See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/270865994

Practices for Developing Reflective Thinking Skills Among Teachers

Article  in  Kappa Delta Pi Record · October 2013

DOI: 10.1080/00228958.2013.845510

CITATIONS READS
13 1,336

3 authors, including:

Barbara Radcliffe Gina M. Doepker

Valdosta State University University of Texas at Tyler
5 PUBLICATIONS   20 CITATIONS    12 PUBLICATIONS   73 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Gina M. Doepker on 07 June 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Gateways to Experience
Practices for Kappa Delta Pi Record, 49: 184–189, 2013
Copyright © Kappa Delta Pi

Developing Reflective
ISSN: 0022-8958 print/2163-1611 online
DOI 10.1080/00228958.2013.845510

Thinking Skills
Among Teachers

by Alicja Rieger, Barbara J. Radcliffe,

and Gina M. Doepker

184 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u OCT–DEC 2013


John Dewey’s (1933) model of reflective teaching
practice laid the foundation for the current
understanding that reflection on teaching is an
integral part of the process of becoming an effective
teacher (Bolin, 1988; Pultorak, 1993; Schön, 1991).
According to Dewey (1933),
reflective thought, as the essential
component of reflective teaching
practice, involves “active, persistent,
and careful consideration of
any belief or supposed form of
knowledge in the light of the
grounds that support it and the
further conclusions to which it
tends” (p. 7).
Preservice teachers should
engage in activities promoting
reflection and reflective thinking
early on in their teacher education
preparation programs so that they
can make sense of the studied
theoretical content during their
coursework. Incorporating reflection
early in the program allows
Alicja Rieger is an Associate Professor of
Special Education at Valdosta State University,
Georgia. Her scholarship focuses on inclusion,
humor in families that have a member with
a disability, as well as second language
acquisition and culturally responsive teaching.
Barbara J. Radcliffe is an Assistant Professor
in the Middle Grades, Secondary, Reading, and
Deaf Education Department at Valdosta State
University. Her research interests are centered
in adolescent literacy and the role broader
literacies play in supporting academic literacies.
Gina M. Doepker is the Director of the
Sullivan Literacy Center and an Associate
Professor at the Valdosta State University. Her
research interests include struggling readers
and writers, reading motivation, and service
learning.
preservice teachers the opportunity
to consider how newly acquired
theories shape their understanding
of their own teaching philosophy.
Such reflective thinking will, in turn,
help them become more effective
decision makers about their own
teaching practice as they make the
transition to becoming a reflective
inservice teacher. “Preservice
teachers need to understand
philosophic orientations underlining
their own perspective and that of
others, so that they will be better
able to make decisions about
educating” (Leahy & Corcoran,
1996, p. 104).
Furthermore, because the issues
that educators have to deal with
each day are complex and mirror
the current sociopolitical trends and
available evidence-based scholarship,
teachers in each generation should
engage in their own reflection and
problem solving in order to find
answers to the pressing educational
issues of their own times. “They
need to learn how to reflect on their
own practices, as well as how to
solve problems in ways that show
comprehension of contemporary
educational perspectives” (Leahy
& Corcoran, 1996, p. 104). In
short, effective teachers constantly
evaluate their practice, assess their
decision making, and seek alternative
WWW.KDP.ORG
teaching methods to ensure student
learning in light of the current
context of the time.
Unfortunately, the research
indicates that there is a major lack
of reflection among preservice
teachers. For instance, Zeichner and
Liston (1987) systematically studied
the elementary student teaching
programs and found out that despite
the deliberate efforts to maximize
the reflective practice among
student teachers, they continued
to demonstrate resistance toward
reflection and critical inquiry. The
major reason for this resistance was
the “still prevalent attitude among
student teachers that time spent
on inquiry and reflection is time
‘taken away from’ the important
tasks of applying and demonstrating
knowledge and skills” (Zeichner &
Liston, 1987, p. 41).
Hatton and Smith (1995)
reviewed 16 studies that specifically
focused on the effectiveness of
approaches employed to develop in
student teachers a skill for reflection
and reported that despite varied
