement: A system of

classification with four types of
measurement rules that affect the kind of
statistical analysis that is appropriate:
– Nominal
– Ordinal
– Interval
– Ratio

Denise F. Polit
Nominal Measurement
• Nominal Measurement:
– Lowest form of measurement
– Numbers are used simply as labels to name categories
• Example: Sex, coded with 2 arbitrary numbers
0 1 0 1 2 4
It does not matter what the codes are, the numbers have no
quantitative meaning (although codes like 0 and 1 are more
sensible)
• Numbers cannot be treated mathematically
Denise F. Polit
Ordinal Measurement
• Ordinal Measurement:
– Uses numbers to designate ordering on an attribute
– Conveys some information about amount
– But does not indicate distance between values
• Example: Degree of pain
1 = None 2 = Some 3 = A lot
_|__________|_______________________________|_
1 2 3
Distances are not equal, and are not known

Averages do not make sense
Denise F. Polit
Interval Measurement
• Interval Measurement:
– Also uses numbers to designate ordering on an attribute and
conveys information about amount
– Distance between values are assumed to be equal
– Averages can be computed
• Example: Ambient temperature (Fahrenheit)
|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
The difference between 70 and 75 degrees is the same as the difference

between 75 and 80 degrees

Denise F. Polit
Ratio Measurement
• Ratio Measurement:
– Uses numbers to designate ordering, conveys
information about amount, distances are equal
– AND there is a real, rational zero
– Averages can be computed
• Example: Medication dose (e.g., number of
milligrams, number of pills)

Denise F. Polit
Measurement Level Comparison
• At each successive measurement level,
there is more information, and greater
analytic flexibility
• If you start with ratio measures, you can

collapse information to a lower-level
measure, but the reverse is not true
• Higher-level scales are usually (though

not always) preferred
Denise F. Polit
Comparison of Levels
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Classification ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Magnitude ✓ ✓ ✓
Equal Interval ✓ ✓
True Zero ✓
Math Permissible Count Count, Count, Rank, Count,
Rank Add, Subtract Rank, Add,
Subtract,
Multiply,
Divide

Denise F. Polit
Types of Statistical Analysis
• Calculation
– Manual versus computerized
• Purpose
– Descriptive versus inferential
• Complexity
– Univariate, bivariate, multivariate

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Descriptive Statistics
• Researchers collect their data from a

sample of study participants—a subset of
the population of interest
• Descriptive statistics describe and

summarize data about the sample
– Examples: Percent female in the sample,
average weight of participants
Denise F. Polit
Inferential Statistics
• Researchers obtain data from a sample but often
want to draw conclusions about a population
• Parameter: A descriptive index for a population
– Example: Average daily caloric intake of all 10-year-old
children in New York
• Statistic: A descriptive index for a sample
– Example: Average daily caloric intake of 300 10-year-
old children from three particular NY schools

Denise F. Polit
Inferential Statistics (cont’d)
• Researchers use statistics to make
inferences about parameters
• Inferential statistics, based on laws of
probability, help researchers draw objective
conclusions about a population, using data
from a sample
• Inferential statistics are often used to test
hypotheses (predictions) about relationships
between variables
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Data Analysis Plan
• Many activities must occur between the

collection of data and analyses to address
research questions
• Researchers need to develop a careful data
analysis plan that lays out the analytic steps
to be taken

Denise F. Polit
Preanalytic Steps
• Researchers typically begin by:
– Making decisions about how to code their
data—including codes to use to designate
missing values
– Entering data into a computer file (e.g. an
SPSS file)
– Then giving variables abbreviated variable
names, and inputting additional information
about the variables (e.g., what the codes
mean)
Denise F. Polit
Preanalytic Steps (cont’d)
• Many additional steps remain before
substantive analyses begin, including
efforts to:
– Clean the data (correct errors)
– Examine the extent of missing data
– Correct problems relating to missing data
– Assess whether assumptions for advanced
analyses are met
– Assess whether there are biases
– Understand the data and characterize the
study sample
Denise F. Polit
SPSS and Statistical Analysis
• SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences) is among the most popular
statistical software packages for analyzing
research data
• It is user friendly and menu driven
• The datasets offered with this textbook are
set up as SPSS files

Denise F. Polit
The Data Editor in SPSS
• The data editor in SPSS offers a

convenient spreadsheet-like method of
creating, editing, and viewing data
• There are two ―views‖ within the data
editor:
– Data View: Shows the actual data values
– Variable View: Shows variable information for
all variables

Denise F. Polit
Data View in the Data Editor
• The columns represent one

variable each; unique
variable names (no more
than eight characters long)
are shown at the top of
each column
• Each row is a case,
representing an individual
participant
• The data view tab is at the
bottom

Denise F. Polit
Variable View in the Data Editor
• Variable View shows

a wealth of
information about
how variables are
coded, how they will
be labeled in output,
level of
measurement, and
so on
• The Variable View
tab is at the bottom

Denise F. Polit
Versions of SPSS
• New versions of SPSS are created
regularly, to offer improved options for
analysis and presentation
• Examples in this book were created in
SPSS Version 16.0
• The student version of SPSS is available
for analyzing relatively small datasets (no
more than 50 variables and no more than
1,500 cases)
Denise F. Polit

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Statistics and Data Analysis

for Nursing Research

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• Best source of evidence: Systematic

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• Research is systematic inquiry that uses

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• How reliable is the evidence?

• Answering these questions requires an

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• Statistics is the term for a collection of

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• In the context of a study, the information

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• Example 3: Biophysiologic measurements

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• Concept: An abstraction inferred from

• Important distinction in most studies

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• In studies, variables need to be defined

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• Measurement: Involves assigning

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• Level of Measurement: A system of

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Distances are not equal, and are not known

• Example: Ambient temperature (Fahrenheit)

The difference between 70 and 75 degrees is the same as the difference

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• If you start with ratio measures, you can

• Higher-level scales are usually (though

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• Researchers collect their data from a

• Descriptive statistics describe and

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• Many activities must occur between the

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• The data editor in SPSS offers a

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• The columns represent one

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

• Variable View shows

Copyright ©2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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