approaches employed, there was
“little evidence of critical reflection
on the part of students” (p. 38).
Those varied approaches included
action research projects, case studies
and ethnographic studies of students,
teachers, and schools, microteaching
KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u OCT–DEC 2013 185
 Gateways to Experience
and other supervised practicum
experiences, and structured
curriculum tasks.
In a more recent study on
novice teacher educators, Holloway
and Gouthro (2011) found similar
resistance and limited capacity
for critical reflection among both
preservice teachers and graduate
students. The researchers reported
that “novice educators often believe
that the role of educator is to focus
explicitly on teaching content . . .
Developing the capacity for critical
thinking and reflection involves time
and patience, as well as diligent
efforts to engage with abstract
theoretical writing that many learners
find difficult” (Holloway & Gouthro,
2011, p. 31). As a result “much
unlearning has to go on before most
students are willing to accept the
need for a more reflective approach
to teaching” (Zeichner & Liston,
1987, p. 42).
In this article, the authors
advocate the practice of reflection
and reflective thinking skill
development. More specifically, they
offer definitions of reflection, identify
reasons that may inhibit preservice
teachers’ reflection, and suggest
practices that specifically encourage
reflection on teaching among
preservice and inservice teachers.
While the focus of this article is
on preservice teachers, inservice
teachers are included in many areas.
Reflective practice should begin
in teacher education programs,
but such practice must continue
long after teachers have entered
the profession. According to the
National Council for Accreditation of
Teacher Education ([NCATE] 2010),
186 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u OCT–DEC 2013
“Preservice and inservice teachers
need to have opportunities to reflect
upon and think about what they do,
how they make decisions, how they
‘theorize’ their work, and how they
integrate their content knowledge
and pedagogical knowledge into
what they do” (p. 9).
What Reflection Is and
What It Is Not
Rodgers (2002) analyzed closely
Dewey’s model of reflective teaching
practice and identified its four
essential characteristics. Reflection:
1. [I]s a meaning-making process
that moves a learner from one
experience into the next with
deeper understanding of its
relationships with and connections
to other experiences and ideas. . . .
2. [I]s a systematic, rigorous,
disciplined way of thinking, with its
roots in scientific inquiry.
3. [N]eeds to happen in community, in
interaction with others.
4. [R]equires attitudes that value the
personal and intellectual growth of
oneself and of others. (p. 845)
Reflection is not, however,
simply a matter of taking another
look at one’s actions. “Everyone, at
times, thinks back on situations—
sometimes pleased with prior
actions, sometimes wishing things
had been done differently” (Corcoran
& Leahy, 2003, pp. 31–32). Instead,
reflection is a process of thoughtfully
examining one’s own and others’
experiences and questioning those
in the light of scientific inquiry as
well as supporting one’s “judgments
with reasoned argument” (Leahy &
Corcoran, 1996, p. 104).
Schön (1983) further
emphasized that reflection should
not be considered merely a singular
retrospective act, but rather it
should represent an ongoing
process in which the experience
and understanding (theory) are
tested to prepare for taking actions.
If reflection doesn’t translate
into taking actions, it cannot be
considered reflective (Reynolds,
2011).
Why Reflection May Be
Inhibited
Perhaps not surprisingly, beginning
teachers simply may not have
enough knowledge and experience
with reflection to feel confident
using the “reflective thinking on
teaching” approach. For instance,
Risko, Vukelich, and Roskos (2002)
reported from their analysis of
preservice teachers’ reflections that
those reflections were “frequently
shallow and egocentric” (p. 135). In
fact, most of the studied preservice
teachers perceived their teaching
as an act of transferring acquired
knowledge to their students with
little or no regard for what they
made of it. They simply “recalled
facts from their observations and
teaching procedures or wrote about
teaching strategies that they would
use to enhance literacy development
in the classroom. Rarely did they
justify their choices or critique their
reasoning” (Risko et al., 2002, p.
135).
On a related topic, Corcoran
and Leahy (2003) observed that
preservice teachers may not even
know what to reflect upon, or they
may lack contexts for interrogating

their own acts of teaching with
scrutiny that the reflective thinking
process requires. Still some preservice
teachers may express some resistance
toward reflection and reflective
thinking because it may involve
sometimes painful self-exploration of
one’s own beliefs, assumptions, and
self-realization of one’s own learning
difficulties (Holloway & Gouthro,
2011).
Alternatively, preservice teachers
may want to focus only on doing
things they have done before that
seemed to work, so they may not
see the need to reflect upon what
they do and why (Corcoran & Leahy,
2003). The question then emerges of
how to teach reflection and reflective
thinking skills to preservice teachers
who for varied reasons may “suffer
from a sense of vulnerability that may
discourage reflection” (Corcoran &
Leahy, 2003, p. 31). More importantly,
if preservice teachers do not learn how
to be reflective about their teaching,
will they regularly engage in reflective
decision making practices as they
become inservice teachers?
Teaching Reflection and
Reflective Thinking
Whatever the reasons may be that
inhibit preservice teachers’ reflection,
the best way of encouraging reflection
is to provide them with relevant
strategies and activities that require
them to use reflection and reflective
thinking skills. Galvez-Martin and
Bowman (1998) concurred: “In
order to improve preservice teachers’
reflectivity, it is necessary to involve
them in relevant exercises and
opportunities to engage in reflective
thinking” (p. 2).
The reflective practices that follow
are presented in a scaffolded manner.
The scaffolding takes into account
both the definition of reflection
shared previously and the factors
that may inhibit preservice teachers’
reflection. Relying on Moffett’s
(1965) “I, You, and It” theory, the
speaker-audience (I-You) and the
speaker-subject (I-It) continua are
considered. The I-You relationship
(Moffett, 1965) includes four stages:
inner vocalization, outer vocalization,
informal writing, and publication.
Publication, in this sense, means
making the reflection public, such as
when sharing and interacting with
others in discussion forums, blogs,
and focus groups.
The I-It relationship (Moffett,
1965) focuses on four levels of
abstraction: recording an experience,
reporting an experience, generalizing
from an experience, and theorizing
from an experience. This relationship
takes into consideration preservice
teachers first developing an awareness
while teaching—recording an
experience and moving along levels
of abstraction as reflections become
deeper and substantive. Generalizing
and theorizing from an experience
requires taking action, evaluating
results, and considering future
instructional decisions.
The four reflective practices
outlined next use the “I, You, and
It” theory to scaffold reflective
experiences in terms of audience and
depth of reflection. Additionally, the
practices recognize the developmental
process involved as preservice teachers
grow into reflective practitioners and
inservice teachers continue to develop
their own reflective practices.
WWW.KDP.ORG
Reflective Practices
Several practices have been suggested
in the subject literature to teach
reflection and reflective thinking skills.
Those include using response journals,
video recordings, blogs or online
discussion groups, and focus groups.
Using Response Journals
When used continuously, journals
can be an effective tool for preservice
teachers to promote systematic
reflection on their teaching and
their development as teachers over
time. Simply stated, journals can
become artifacts of their thinking
(Pritchard, 1993) that they can
revisit to reflect upon their growth
as reflective practitioners (Good &
Whang, 2002). Drawing on the work
of Good and Whang (2002), several
points are critical to consider when
using response journals. Preservice
teachers need to be provided with
clear directions related to the purpose,
format, and types of reflections in
which they will be asked to engage.
Equally important is to provide
them with clear and stimulating
reflectivity prompts, especially in
their initial stages of using response
journals. These prompts can vary
from those that would help them to
see connections between the class
readings (theory) and observed
contexts of the classrooms and school
community (practice), and those
that would guide them to examine
their own beliefs and assumptions
underlying teaching as compared to
others. Still other types of prompts
may encourage preservice teachers
to incorporate moral and ethical
principles and take a stand on
controversial and social justice issues.
KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u OCT–DEC 2013 187
 Gateways to Experience
To further assist preservice
teachers in thinking critically about
their teaching, consider using prompts
that would encourage some of the
nontraditional formats of response.
Examples of such formats include
finding a quote, a poem, artwork,
or even a cartoon that captures and
explains their increasing understanding
of the intricacy of teaching and
learning.
Using Video-Based Reflections
Video-based reflection in this
article refers to capturing, viewing, and
reviewing a specific teaching event
for the purpose of reflection and self-
assessment. Using video recording
is considered an effective tool for
encouraging reflection (Frederiksen,
Sipusic, Sherin, & Wolf, 1998;
Romano & Schwartz, 2005; Welsch
& Devlin, 2007). Two advantages of
incorporating video are that it reflects
the complexity of classroom teaching
in real time, and it provides a rich
source of information, context, and
feedback that memory or others’ notes
fail to capture (Halter, 2006; Romano
& Schwartz, 2005).
In addition to these benefits,
video recording provides preservice
teachers and inservice teachers
with the opportunity to reflect on
personal teaching practices and to
engage in conversation with others
concerning peer and personal teaching
performances. The versatility of video-
based reflections allows preservice
teachers to engage in reflection at all
four stages of the I-You relationship.
While most preservice teachers will
be more comfortable engaging in
inner vocalization at first and prefer to
view their video alone, the goal is to
188 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u OCT–DEC 2013
help them move to the more public
levels of interaction as they develop
professionally and gain confidence.
Video offers preservice and
inservice teachers a more objective
way to reflect on their teaching.
Because video provides lasting
documentation of the teaching event,
preservice teachers can compare the
perceived event to the actual event
and verbalize their thought processes
all while grounding their explanations
and interpretations in evidence
(Shulman, 1987). Just as readers reread
sections of texts when attempting
to make sense of the content, video
allows preservice teachers both
the time and means to identify
and grapple with issues that might
otherwise go unnoticed.
When preservice teachers can
examine and compare what actually
took place in relation to their
intentions, they may be better able
to identify factors that influenced
their decision making during actual
implementation. As preservice teachers
become more adept in interpreting
their actions, examining their
instructional decisions, and considering
students’ responses to instruction, they
also may improve their ability to make
instructional changes and support such
decisions with pedagogically sound
rationales. Inservice teachers also can
videotape their teaching in order to
analyze, reflect on, and modify or
adjust their teaching practices.
Using Blogs or Online
Discussion Groups
As a means of promoting
reflection, preservice and inservice
teachers can participate in web
blogs or online discussion groups.
This format uses technology and
the Internet as a way for preservice
and inservice teachers to post
their own reflections, while they
also are reading and responding
to other reflective posts by their
peers. According to Killeavy and
Moloney (2010), there has been an
increased use of blogs as a reflective
tool where participants combine
their internal dialogue, thoughts,
opinions, views, and reflections
in this very external format. It is a
form of social networking that has
become a popular forum over the
last decade (Killeavy & Moloney,
2010). This electronic format is
quickly becoming a natural way
to involve preservice and inservice
teachers in the reflective process.
For blogs and online discussions
to be successful and productive for
preservice teachers, there needs
to be some initial directions and
expectations as well as support
and feedback throughout their use
of this electronic format. Romano
and Schwartz (2005) suggested
four important components that
would make online discussions
more meaningful and reflective:
requiring participation on a regular
basis; having mentor teachers
be a part of the discussion and
serve as a more knowledgeable
participant; offering a variety of
reflective discussion topics; and
including out-of-state teachers as
participants in the discussion to get
a different perspective on issues and
topics. Through blogs and online
discussions, preservice teachers not
only can reflect on their teaching
on a regular basis, but they also can
look back on previous postings to

see their growth and development as
teachers (Killeavy & Moloney, 2010).
Using Focus Groups
All practitioners, whether
preservice or inservice, need
opportunities to learn in an
interactive professional community
(NCATE, 2010). Focus groups provide
a collaborative culture in which peer
review of practice supports and
furthers the development of reflective
practice. This format provides a
way for preservice teachers to
participate in reflection through
face-to-face interaction with their
peers. Preservice teachers reflect
internally on their own teaching
practices, but share their thoughts,
opinions, concerns, and reflections
through this external and more
personal dialogue format. According
to Moffett’s (1965) “I, You, and It”
relationship theory, focus groups are
the most public way of reflecting.
Preservice teachers need to be
taught how to reflect, and there
must be a skilled facilitator who can
provide guidance and support so
that focus groups are meaningful and
productive (Nolan, 2008).
Focus groups can help preservice
teachers consider their own teaching
theories, philosophies, thoughts, and
reflections while also hearing and
considering their peers’ thoughts and
reflections regarding teaching. The
practice prompts preservice teachers
to reconsider, reevaluate, and
reformulate their initial thoughts,
thereby promoting a deeper level
of reflection (Nolan, 2008) and
developing their teaching skills.
For inservice teachers, focus group
meetings could take place during
View publication stats
departmental or grade-level team
meetings.
Closing Thoughts
Reflection is a meaning-making
process that can move preservice
teachers to the next level of
understanding and practice. It is
systematic, purposeful, and requires
interaction with others. It also requires
the attitude and belief that one can
grow personally, professionally, and
intellectually as a result of reflecting. It
is an ongoing process of questioning
one’s own experiences, which can
result in taking meaningful and
relevant actions.
Reflection is developmental and
must be scaffolded to become an
effective practice. Most preservice
teachers are inexperienced at
knowing how to engage in
meaningful reflection, and some
preservice teachers may find
reflection a challenging and even
painful practice that questions
their preconceived beliefs and
assumptions. Preservice teachers
should engage in practices that
promote reflective thinking with
regard to teaching theory and their
own teaching practice.
Various reflective practices,
including internal and external
problem-solving formats, can
help both preservice and inservice
teachers become more comfortable
with reflection. Through the use
of response journals, self-video
recordings, blogs and online
discussion groups, and focus groups,
preservice and inservice teachers
can become more reflective as well
as become more effective decision
makers and teachers.
WWW.KDP.ORG
References
Bolin, F. S. (1988). Helping student teachers think about
teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 39(2), 48–54.
Corcoran, C. A., & Leahy, R. (2003). Growing
professionally through reflective practice. Kappa
Delta Pi Record, 40(1), 30–33.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. Chicago, IL: Henry
Regnery.
Frederiksen, J. R., Sipusic, M., Sherin, M., & Wolf, E.
W. (1998). Video portfolio assessment: Creating a
framework for viewing the functions of teaching.
Educational Assessment, 5(4), 225–297.
Galvez-Martin, M. E., & Bowman, C. (1998, February).
Reflection and the preservice teacher. Paper presented
at the Annual Meeting of the Association of Teacher
Educators, Dallas, TX.
Good, J. M., & Whang, P. A. (2002). Encouraging
reflection in preservice teachers through response
journals. The Teacher Educator, 37(4), 254–267.
Halter, C. P. (2006). The reflective lens: The effects of video
analysis on preservice teacher development (Doctoral
dissertation). University of California, San Diego.
Hatton, N., & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher
education: Towards definition and implementation.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(1), 33–49.
Holloway, S. M., & Gouthro, P. A. (2011). Teaching
resistant novice educators to be critically reflective.
Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education,
32(1), 29–41.
Killeavy, M., & Moloney, A. (2010). Reflection in a social
space: Can blogging support reflective practice for
beginning teachers? Teaching and Teacher Education,
26(4), 1070–1076.
Leahy, R., & Corcoran, C. A. (1996). Encouraging
reflective practitioners: Connecting classroom to
fieldwork. Journal of Research and Development in
Education, 29(2), 104–114.
Moffett, J. (1965). I, you and it. College Composition and
Communication, 16(5), 243–248.
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education.
(2010). Transforming teacher education through
clinical practice: A national strategy to prepare effective
teachers. Report of the Blue Ribbon Panel on Clinical
Preparation and Partnerships for Improved Student
Learning. Washington, DC: NCATE.
Nolan, A. (2008). Encouraging the reflection process
in undergraduate teachers using guided reflection.
Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 33(1), 31–36.
Pritchard, R. J. (1993). Developing writing prompts
for reading response and analysis. English Journal,
82(3), 24–32.
Pultorak, E. G. (1993). Facilitating reflective thought in
novice teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 44(4),
288–295.
Reynolds, M. (2011). Reflective practice: Origins and
interpretations. Action Learning: Research and
Practice, 8(1), 5–13.
Risko, V. J., Vukelich, C., & Roskos, K. (2002). Preparing
teachers for reflective practice: Intentions,
contradictions, and possibilities. Language Arts,
80(2), 134–144.
Rodgers, C. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look
at John Dewey and reflective thinking. Teachers
College Record, 104(4), 842–866.
Romano, M., & Schwartz, J. (2005). Exploring
technology as a tool for eliciting and encouraging
beginning teacher reflection. Contemporary Issues in
Technology and Teacher Education, 5(2), 149–168.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How
professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Schön, D. A. (Ed.). (1991). The reflective turn: Case
studies in and on educational practice. New York:
Teacher’s College Press.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching:
Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational
Review, 57(1), 1–22.
Welsch, R. G., & Devlin, P. A. (2007). Developing
preservice teachers’ reflection: Examining the use
of video. Action in Teacher Education, 28(4), 53–61.
Zeichner, K. M., & Liston, D. P. (1987). Teaching
student teachers to reflect. Harvard Educational
Review, 57(1), 23–48.
KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD u OCT–DEC 2013 189